This study analyzes the relationship between racism and Islamophobia in America. It argues that American attitudes towards Muslims grew more intolerant after 9/11, developing the phenomenon known as Islamophobia. The study uses Fredrickson's concept of racism as a "scavenger ideology" to show how racism has historically adapted different justifications over time, including using religion. It examines how racism manifested as prejudice against Muslims and Islam throughout American history, from the expulsion of Moors from Spain to immigration laws restricting Asian and Middle Eastern people. The election of Donald Trump, who called for banning Muslim immigration, strengthened the concept of Islamophobia. The study concludes that examining Islamophobia in relation to the historical development
The common thread throughout these examples and the premise for this paper is the following. Slavery, Jim Crow, The Trail of Tears, the Holocaust, the internment of Japanese citizens during World War 11, and the current administrations desired prohibitions regarding Muslims, the fixation with a wall at the southern border, and now separating children from their families all stem from a tragic lack of belief in and respect for the humanity of “The Other.” When one group thinks itself better than another, tragedy happens. The fear of other races and ethnicities comingling feeds such thinking. Another theme is a very strong desire to retain what many believe is the one true culture, not to be mixed with language, religion, or traditions from other cultures. There is hope , though, and it comes from what for some may be a surprising source.
Muslims in the Media: Room for Moderation?Heather Risley
This is a final paper for a George Washington University course I took in 2011. It is composed of a research design for a content analysis project looking at how Muslims have been portrayed in American media over time. The actual research was not carried out, but the paper provides a roadmap for how one might investigate this issue.
The common thread throughout these examples and the premise for this paper is the following. Slavery, Jim Crow, The Trail of Tears, the Holocaust, the internment of Japanese citizens during World War 11, and the current administrations desired prohibitions regarding Muslims, the fixation with a wall at the southern border, and now separating children from their families all stem from a tragic lack of belief in and respect for the humanity of “The Other.” When one group thinks itself better than another, tragedy happens. The fear of other races and ethnicities comingling feeds such thinking. Another theme is a very strong desire to retain what many believe is the one true culture, not to be mixed with language, religion, or traditions from other cultures. There is hope , though, and it comes from what for some may be a surprising source.
Muslims in the Media: Room for Moderation?Heather Risley
This is a final paper for a George Washington University course I took in 2011. It is composed of a research design for a content analysis project looking at how Muslims have been portrayed in American media over time. The actual research was not carried out, but the paper provides a roadmap for how one might investigate this issue.
Misconceptions about Islamic Religion in AmericaMehw.docxhelzerpatrina
Misconceptions about Islamic Religion in America
Mehwish Elahi
English 1A
Danielle Stokes
13 February 2020
Is Media Responsible for Rise of Islamophobia in America?
America is home to one of the most diverse Muslim inhabitants in the world. This includes people of nearly every cultural groups, country and school of thought. A significant proportion of Americans are of the opinion that Islam as a religion is incomparable with American values. Nathan Lean has stated that media plays a major role in the promotion of Islamophobia throughout the world. Reports have been observed where seven charitable foundations have spent 43 million dollars between 2001 to 2009 in order to support the spread of anti-Muslim rhetoric. Another factor was revealed which included 2010 Gallup poll win, which 43% of the Americans were, reported to feel a sense of prejudice against Muslims. Fox news has also been identified as the small component of Islamophobia in US media. Fox news has been found to retract false claims about Muslims. Various empirical evidences have been found to provide possible interactions between the latent Muslim feelings and media coverage.
However, since 2011, Muslims in the United States have been showing significant concern regarding extremism in the name of Islam across the world. Concurrently, majority are of the opinion that there is minimal support of extremism with Muslim community even though the general public differs (Spring 1,5). This has led to a rise in discernment and fear against Muslims in America. Such a social aversion and prejudice against Muslims in America has been gradually facilitating and continuing by vehement and uncivilized stereotypes exhibited in diverse forms of American media organization and political domains which instigate high level of prejudice, discrimination and exclusion of the Muslims. While some Americans believe Islamic religion promotes terrorism, this misconception is due to ignorance caused by media, but this could be solved by mandatory education about Islam in colleges.
The effect of media, chiefly mass news media as well as technology, in influencing Islamophobia has been increasing concern from the time of the 9/11 attacks. Several standpoints tend to problematize the way the media through numerous avenues related to news and film as well as nonfiction destructively depict, racialize and demonize Muslim-American identities. The impression of these edifices of Arabs and Muslims on unconstructive typecasts as well as events of marginalization amongst Muslim-American communities are apprehended in many academic domains. Considine in his study of Muslim portrayal in the United States during late 1980s and early 1990s have found that Muslims have been depicted negatively in news reporting since then. Moreover, majority of the narrations which mentioned Muslims to be intrinsically related to terrorism and war did not find sufficient evidence of more generalized negative prejudice. Howe.
The West’s View on Islam/Muslims: Islamophobia?Amira Daghache
This research paper will take a deeper look at the West’s view of Islam and asks questions whether it’s all Islamophobia or something deeper. It details how it started, who’s encouraging it and why, who’s benefiting from it, how it’s viewed in other mediums, how it affected Muslims, who are the most prominent public figures fighting it and how it become different in recent years.
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZEDRELIGIOUS IDENTITYCONST.docxarnoldmeredith47041
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZED
RELIGIOUS IDENTITY:
CONSTRUCTING SACRED SITES AT THE
INTERSECTION OF WHITE AND
CHRISTIAN SUPREMACY
JAIDEEP SINGH
INTRODUCTION
Among the most dynamic sources of diversity in the United States is thatemanating from the numerous religious groups that are flourishing under
the relative religious freedom offered by this country. While there cannot be
an official state religion in the United States, Christianity has historically
been given unofficial sanction and privilege in virtually every sphere of
American life. Resulting from this long tradition of Christian dominance is a
strong sense of entitlement and xenophobic entrenchment in significant and
powerful sections of the population.
In 1997, Henry Jordan of the South Carolina Board of Education retorted
to those who objected to a prominent display of the Ten Commandments in
the State’s public schools: “Screw the Buddhists and kill the Muslims.”
Jordan later explained his strong reaction in the following manner: “I was
expressing frustration.... [Schools] can teach any kind of cult. Buddhism is a
cult. So is Islam. I’m getting a little tired of it.” Meanwhile, undeterred by
the opposition of these “cultists,” Nebraska Governor Benjamin Nelson pro-
claimed May 17 of the same year “March for Jesus Day.”1
And in August 2001, Rep. Don Davis, a white, Republican state legislator
in North Carolina, forwarded via email a letter to every member of the state
House and Senate that stated:
87
06 Singh 7/15/02 1:51 PM Page 87
“Two things made this country great: White men & Christianity....
Every problem that has arrisen [sic] can be directly traced back to our
departure from God’s Law and the disenfranchisement of White men.”2
While he later distanced himself from the remarks, Davis initially explained
his reason for forwarding the email as: “There’s a lot of it that’s truth, the way
I see it. Who came to this country first—the white man—didn’t he? That’s
who made this country great.”
As evidenced by these examples, religion has become a particularly power-
ful method of classifying the “enemy” or “other” in national life in recent
years, impacting primarily non-Christian people of color. For instance,
Muslims have become among the most demonized members of the
American polity, as a result of international events and domestic actions by a
miniscule handful of their co-religionists. In return, their religion has repeat-
edly been characterized in an inaccurate, misleading, and blatantly racist
fashion in the media and public discourse; their property and religious sites
have been vandalized; and their bodies have been targeted for hate crimes in
alarming numbers. As the venerable scholar Edward Said has noted, the last
sanctioned racism in the United States is that directed at followers of the reli-
gion of Islam.3
The validity of this statement was evident in March of 2000, when
Reverend Jerry Falwell, a powerful and influential Christian minister with a
.
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZEDRELIGIOUS IDENTITYCONST.docxhelen23456789
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZED
RELIGIOUS IDENTITY:
CONSTRUCTING SACRED SITES AT THE
INTERSECTION OF WHITE AND
CHRISTIAN SUPREMACY
JAIDEEP SINGH
INTRODUCTION
Among the most dynamic sources of diversity in the United States is thatemanating from the numerous religious groups that are flourishing under
the relative religious freedom offered by this country. While there cannot be
an official state religion in the United States, Christianity has historically
been given unofficial sanction and privilege in virtually every sphere of
American life. Resulting from this long tradition of Christian dominance is a
strong sense of entitlement and xenophobic entrenchment in significant and
powerful sections of the population.
In 1997, Henry Jordan of the South Carolina Board of Education retorted
to those who objected to a prominent display of the Ten Commandments in
the State’s public schools: “Screw the Buddhists and kill the Muslims.”
Jordan later explained his strong reaction in the following manner: “I was
expressing frustration.... [Schools] can teach any kind of cult. Buddhism is a
cult. So is Islam. I’m getting a little tired of it.” Meanwhile, undeterred by
the opposition of these “cultists,” Nebraska Governor Benjamin Nelson pro-
claimed May 17 of the same year “March for Jesus Day.”1
And in August 2001, Rep. Don Davis, a white, Republican state legislator
in North Carolina, forwarded via email a letter to every member of the state
House and Senate that stated:
87
06 Singh 7/15/02 1:51 PM Page 87
“Two things made this country great: White men & Christianity....
Every problem that has arrisen [sic] can be directly traced back to our
departure from God’s Law and the disenfranchisement of White men.”2
While he later distanced himself from the remarks, Davis initially explained
his reason for forwarding the email as: “There’s a lot of it that’s truth, the way
I see it. Who came to this country first—the white man—didn’t he? That’s
who made this country great.”
As evidenced by these examples, religion has become a particularly power-
ful method of classifying the “enemy” or “other” in national life in recent
years, impacting primarily non-Christian people of color. For instance,
Muslims have become among the most demonized members of the
American polity, as a result of international events and domestic actions by a
miniscule handful of their co-religionists. In return, their religion has repeat-
edly been characterized in an inaccurate, misleading, and blatantly racist
fashion in the media and public discourse; their property and religious sites
have been vandalized; and their bodies have been targeted for hate crimes in
alarming numbers. As the venerable scholar Edward Said has noted, the last
sanctioned racism in the United States is that directed at followers of the reli-
gion of Islam.3
The validity of this statement was evident in March of 2000, when
Reverend Jerry Falwell, a powerful and influential Christian minister with a
.
Misconceptions about Islamic Religion in AmericaMehw.docxhelzerpatrina
Misconceptions about Islamic Religion in America
Mehwish Elahi
English 1A
Danielle Stokes
13 February 2020
Is Media Responsible for Rise of Islamophobia in America?
America is home to one of the most diverse Muslim inhabitants in the world. This includes people of nearly every cultural groups, country and school of thought. A significant proportion of Americans are of the opinion that Islam as a religion is incomparable with American values. Nathan Lean has stated that media plays a major role in the promotion of Islamophobia throughout the world. Reports have been observed where seven charitable foundations have spent 43 million dollars between 2001 to 2009 in order to support the spread of anti-Muslim rhetoric. Another factor was revealed which included 2010 Gallup poll win, which 43% of the Americans were, reported to feel a sense of prejudice against Muslims. Fox news has also been identified as the small component of Islamophobia in US media. Fox news has been found to retract false claims about Muslims. Various empirical evidences have been found to provide possible interactions between the latent Muslim feelings and media coverage.
However, since 2011, Muslims in the United States have been showing significant concern regarding extremism in the name of Islam across the world. Concurrently, majority are of the opinion that there is minimal support of extremism with Muslim community even though the general public differs (Spring 1,5). This has led to a rise in discernment and fear against Muslims in America. Such a social aversion and prejudice against Muslims in America has been gradually facilitating and continuing by vehement and uncivilized stereotypes exhibited in diverse forms of American media organization and political domains which instigate high level of prejudice, discrimination and exclusion of the Muslims. While some Americans believe Islamic religion promotes terrorism, this misconception is due to ignorance caused by media, but this could be solved by mandatory education about Islam in colleges.
The effect of media, chiefly mass news media as well as technology, in influencing Islamophobia has been increasing concern from the time of the 9/11 attacks. Several standpoints tend to problematize the way the media through numerous avenues related to news and film as well as nonfiction destructively depict, racialize and demonize Muslim-American identities. The impression of these edifices of Arabs and Muslims on unconstructive typecasts as well as events of marginalization amongst Muslim-American communities are apprehended in many academic domains. Considine in his study of Muslim portrayal in the United States during late 1980s and early 1990s have found that Muslims have been depicted negatively in news reporting since then. Moreover, majority of the narrations which mentioned Muslims to be intrinsically related to terrorism and war did not find sufficient evidence of more generalized negative prejudice. Howe.
The West’s View on Islam/Muslims: Islamophobia?Amira Daghache
This research paper will take a deeper look at the West’s view of Islam and asks questions whether it’s all Islamophobia or something deeper. It details how it started, who’s encouraging it and why, who’s benefiting from it, how it’s viewed in other mediums, how it affected Muslims, who are the most prominent public figures fighting it and how it become different in recent years.
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZEDRELIGIOUS IDENTITYCONST.docxarnoldmeredith47041
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZED
RELIGIOUS IDENTITY:
CONSTRUCTING SACRED SITES AT THE
INTERSECTION OF WHITE AND
CHRISTIAN SUPREMACY
JAIDEEP SINGH
INTRODUCTION
Among the most dynamic sources of diversity in the United States is thatemanating from the numerous religious groups that are flourishing under
the relative religious freedom offered by this country. While there cannot be
an official state religion in the United States, Christianity has historically
been given unofficial sanction and privilege in virtually every sphere of
American life. Resulting from this long tradition of Christian dominance is a
strong sense of entitlement and xenophobic entrenchment in significant and
powerful sections of the population.
In 1997, Henry Jordan of the South Carolina Board of Education retorted
to those who objected to a prominent display of the Ten Commandments in
the State’s public schools: “Screw the Buddhists and kill the Muslims.”
Jordan later explained his strong reaction in the following manner: “I was
expressing frustration.... [Schools] can teach any kind of cult. Buddhism is a
cult. So is Islam. I’m getting a little tired of it.” Meanwhile, undeterred by
the opposition of these “cultists,” Nebraska Governor Benjamin Nelson pro-
claimed May 17 of the same year “March for Jesus Day.”1
And in August 2001, Rep. Don Davis, a white, Republican state legislator
in North Carolina, forwarded via email a letter to every member of the state
House and Senate that stated:
87
06 Singh 7/15/02 1:51 PM Page 87
“Two things made this country great: White men & Christianity....
Every problem that has arrisen [sic] can be directly traced back to our
departure from God’s Law and the disenfranchisement of White men.”2
While he later distanced himself from the remarks, Davis initially explained
his reason for forwarding the email as: “There’s a lot of it that’s truth, the way
I see it. Who came to this country first—the white man—didn’t he? That’s
who made this country great.”
As evidenced by these examples, religion has become a particularly power-
ful method of classifying the “enemy” or “other” in national life in recent
years, impacting primarily non-Christian people of color. For instance,
Muslims have become among the most demonized members of the
American polity, as a result of international events and domestic actions by a
miniscule handful of their co-religionists. In return, their religion has repeat-
edly been characterized in an inaccurate, misleading, and blatantly racist
fashion in the media and public discourse; their property and religious sites
have been vandalized; and their bodies have been targeted for hate crimes in
alarming numbers. As the venerable scholar Edward Said has noted, the last
sanctioned racism in the United States is that directed at followers of the reli-
gion of Islam.3
The validity of this statement was evident in March of 2000, when
Reverend Jerry Falwell, a powerful and influential Christian minister with a
.
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZEDRELIGIOUS IDENTITYCONST.docxhelen23456789
THE RACIALIZATION OF MINORITIZED
RELIGIOUS IDENTITY:
CONSTRUCTING SACRED SITES AT THE
INTERSECTION OF WHITE AND
CHRISTIAN SUPREMACY
JAIDEEP SINGH
INTRODUCTION
Among the most dynamic sources of diversity in the United States is thatemanating from the numerous religious groups that are flourishing under
the relative religious freedom offered by this country. While there cannot be
an official state religion in the United States, Christianity has historically
been given unofficial sanction and privilege in virtually every sphere of
American life. Resulting from this long tradition of Christian dominance is a
strong sense of entitlement and xenophobic entrenchment in significant and
powerful sections of the population.
In 1997, Henry Jordan of the South Carolina Board of Education retorted
to those who objected to a prominent display of the Ten Commandments in
the State’s public schools: “Screw the Buddhists and kill the Muslims.”
Jordan later explained his strong reaction in the following manner: “I was
expressing frustration.... [Schools] can teach any kind of cult. Buddhism is a
cult. So is Islam. I’m getting a little tired of it.” Meanwhile, undeterred by
the opposition of these “cultists,” Nebraska Governor Benjamin Nelson pro-
claimed May 17 of the same year “March for Jesus Day.”1
And in August 2001, Rep. Don Davis, a white, Republican state legislator
in North Carolina, forwarded via email a letter to every member of the state
House and Senate that stated:
87
06 Singh 7/15/02 1:51 PM Page 87
“Two things made this country great: White men & Christianity....
Every problem that has arrisen [sic] can be directly traced back to our
departure from God’s Law and the disenfranchisement of White men.”2
While he later distanced himself from the remarks, Davis initially explained
his reason for forwarding the email as: “There’s a lot of it that’s truth, the way
I see it. Who came to this country first—the white man—didn’t he? That’s
who made this country great.”
As evidenced by these examples, religion has become a particularly power-
ful method of classifying the “enemy” or “other” in national life in recent
years, impacting primarily non-Christian people of color. For instance,
Muslims have become among the most demonized members of the
American polity, as a result of international events and domestic actions by a
miniscule handful of their co-religionists. In return, their religion has repeat-
edly been characterized in an inaccurate, misleading, and blatantly racist
fashion in the media and public discourse; their property and religious sites
have been vandalized; and their bodies have been targeted for hate crimes in
alarming numbers. As the venerable scholar Edward Said has noted, the last
sanctioned racism in the United States is that directed at followers of the reli-
gion of Islam.3
The validity of this statement was evident in March of 2000, when
Reverend Jerry Falwell, a powerful and influential Christian minister with a
.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp Network
A Critical Enquiry Of Racism In America.Pdf
1. FWU Journal of Social Sciences, Winter 2018, Vol.12, No.2, 12-23
A Critical Enquiry of Racism ‘within the idioms of religion’ in America
Humaira Riaz
Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University, Peshawar, Pakistan
Samina Qadir
Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
American attitude grew more intolerant towards Islam and Muslims
after 9/11 developing a different type of racism defined as
‘Islamophobia’. Insisting that no single explanation effectively
reported for the range of American racism, the paper proposed to
establish a link between racism and Islamophobia. The study was
qualitative and analyzed the data within Fredrickson’s concept of
racism as scavenger ideology, reviewing researches from twentieth
century scholarship. It claimed that racism as a manifestation of anti-
Islam prejudice had sustained in the history of America. Islamophobia
as an ideological war is brought forward to justify Western
particularly American racism in the backdrop of 9/11 terrorist
attacks. It is not a new concept but a fabrication of the old animosity.
The study offered a historical record of racism through which an
inclusive account of Islamophobia was elaborated. It concluded that
the entwined concepts spelled new life and ideology construction
embedded in religious fear around the globe. It is significant as it will
fill the gap in the contemporary research by examining the question
of Islamophobia in relation to racism in a substantive manner.
Keywords: racism, scavenger, Islam, Isamophobia, Twentieth century, America
History of America reflects religion as a cudgel to dominate the ‘unbelievers’. Controversies
with Catholics, Jews and Muslims in the name of faith had sustained in America for centuries.
However, apprehension of Muslims proclaimed overt resentment exclusively for Muslims and Islam
after 9/11 terrorists attacks on Twin Towers in New York. The situation developed a phobia of Islam
recognized as Islamophobia. The dangerous proposition during US election 2016 that God elevated
and settled Trump to the premier office in America further strengthened the concept. On the eve of
November 8, 2016, a number of supporting proclamations appeared on media declaring ‘Trump:
president by the sovereign intervention of God’, ‘The Trump victory… not really the work of man,
because man chose Clinton’, and ‘Trump’s victory…less the work of man, and more of an act of God’;
‘believers voting for biblical principles’.
Trump’s victory followed by reports of assault on Muslims made the contemporary climate
in America a continuation of broad gamut of Islamophobia. Mr. Trump’s public statement (in the
wake of terrorist attacks in Paris in November 2015, after a mass shooting in California, and attack on
club in Orlando June 26, 2016 to bar Muslims from entering America until he worked out ‘what the
Correspondence related to this article should be addressed to Humaira Riaz, Lecturer, Department of English,
SBBWU, Peshawar, Email: humaira.euroark@gmail.com. This study was part of her PhD thesis conducted under
the supervision of Dr. Samina A.Qadir, FJWU Rawalpindi.
2. Riaz, Qadir 13
hell was going on’ have been consistently defended by the Republicans as an apprehension of
Americans’ ‘safety’.
Conviction in Trump’s victory as divinely ordained resulted in Muslims victimization around
the world strengthening the concept of Islamophobia in the West and America. American
constitution claimed asylum to the persecuted, however, ‘religious discord’ continued a part of its
social order. Concept of Islam as a monolithic and static religion remained a ‘recurring’ phenomenon
of closed views’, as a new form of racism wrapped in the religious discourse. Therefore, readers
require acquaintance with historical and social development of racism within the particular context of
religion in American history. This study discusses the global circumstances pertaining to the varying
nature of racism, which have ultimately transformed it into Islamophobia.
Method
The present study was qualitative in nature and critically evaluated the previous literature
on the subject of racism and Islamophobia to establish their relationship. It adopted Fredrickson’s
concept of racism as scavenger ideology to assert that racism gained its ‘power from its ability to pick
out ideas and beliefs from other set of values and belief in specific socio-historical context’ to validate
itself (2002, p.8). Religion replaced the biological and cultural notions and was utilized as the main
constituent to rationalize racism.
Reworking the Oriental Concept
Articulated more with reference to religion than science, racism has been regarded by social
scientists as an ideology existing in various forms of bias, prejudice, notions of exclusion, hostility and
conflict. Scholars referred to its changing nature according to the global circumstances. It is defined
as ‘new racism’ (Barker, 1981, p.23-24), a ‘plague’ that contaminated human society (Garcia, 1986) or
‘cultural racism’ (Modood, 1997, p.155). Closely connected to xenophobia, racism finds context in
‘religious intolerance’ as well (Lopez, 2011, p.2). However, its constituents are hatred, discrimination
and bias positioned in the privileged category against the socially and culturally deprived class.
Racism reworks the Oriental concepts viewing its opponents as ‘other’. Likewise
Islamophobia as ‘a form of racism as well as unfounded fear of Islam’ positions Islam as ‘other’
(Marranci, 2004, p. 105):
a contemporary form of racism and xenophobia motivated by unfounded fear, mistrust, and
hatred of Muslims and Islam…manifested through intolerance, discrimination, unequal
treatment, prejudice, stereotyping, hostility, and adverse public discourse (OIC in 2011).
At the macro level of society, racism represents historical evolution within the fields of
philosophy and culture. Far beyond the boundaries of science, genealogy and physiology, it is
categorized ‘as *a+ set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify superiority or inferiority of
social group to others’ (Open Education Sociological Dictionary, 2012).
Before 19th century, scientific evidences justified race theory emphasizing an indispensable
unity of the human race. Fredrickson (2002) provided historical account of its continuously changing
course tracing its history from Greeks, Romans and early Christians when Jews religious practices
aroused prejudice. Conversion to Christianity was a ‘hereditary sin’ yet soluble (Fredrickson, 2002,
p.9). However, Jews’ acceptance of Christianity reduced hostility against them (2002, p.18). Since
Christianity shared a common foundation with Judaism, it was pointless to allege Jews for their
ancestry or blood. Moreover, few Jewish communities were encouraged to wage war against
Muslims to secure the Holy Land during 12
th
and 13
th
century led to huge massacre of Jews. Muslims
3. ENQUIRY OF RACISM IN AMERICA 14
were conceived as a ‘threat to Christendom’ whereas Jews appeared undisruptive and somehow
helpful (Fredrickson, 2002, p.19).
During16th century Moorish culture and Muslim religion came under a fierce assault in Spain
stimulating a rebellion. Exiled from Spain entire ‘Morisco’ population (Muslim converts to
Christianity) started living in close connection to their old culture and religion transferring ‘the notion
of infidel Muslim as a menacing figure’ to America (Gomez, 2005, p.155). Literacy among slave
Muslims made them a threat and hazard to the ‘white enslaves’ (Gomez, 2005, p.155). Thus Western
racism scavenged religion as a significant difference to counteract and subdue Muslims and Jews.
One million Asians from China, Japan, Philippines and India were reported to have migrated
to United States between 1850 and 1930. Presence of Asian immigrants and their assimilation into
society was reckoned as ‘the greatest threat to Western Civilization and the White Race’ in the
second half of 19th century rising restrictive laws such as ‘The 1850 Foreign Miners Tax’ and ‘The
Anti-Coolie Act 1862’ enacted to restrict Chinese immigrants in USA barring them from owing real
estate business in California in 1872(Prashad, 2006).Openly hostile to its Asians, immigrants’ fear
overlapped cultural differences. American society was also influenced by the establishment of ‘Black
Nationalist Islamic Community’ in 1913.
Muslim migration changed America's population throughout 19th century. Tobin and
Groeneman (2003) conducted their study to identify ‘prejudice against Catholics, Blacks, and Asians
widespread and violent in the history of this country’ and the horrors of American racism continued
(p.7). They found that during 1980’s, ‘public rhetoric about Jews’ in America grew coarser. In 1924,
‘the Asian Exclusion Act and the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act allowed only a trickle of ‘Asians’ to
enter the nation’ (Tweed, 2017).
Since the foundation of American Islamic Propaganda Movement in 1893, America
experienced various Islamic Movements focusing mostly retention of African-American Muslims’
rights. Imitating ‘White Canadian Policy’, the immigration Act 1897 restricted ‘immigration from the
Ottoman Empire under the overarching category of restrictions on Orientals’ (Jones 2004). Rise of
various Movements such as ‘Ahmadiyah Movement (1921)’, ‘The Universal Islamic Society’ (1926),
‘The First Mosque of Pittsburg’ (1928), and ‘The Islamic Brotherhood’ (1929) expanded Muslims in
America ‘as the biggest single ethnic group’ (Jones, 2004).
Political agenda stimulated differences in opinions since leaders manipulated Islamic
philosophies to their benefits. Amidst them was Noble Drew Ali (founder of Moorish Science Temple
of America 1931), who deviated from ‘religious orthodoxy’ and formulated his own practicing system
claiming to be the prophet (messenger). Meanings of the word ‘prophet’ as messenger endowed him
benefit of doubt though it rose in a palpable conflict to the idea of Last prophet-hood. The preachers
as well as followers assimilated liberal views of Islam mingling its orthodox beliefs into American
ideals. However, during that period such Islamic Movements and Black Civil Movements in America
joined hands to protect Black and Muslim African-Americans against ‘white Protestant Americans’
threatening its solidarity and integrity (Jones, 2004). Their slogan was to build ‘a righteous nation that
would be independent of whites’.
One of the movement's factions was Dr. Fard’s The Nation of Islam the same year (Tweed,
2017). ‘Fard’s unexplained disappearance in 1934’ and endorsement by Elijah Muhammad led to the
conversion of underprivileged ‘disenchanted’ African Americans into Islamic faith. His most significant
conversion was Malcolm Little into Islamic faith. Malcolm used X with his name to indicate the ‘lost
4. Riaz, Qadir 15
African heritage’ thereby rising as a prominent figure of Islamic faith resisting racism (Tweed, 2017,
p.4; Hamilton, 2015, p.1). His conversion shaped his radical beliefs about American people as ‘the
product of a genetic experiment whose time on Earth was coming to an end’ (Afterward 9/11 attacks
were understood as the coming back of ‘The Nation of Islam’) (Hamilton, 2015, p.2).
Injustice to ‘Blacks’ and Muslims in American society structured Malcolm’s strategy to
encounter the system that produced racism (Hamilton, 2015, p.4).Unfortunately, Elijah Muhammad
claimed prophet hood denying Islam’s divine rule that made status of Islam and Muslims dubious.
Presently Americans are more familiar with Islam translated through such movements, which has
deteriorated the true character of Islamic religion (Bright, 2001, p. 25; Yeoman, 2002). ‘Elijah
Muhammad’s death followed a rip in the movement raising formation of ‘American Muslim Mission’
that preached common and familiar Islamic practices. However, this group was condemned by ‘The
Nation of Islam’ for being unorthodox.
Emergence of Ku Klux Klan (in the wake of American Civil War1866) had become a source of
demonstration for white Southerner American States. Its members intimidated black republican
leaders who were reconstructing and establishing ‘political and economic equality for blacks’. Primary
goal of Ku Klux Klan was to re-establish white ascendancy. It deprecated immigrants, blacks and all
labour by bombing and violence in the country. It used terrorism against individuals or groups they
opposed (O'Donnell, 2006). Stanford encyclopedia documented the meeting between Ku Klux Klan
and Malcolm X as an attempt (on Malcolm’s part) to get a separate land for ‘Black American
Muslims’. Muslim non-support in the Civil Rights Movement in the South also resulted from a bargain
with Ku Klux Klan to save mosques from being ‘disturbed’ (Clegg, 1997).
Historian Schmatz reported Malcolm X meeting with Nazis (NAP) and speculated that anti-
Semitism brought the two groups in bonding. Race segregation was a mutual concern of Malcolm X's
meeting Nazi leader Rockwell to form a coalition. Since media was under Jewish control, the protest
of both groups was destined to failure. Common beliefs prevailed among ‘white’ Christians to support
violence and persecution of Blacks, Muslims as well as non- Muslims.
Malcolm X and Martin Luther King voiced those problems overtly bringing Black and Muslim
Africans at one page against slavery. As a result, Islam rose as a dominant American religion. African
Americans rejected ‘Oriental Exclusion Act 1920’ devised to ban Muslim immigration. Afterward,
Malcolm abandoned ‘The Nation of lslam’ due to its radical religious stance and discovered that Islam
preached equality of human beings. He was convinced that racism had tarnished American spirit. He
pondered over his state of being Muslim while dictating his autobiography to Haley in 1964:
I did many things as a Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie, then-like all
Muslims-I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march
He (1964) reflected upon extremism as a force driving religious followers to a wrong path. Thus, along
with the narratives of African slavery, Africans Muslim struggle for freedom remained a marked
feature of 19th century America.
Nationalist movement in Germany encouraged ‘a cultural-coded variant of racist thoughts’.
‘Pseudo-science of race hygiene’ was used to find ‘physical distinction between Jews and Germans’
bearing ‘anti-Semitism’ (Hilberg,1967, p.118).As a part of the ‘immigration movement’, Jews had
migrated from various places of the world in the beginning of1900s and entered America to establish
businesses there. Orthodox in faith, they founded Zionist Movement in America and rose as strong
supporters of Socialist party. In 1940, they were 3.7% of the entire American population.
5. ENQUIRY OF RACISM IN AMERICA 16
‘Anti-Jewish sentiments’ were closely associated with a ‘general disposition of social
intolerance’ (ADL’s 1998). During1920’s, Ku Klux Klan, Ford’s anti-Semitic published literature,
Coughlin’s controversial anti-Semitist speeches stimulated attacks on the Jewish community in
America (Sloyan, 2007;Pawlikowski, 2017).Hatred of Jews based on religious and socio-cultural
differences with Europe kept their status unsubstantiated until the modern epoch (Hilberg, 1967,
p.111). US State Department irrevocably established a strict quota system (Hilberg, 1967). Gurock
(1998) explored that immigrants were required ‘to prove they were not likely to become a public
charge’.Concepts of anti-Semitism and xenophobia in America strengthened in 1930’s. Jefferson’s
oxymoronic use of maxim ‘Divided we stand, united we fall’ revived the classic concept of racism
(Lewis, 1990).
Creation of Israel in 1948 brought Palestinian refugees to America. ‘McCarran-Walter Act
1952 relaxed the quota system established in 1924’ allowing more Muslim immigration (Tweed,
2017). ‘Muslim migrants’ escaped ‘oppressive regimes in Egypt, Iraq, and Syria; and South Asian
Muslims, as far as from Pakistan to settle in America. By 1990s, Muslims had established more than
600 mosques and centers across the United States’ (Tweed, 2017).Stereotypes of Arabs as ‘terrorists’
continued as a concurrent phenomenon since ‘Middle East tension of 1970-1980,Oklahoma City
bombing 1985 and Persian Gulf crises 1990’ long before 9/11 disaster. However, hostility against
Muslims gave rise to Islamophobia as another form of racism after 9/11 (Sayyid, 2011; Musharbash,
2014).Extremist incidents strengthened the image of Islam as ‘incompatible’ with human rights
(Langman & Morris, 2003; Gilles, 1997; Huntington, 1996).Equating a one point six billion Muslims on
earth with a race based on religion and fearing them turned the situation quite morbid.
Discrimination Based on Religion
Being skeptical of an ideology is fine but to coagulate it as the foundation of hatred and fear
appears unfounded. Religion as a part of evolution of racism in America had previously provided
reason for difference between ‘Negro’ and ‘American’ by Father Divine (1940’s). It categorized people
on the basis of religion labeling them ‘Asiatic Muslims’, ‘Moorish Americans’ etc. Though Father
Divine’s own followers rejected those notions, nevertheless, the power of being American prevailed
in the society at much higher level. Congress representative Dawson of Pennsylvania reinforced that
‘racial prejudice was implanted by providence for wise purpose’ (Wood, 1970, p.2).
Sociologist Frederick Hertz used the phrase ‘race hatred’ in 1920’s, signifying discrimination
and bias. ‘Religious persecution and racial persecution’ reciprocated each other (Benedict, 1942,
p.142). Benedict (1942) emphasized that race persecution’ did not compel researchers to investigate
the origin of ‘race’ (p.147). For a comprehension of ‘race conflict’, therefore, ‘conflict’ and not ‘race’
should be investigated (Benedict, 1942, p.151).
Ancient belief shad already accrued since the advent of human civilization that supported
climate producing ‘varieties of mankind’ and ‘intermixture of different ethnic groups’ (Benedict,
1942, p.20). It developed the idea of ethnic group bearing definite characteristics. Recent studies
referred to that as a creation of new race concept based on ethnicity where not physiological but
social behaviours were associated to various ethnic groups. He called ‘intermixture’ the cause of high
civilization (Benedict, 1942, p.79). It might be assumed that as a community, founded on the inter-
mingling of various races, American natives feared Muslims of surmounting and bringing destruction
to their land. Muslims experienced an ‘intermixture’ repression from Europeans, which ‘stimulated
their suppressed instincts’ (Benedict, 1942, p.79). Racism thus was conceived as an abstract notion
inapt for scientific investigation; a ‘religion, a belief which can be studied only historically’ (Benedict,
1942, p.97). Benedict’s proclamation of racial prejudice in America scavenged the development of
6. Riaz, Qadir 17
strong emotional behaviour which was ‘psychologically complex’ and required in-depth
understanding in economic, social and historical context (1942, p.168).
Racism in the 20
th
Century
Racism in late 20th century world went far beyond its understanding in terms of Whites and
Blacks. The concept evolved over times as a ‘catch-all’ in Social Sciences (Stocking, 1966). Pioneer in
rejecting ‘theory of evolution’ as a foundation of race, Boas (1989) also looked at racism as a result of
‘culture and tradition’ (p.66). Despite its socio-cultural and religious presentation, scholars attempted
to enquire and determine the causes of racism in economic spheres as well. Marx (1975) identified
the problem of ‘importation of slaves’ as the ‘supply of labour’ which shaped the notions of race and
racism in the modern think tanks. He looked at racism as ‘an issue...for the structures of the social
world’ (1975, p. 915). Hall (1980) found problems in Marxist conception of racism which adhered
exclusively to economic structures and argued that ‘economic relationship’ did not explicate ‘the
variety of racial practices and its persistence across the economic changes taking place in societies
such as US’ (1980, p.308). He (1980) proposed an understanding of the historic development system
of ‘racial slavery’ and ‘racial practices in US society’ (p.320). Hence, scavenging economic structure,
racism leveled path for its existence.
Miles (1982) identified politics, class and specific ideologies forming racial conflicts. His study
of race and racism was based on its ‘analytical and objective status…a basis of action’ (Miles, 1982, p.
42). Miles (1982) viewed race and racism as human construction; an ideology that belonged to and
was shaped by the powerful group in society. Tracing the process of ‘Racialization’ in the interaction
of immigrant communities, he concluded the struggle and fight of a class through racism not race ‘the
modality’ (Miles, 1982). Frye’s (1983) research corroborated Miles. He named racism a ‘bird cage’; a
finely wrought cage rightly termed as a ‘political construct’ (pp.1-16). These researchers focused
political and economic circumstances; bringing forth entirely a changed concept of racism in
contemporary era with specific agenda. With socio-cultural and religious constituents, racism
scavenged politics and economics principles to justify its existence.
Through ‘superiority’ elevating itself at social structural levels, racism by ‘social
arrangements’ strengthened the notion of ‘superiority’ (Pinderhughes, 1989). Wieviorka (1995)
referred to ‘the dual logic of racism-of inferiorization’ that was ‘subordination and exclusion’. Not
limited to segregation and violence, ‘institutionalized racism in America’ provided ‘a better
understanding of the journey from race to racism’. Wieviorka (1995) connected racism to ‘factors
fixed’. Religion as a major ‘fix’ component developed the arguments of racism. ‘Race’ explained
nothing; ‘it is something that must be explained’ (Ignatiev, 1995, p.87).
Media Propaganda against Islam through
Media reinforced the image of Islam as backward, intolerant, ancient and incompatible in
late nineteenth century. Cinema movies such as ‘True Lies 1994’, ‘The Human Shield 1992’ and
‘Execution Decisions 1996’ represented Arab Muslims as monolithic and violent creatures (Keen,
1986).
Social scholars penned down religion as an essential facet ‘of a genealogy of the race
concept’ in the late twentieth century (Balibar &Wallerstein, 1991). Although notion of racism
patronized by Marty and Appleby could not produce any ‘workable definition’, however, it raised
anti-Islamic suspicion and warning among the readers (Said, 1991). Recognition of ‘African Americans’
as ‘Muslims’ was a miscalculation of ‘the longstanding antagonism of Islam to Christian America’
(Shaban, 1991).
7. ENQUIRY OF RACISM IN AMERICA 18
Muslims were alleged for ‘violence’ against ‘Catholic Croatians’ (Huntington, 1977, p.255).
Evans (1980) and Lewis (1990) offered evidence to view Islamic world as Ham’s descendents. ‘Whites’
were enslaved by Arabs and Moors but not as regular racial practices customary to European
disposition of slavery who relied on biblical references of black skin to be ‘hewers of wood and
carriers of water’ (Lewis, 1990). Biblical influence triggered concept of ‘white Christians’ and its
‘other’.
Albanian, Bosnian, Turks, Armenians, Chechnian and Tatars were quoted to show the world
Muslim violence particularly against their respective governments that enhanced the political aspect
of racism. Westerners envisioned Muslims habitual of bloodshed. Muslims’ projection as
‘antagonistic’ with its ‘other’ in the form of Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Hindu, Chinese, Buddhist,
and Jews started appearing frequently in every discourse.
New economic and political realities shifted the concept of Racism from ‘interpersonal race
based prejudice… towards institutional, historical and structural dynamics’ into ‘perpetual social
advantages of the dominant social identity group, that is, white people in America’ (Wellman,
1993,p.2). At psychological forums, long chain of psychoanalytic theories helped to comprehend the
dynamics of racism in late twentieth century (Fanon, 2001; Frosh, 1989; Rustin 1991; Kovel 1995;
Altman, 2000).
Esposito (1999) explored an anticipated conflict of Islam and the West by positing questions
to ‘the incompatibility of Islam and democracy’ (p.3). Discussing Islamic fundamentalism as a possible
threat to American stability, he investigated ‘the vitality of Islam as a global force and the global
history of its relations with the West’ (Esposito, 1999, p.5).A case study of Muslim countries and
major Islamic movements demonstrated a ‘diversity’ of orientation in all global spheres with specific
emphasis on ‘Salman Rushdie affair, the Gulf war and the New World Order’ creating problems for
the Muslim world and visualizing Islam and America as binaries in the contemporary era.
Religion was explored ‘as a historical category…to be applied as a universal concept’ in
relation to racism (Asad, 1993). Religion endured ‘radical’ charges- ‘from totalitarian and socially
repressive to private and relatively benign’ (Asad, 1993). Asad (1993) investigated racism as a
debated topic, ‘a construction of European modernity’ concluding its conception as an integral part
for creating differences that generated bias against other cultures.
Islamophobia
Racism was further defined as ‘the routinized outcome of practices that create or reproduce
hierarchical social structures based on essentialized racial categories’ extended to global level ‘from
Negrophobia to Islamophobia’ (Omi & Winant, 1994). Stereotype image of Muslims as ‘exotic
easterners’ was re-enacted under the horrors of 9/11 destruction’ giving it new meaning (Said, 1994).
As a reproduction of phobia, it generated actions towards a specific individual group and ideology.
Girr (1995) introduced the concept of ‘eurocentrism’ in ‘skyscraper’; tall buildings which in
the late 20th century disturbed American society for their being out of Americans needs. The tall
architecture of buildings was victim to strong terrorist attacks wounding American proud ideology of
being ‘invincible’. During the same period, ‘markers of race’ re-established ‘the most violent racism’
against Muslims in the form of socio-religious nature (Werbner & Modood, 1997). Werbner (1997)
defined racism ‘grounded in the fears of social and economic description elicited in the complex
relationship of Islam to West’. This relationship played a pivotal role informing modernity and
8. Riaz, Qadir 19
capitalism in West. Dependent on ‘histories of imperial conquest’, Werbner and Modood (1997)
called it ‘Islamophobic racism’ bringing racism and religion in discourse as dependent variables.
Huntington Portrayal of Islam
Huntington (1997) portrayed a frightful image of Islam in ethno-political context announcing
‘Muslims’ with ‘problems living peaceably with their neighbours’ (p.256). Twenty first century
America was perceived ‘marching under new but often old flags’ leading ‘to wars with new but often
old enemies’ (Huntington 1997,p. 20).The ‘fault line conflicts’ situated Muslims against its ‘other’, in
the global world politics (Huntington, 1997). Huntington analyzed ‘Muslim’ participation in ‘twenty-
six of fifty ethno political conflicts in 1993-1994’ to show ‘only two intra-civilizational and two inter-
civilizational conflicts’ where West was involved (pp.256-257). He articulated words ‘Muslims’ and
‘Islam’ with explicit abhorrence to show the involvement of civilizations in ‘ethno political conflicts’
(1997, p.257).
However, Huntington (1997) himself confessed that extensive research was needed to
investigate Muslims’ involvement in far more conflicts by the end of twentieth century (Huntington,
1997, p. 262). He highlighted ‘Muhammad’ (SAW) as ‘a hard fighter and a skilful military commander’
and called the origin ‘violent…stamped in the foundation’ of Islam (1997, p. 263). His description of
Islam, Muslims and focus on a single aspect of Muhammad’s (SAW) personality was rightly so the
‘ethno-political’ expression of racism (1997). Life of Muhammad (SAW) exemplify ‘a unified’ and
august picture of the Prophet as an individual. His (SAW) life struggle indicated words of conciliation,
peace and harmony at first step to show the positive picture of Islam. Wars during his life time or
after were waged on provocation by his opponents (Siddiqu, 1995). Renowned European scholar Hart
(1978) documented the name of Muhammad as the first individual who alone was successful on
religious as well as worldly borders.
Fundamentalism and Racism
Association of word ‘fundamentalism’ with Islam was strongly refuted by Said (1997). His
argument connected the word with other religions such as ‘Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism’
(1997, p.xvi). Afterwards, Runnymede Trust Report (1997) fore-grounded the ‘closed view of Islam’ as
oppressor of women that was considerably different from the treatment that other religions and
cultures devised for women. Muslims themselves had ‘an instrumental or manipulative view of their
religion rather than to be sincere in their beliefs, for their faith is indistinguishable from a weapon’
(The Runnymede Trust Report, 1997).
Conscious efforts to relate fundamentalism to Islam tarnished the face of Islam in the eyes of
an ‘average reader’ who viewed both as one and ‘the same thing’ (Said, 1997). Perpetuating its
threatening aspect instigated fear of it. American Academy of Arts actively published research works
on fundamentalism. Researcher such as Daniel Pipes confessed that he knew ‘Islam for the
appallingly dreadful thing that it is’; a threat to the world particularly the West. Fear against Islam
‘hark*ed] back to age-old grievances’ (Said, 1997). ‘Ever since the Middle Ages and some part of the
Renaissance in Europe, Islam was believed to be demonic religion of apostasy, blasphemy, and
obscurity’ (Said, 1997).
Corlette (1998) also rejected Huntington’s description as more a work of ‘normal human
beings racist to the extent that they act discriminatorily on their ethnically prejudicial beliefs or
attitudes…based on ethnic stereotyping’ (p.23).He described ethnic stereotypes through ‘Cognitive
Behavioural Theory of Racism’ emphasizing the cognitive role in exposing ‘ethnic prejudice… a mental
state one has about another’ (1998, p.25). Corlette (1998) did not describe the positive or negative
9. ENQUIRY OF RACISM IN AMERICA 20
aspect of mental state. However, he rejected the primitive notions of racism and replaced the word
‘racial’ by ‘ethnic’. He emphasized the ‘intentionally shared experience’ of ethnic groups
differentiating them from others (1998). The term seemed more relevant to the psychological
condition; a phobia that replaced all cultural differences with religion.
Fear of Islam and Muslims
Religion, a vibrant element of culture had always been hard to neglect. ‘Fear of unknown’
placed immigrants in controversy and prejudice as they were believed to ‘sponge off’ the host society
(Krutmeijer, 1998). Krutmeijer (1998) discussed racism as a phenomenon with two perspectives;
racism as ‘individual, psychological, pathological condition’ and racism as ‘a social problem’ (p.40). His
study confirmed the previous scholarly suppositions about racism caused ‘due to fear… about
foreigners’ based on cultural ignorance. The complexity of racism was dismantled in the wake of 9/11
attacks conceived and categorized as fear of Islam and all the Muslims were assumed to create
problems for Muslim immigrants in America.
Matar (1999) traced association of Muslims with cruelty, tyranny and deception long before
9/11 attacks, with additional labels such as ‘sexually over driven, emotionally uncontrollable and
religiously superstitious. Reinforcement of stereotypical Muslim images and identification of Jews
with ‘Muselemann’ strengthened the process of ‘racialization of diverse population of Muslims… in to
one racial group’ in 20th century America (Agamben, 1998).
Winant (2000) asserted the ‘static state’ of racism and called race a ‘significant sociological
theme’. The concept of ‘New racism’ brought forward ‘the increasingly covert nature of racial
discourse’ and ‘the avoidance of racial terminology’ (Bonilla –Silva & Lewis 1999; Bonilla-Silva, 2001).
Identity markers such as skin, colour, language and religion were utilized as the foundation of racism
(The Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain Commission 2000,pp.59-60).Lobbies were created internationally
isolating Muslim countries and communities equating them with terrorist in the global transition of
ideologies. Racism was viewed as ‘systematic genocide’. At times ‘less exclamative’, racism found
outlet in various forms as a noteworthy facet of life. It was often been referred to ‘a new word for an
old fear’.
Conclusion
The present study conclude that from the historical exile of Spanish ‘infidel’ Muslim
population to American territory to 9/11 terrorist attacks, racism functioned against Muslims.
Journey from biological notion to the status of social construction, woven altogether in economic,
psychological, social, political and pathological tangles, world scholars agreed upon a common
definition of racism as a mental state and a manifestation of bias and hatred of an inferior group. It
was identified as a ‘social problem’ and ‘ethnicity’ in the contemporary situation perpetuated by
inequalities in society. Its ascendency blurred geographical boundaries.
It also revealed the virtual presence of racism in almost every discourse of life and its
emergence in the form of Islamophobia due to its power of scavenging in 21
st
century America. A
systematic review revealed that racist ideologies based on cultural differences existed long before
20th century; religion was an integral coming of age part.
Thus, ‘ethnic affairs policies’ imply the progression of ‘existing patterns of racism’ in western
societies. ‘Racial purity’ is the main objective behind each controversy. A shift from overt to covert
racism and transition from ‘anti Asian and anti-Arabs’ to ‘anti-Muslim racism’ signified an entire
process of racialization developing a thorough understanding of racism. ‘To stop being Muslim’ has
10. Riaz, Qadir 21
become the survival strategy and a mainstream American deliberation. In fact religion is harmonized
and enclosed in a crucial contour when developed into the practical equivalent of ‘race’.
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Received: July 16th
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Revisions Received: Nov 29th
, 2018