This study examines how mass media misrepresentation of Muslims has affected the cross-cultural adaptation experiences of Muslim refugees and students in higher education in the US. The study will conduct focus group interviews with Muslim students who have refugee family members to understand their experiences with discrimination and how media portrayals have complicated their social integration. Examining this issue is important given the growing Muslim refugee population in the US and the impact of media framing on shaping public perceptions. The results could help inform policies supporting refugee integration and cultural understanding.

1. Running Head: COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY 1
Cognitive Flexibility: The Experience of Muslim Refugees
Janice Fair
Western Washington University

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Abstract
Integrating the spiral of silence theory and the cross cultural adaption theory, this study
focuses on how mass media in the U.S has misrepresented Muslim refugee’s making
intercultural socialization more difficult for those who live in the U.S since the terrorist attack of
September 11, 2001. The research examines the misrepresentation of Muslims through mass
media and how Medias’ constitutive rhetoric has affected the cognitive ideologies of Americans.
Researchers also examine the specific types of experiences Muslim refugees have had when
entering the United States post 911. With recent and past events, the number of Muslim
Refugees seeking asylum and entering the U.S has been consistently rising and in result there has
been a rapid growth of Muslim- Americans. To further understand this phenomena researchers
examine the Muslim Refugee experience by observing the effect’s mass media has on Muslims
in higher education. The proposed study will use face to face focus group interviews with
Muslim students in higher education who either have Muslim parents or relations to someone
who is a Muslim refugee in order to understand the effect of media’s constitutive rhetoric. This
issue is important to study considering that the number of refugees coming to the U.S seeking
asylum is consistent.
Key Words: Muslim, Refugees, Cross Cultural Adaption, Spiral of Silence Theory, Mass Media,
Integration, Asylum

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Introduction
Researchers argue that the information and collective data produced by mass media in the
U.S has misrepresented and perpetuated negative stereotypes of Muslims, making intercultural
socialization more difficult for those who live in the U.S. Since the terrorist attack of 911, there
has been increasing research pertaining to Muslim Americans social adaption experience (Cole,
Ahmadi 2003). Despite the previous studies done, several communication researchers have
neglected to study how discrimination against Muslim refugees post 911 has effected both
genders of Muslim American youth in higher education (Christian, Lapinski 2003; Sirin,
Katasiaficas 2011; Lamont, Collet 2013; Bal, 2014). Therefore, to further apprehend the Muslim
refugee experience it is paramount for researchers to study the cross cultural adaption experience
of Muslims in higher education.
The issues with cross culturalization for refugees and Muslim Americans lie with how
citizens’ cognitive ideologies are developed through exposure to Mass Media’s constitutive
rhetoric. For this reason it is important to study how mass media, as a dominant discourse, is
problematic to the Muslims cross cultural adaption experience (Halse, 2012). Preceding scholars
have applied the spiral of silence theory to interpret this issue, however the cross cultural
adaption theory must be implemented to further understand the Muslim refugee experience.
The purpose of this study is to explore how media has effected the Muslim experience in
higher education to further understand this phenomena. The researchers will attempt to
qualitatively investigate the cross cultural socialization experience of Muslim refugees within the
U.S in response to the negative messages from mass media by implementing the spiral of silence
theory and cross cultural adaption theory to further understand this specific phenomena.

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Literature Review
Historical Background
In the nineteenth century most slaves during the colonial period were imported from
West Africa to the U.S, twenty percent of which practiced some given form of Islam (Curtis,
2008). Between 1966 and 1997, 2,780,000 people resettled in the U.S, many of them being
Muslims, and in result the number of Islamic organizations grew (Edward, 2009). Such quick
growth caused a great division between Christians and Muslims by class, race, and religion,
forcing the two groups to live in segregation.
On September 11, 2001 a terrorist attack occurred in which two planes were hijacked by
nineteen members of al- Qaeda including Saudis and Egyptians (Ibrahim, 2008), igniting
negativity between the U.S and Middle East. Like many Americans, refugees and American
Muslims supported charities and prayed while fearing the backlash they were to face by looking
‘Muslim’ (Edward, 2009).
Rhetorical Media
The role of mass media, conceptualized specifically as newspapers and television, for
years has framed and presented news to the public through a lens of ‘reality’ to keep audiences
engaged. This has led citizens to believe false realities that frame specific racial groups such as
Muslims (Andersen, Brinson, Stohl, 2011). By the process of framing mass media is given the
authority to control boundaries of discourse sending Muslim refugees into a spiral of silence
(Ibrahim, 2008). Yang Xiaodong (2016) defines the spiral of silence theory as people who
compare their own opinions with the perceived public opinion and make decisions on whether or
not to speak if able to at all (p.79).
One historically significant example is the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001 and how

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media conceptualized the word terrorism to fit the image of Muslims. Since the terrorist attack
occurred within a city sodden in media, terms such as Muslim, Arabs, Syrian, and Islam have
been manipulated to become synonymous with the word ‘terrorist’ to several Americans (refer to
fig.1 in appendix). Subsequently, negative news portraying Muslims has had an impact on
citizens’ cognitive attitudes towards policies and restrictions, making them more willing to enact
both (Andersen, 2011). From this it is proposed that constitutive rhetoric and stereotypes have
pernicious effects on the Muslims cross cultural adaption experience (Halse, 2012).
In addition, it can be seen in television shows that “Muslims in the Western culture have
been primarily stereotyped into the images of: greed, lust, violence, and barbarianism” (Karim,
K.H. 1997). Rolf Halse (2012) conducted a study on the TV serial 24 analyzing the change of
Muslim stereotypes in US Television and found that modern Orientalists’ observe and describe
Muslim character traits to encompass lack of discipline and inability to cooperate (p.15). More
significantly, the stereotypes portrayed through TV post 911 resemble the appearance of the
average American, dichotomizing the image of Muslims while redefining the Muslim ‘other’
(Halse, 2012). Influence from media has given Americans the excuse to fear and discriminate
against Muslims in the surrounding environment regardless of age or gender, complicating the
process of cross cultural adaption.
The Muslim Refugee Experience
Prior to entering the U.S, Muslim Refugees have experienced difficult in cross culturally
adapting into the U.S. Young Kim (2001) defines this cross-cultural adaption theory as a
dynamic evolutionary process an individual undergoes in an unfamiliar environment, making a
successful transition from one culture to another while integrating both cultures (p.xi). Rottman,
Fariss, and Poe (2009) reported in their research that in the wake of 911 during 2002-2004

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asylum claims were about seven percent less likely to be accepted (p.20). Moreover, refugees
deserving asylum into the U.S have faced unnecessary or inhumane hardships, at times treated as
criminals and imprisoned for months without a hearing (Swarns, 2007). Upon entering the U.S
refugees were often placed in impoverished locations within cities where housing cost was
inexpensive for government accommodations (Phillips, 2006), therefore systematically forced
into a lower social class and harsher living conditions without an option. The Muslim refugee
experience is a paramount issue because dehumanizing actions against Muslim refugees seeking
asylum only reflects the negative history of the US, as well as reify that the hierarchical
American system of accepting refugees and immigrants is significantly flawed. Rottman, Fariss
and Poe (2009) in their study concluded that physical integrity rights, a central concern in the
decision to grant asylum, were observed as less important after 2001 in asylum officers’
decisions (p.29).
Another barrier to integration for these refugees was the language barrier. Culturally,
language gives people a sense of belonging linked with a place, both physically and
psychologically, therefore language can be considered to be the link to our roots (Sorgen, 2015).
Da Lomba (2010) explains how integration is conceived as a two-step process which involves
the voluntary nature of the community and the cooperation of the refugees through English
conversation clubs (p.247). Without adequate resources, it can be argued that the lack of
language integration reinforces social exclusion, alienating refugees from the host culture. Given
that little research has been done on studying Muslim refugee experience through Muslims in
higher education, researchers will pose the following question:
RQ1: How has post 911 mass media messages affect the cross cultural socialization experience
of Muslims in higher education within the U.S?

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Methodology
Quantitative or Qualitative
To be able to comprehensively study a sample of individuals, researchers will approach
this study with a qualitative focus to provide textual data representing the experiences of
Muslims in higher education. A focus group type qualitative study will include each participants’
experience which will help assess inferences about the participants’ population as a whole and
explain meaning behind specific concepts (Sirin, Katasiaficas 2011; Lamont, Collet 2013).
However, limitations may include the difficulty with large data collection to allow for discussion
of general study themes and findings which then can be constructed for further analysis by
highlighting important and complex patterns (Lamont, Collet 2013).
Group or Focus Interview
For this study, researchers will conduct a qualitative focus group interview with Muslim
American students in higher education who either have Muslim parents or relations to Muslim
refugees. In the past qualitative research has been used and advised to be used to study
individuals’ experiences that reflect concepts and effects of variables (Cole, Ahmadi, 2003;
Langellier, 2010; Sirin, Katasiaficas, 2011, Bal 2014). Qualitative research not only gives the
researcher the ability to understand specific unique experiences through face to face interaction,
but gives the researcher the ability to shape and lead interviews to be structured or less structured
as desired, as seen in a study done by Cole and Ahmadi (2003). A weakness and limitation of
this type of method would be the inability to use a large sample size of participants due to the
amount of time it takes to interview individuals.

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Variables
This study examines the relationship between Mass Media and Muslim refugees’ cross
cultural adaption experience in the U.S observed through Muslims in higher education. Mass
Media, the independent variable in this case, can be conceptualized as broadcast television and
distributed newspapers within the U.S, the two most influential forms of media (Halse, 2012;
Kellner, 2004; Ibrahim, 2008). By studying how mass media has affected Muslims experience in
a negative and positive way within the U.S operationalizes these variables.
The dependent variable is the Muslim refugee experience. This can be conceptualized as
Muslim refugees’ cultural differences and the acculturation process from their previous society,
including customs and behaviors, through religious perspectives and experiences (Cole, Ahmadi
2003; McBrien 2005). The operationalized definition for the dependent variable are the steps
taken to acculturate and adapt to negative messages and discrimination within the given
environment.
Setting & Sample
This study will take place on the campus of Western Washington University. The sample
for this study will be Western Washington University Muslim students of both genders in higher
education who either have Muslim parents or relations to those who are Muslim Refugees. The
number of participants for this study will range from seven to fifteen people and between the
ages of 18- 26 years varying specifically by school year, including those who wear religious
garments. This sample was selected to investigate the discrimination that Muslim refugees’
experience, more specifically how misrepresentation and discrimination has affected intercultural

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socialization for Muslims in higher education. Researchers plan on congregating the Muslim
students by contacting them while following the ethical procedures and regulations of WWU.
Details are addressed in the procedures.
Procedures
Data Collection
Sampling Technique
Researchers will apply stratified sampling to simple random sampling to determine the
participants for this study within Western Washington University. Stratified sampling has been
chosen to ensure that the sample will contain an equal number of males to females with the
consideration that both sex have different experiences based on gender alone (Jupp, 2006). By
using stratified sampling the variables will be better represented compared to random sampling
by itself and to do so the researchers will obtain a list of students from the registrar’s office of
individuals who either have Muslim parents or relations to Muslim refugees.
Method of Gathering
To gather information and participants for this study, researchers will plan to visit the
registrar’s office to obtain a student list consisting of information on current Muslim students.
From there researchers must consult and determine the best way to contact potential participants
without breaking ethical regulations and privacy. In addition, this study will require the use of
demographic forms to gain some information on the student’s major, department, year ECT (The
form is located in the appendix). Furthermore, consent forms will be implemented into the study

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to be able to gain and utilize information from personal profiles (The form is located in the
appendix).
Once the researchers have found sufficient participants, a qualitative interview will be
conducted. The inquiry will include questions about their experiences as a Muslim, how Medias
framing of Muslims in the news has affected their quality of life, and how these individuals have
coped with those internal and external negative conflicts (Instruments are located in the
appendix).
Validity & Reliability
The methodology that will administer a focus group questionnaire will specifically
address reliability by implementing the split- half reliability method. By using this type of
internal consistency reliability, two sets of similar inquiry will be used for comparing one half of
the test with the other half to ensure consistent reliable data collection (McLeod, 2013).
In addition, researchers concur that the methodology is valid for the reason that
participants will be questioned about their personal experiences as Muslims within society and
Western Washington University. Furthermore, by utilizing lists of questions that are not biased
or poorly worded, the instrument would help ensure the validity of the information coming from
the participants. Validity in this case can be thought of as an accumulation of empirical concepts
such as truth, deduction, reason, fact, and evidence (Golafshani, 2003). Potential discrepancies
may arise due to the researcher’s beliefs as to what part of the research needs validation (Winter,
2000), however this will allow for future researchers elimination of possible biases.

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Ethics
For the purpose of this study researchers will provide full disclosure to participants to
gain trust and access to personal information and norms that would have not been gained
otherwise. In other words, participants will be debriefed to discuss any questions or concerns
they might have about the focus group intervention. This will help researchers promote the aim
of truth, knowledge, avoidance of error and trust (Resnik, 2015). Prior to any action taken, the
researchers will gain approval of the universities institutional review board to continue this
study, which is important to collaborative work such as accountability (Resnik, 2015). Given the
nature of the focus group interviewing, anonymity cannot be assured. However, participants will
be given a copy of the consent form (located in the appendix) that both parties have signed with
the confidentiality agreement and contact information of the researcher and WWU human
subjects board to release information.
The main ethical concern with this study is the potential psychological discomfort
participants may experience depending on the questions inquired, especially considering that
their experiences in the past may have been emotionally damaging already. With that, the
researchers will make sure to accommodate and respect each individuals’ wishes as best as
possible. After the study has been conducted the researchers will once again debrief the
participants and have a cool down period to address the purpose of this study as before. This
study will greatly benefit communication scholars and researchers to gain further insight to the
Muslim refugee experience through the eyes of Muslims in higher education, as well as provide
the citizens in this society a better understanding of how media affects Muslim Refugees
experiences here in the U.S.

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Implications
This study will not only be beneficial to communication scholars and researchers, but to
all people in the world who are interested in the cross cultural adaption process and experience of
Muslim Refugees and how that affects Muslims in higher education. Considering the information
provided on Muslim Refugees experience coming into the U.S, this study encourages policy
makers to address issues that currently exist within the asylum immigration process and change
their silencing and dehumanizing tactics by providing refugees a habitable environment to live in
and more. In most recent years, because of the turmoil occurring in the Middle East, Muslim
Refugees are flooding into the U.S and other countries seeking asylum, which implies that there
are more people who are facing the experiences that have been addressed. This makes the social
issue of Muslim Refugees as prominent as ever to share with people to aid in understanding this
phenomena.
Conclusion
Information produced by mass media in the U.S has misrepresented and perpetuated
negative stereotypes of Muslims, making intercultural socialization difficult for those who live in
the U.S. In this research paper, the researchers provided information to enlighten individuals on
the issue of the Muslim Refugees cross cultural adaption experience by delving into sub
categories such as historical background and rhetorical media. By doing so the reader has gained
further understanding on how Mass Media perpetuates negative stereotypes and rhetoric of
Muslims, making the inter-acculturalization process as refugees more difficult, and how that
directly affects Muslim citizens who live in the U.S. Qualitative focus group interviews have
been implemented to reify the research done in the literature review. Researchers find this

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subject to be paramount to study because by closing the gap between how media affects
incoming refugees and citizens who live in the U.S attending higher education, social and policy
changes could be made in the future to ensure the quality of life for Muslims everywhere.
Regardless of skin color, race and background, quality of life should be first priority above all
other aspects.

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References
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consequences for public policy. Journal of Arab &Muslim Media Research, 4(3), 203-
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September 11 attacks. Journal of Arab and Muslim Media Research, 1(3), 279-295.

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Refugees in Britain. Housing Studies, 21(4), 539-553.

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Resnik, D. B. (2015, December 1). What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important?.
Retrieved from http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/
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Appendices
Table of Contents
Appendix A: Consent Form Page 18
Appendix B: Demographic Form Page 19
Appendix C: Sample of qualitative questions Page 20
Appendix D: Sample of Media’s perpetuation of the Muslim stereotype Page 21

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Appendix A
CONSENT FORM
Purpose and Benefit:
Researchers have been interested in how Mass Medias messages about Muslim refugees
affects the experiences of Muslims in higher education. To better understand this phenomena
researchers will conduct a qualitative focus group interview. The purpose of this experiment is to
attain better information of the difficulties Muslims face due to negative messages from media as
well as the coping mechanisms that Muslims have used to overcome these hardships.
I UNDERSTAND THAT:
1) This experiment will involve completion of a series of tasks that include participating in a
qualitative focus group interview. My participation will involve approximately three hours.
2) Anticipated risks or discomfort associated with participation may involve the discomfort of
answering questions. One possible benefit to me may be a better understanding of the research
process for social interview experiments.
3) My participation is voluntary, I may choose not to answer certain questions or withdraw from
participation at any time without penalty.
4) All information is confidential. My signed consent form will be kept in a locked cabinet
separate from the questionnaires and recorded information. Only the primary research will
review the information. My name will not be associated with any of my responses at any time.
5) This experiment is conducted by Janice Fair. Any questions that you have about the
experiment or your participation may be directed to her at 253- 740- 6571 or
fairj@students.wwu.edu. If you have any questions about your participation or your rights as a
research participant, you can contact the WWU Human Protections Administrator (HPA), (360)
650-3220. If during or after participation in this study you suffer from any adverse effects as a
result of participation, please notify the researcher directing the study or the WWU Human
Protections Administrator.
************************************************************
I have read the above description and agree to participate in this study.
_______________________________________ Participant’s Signature _______________ Date
_______________________________________ Participant’s PRINTED NAME
NOTE: Please sign both copies of the form and retain the copy marked “Participant.”

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Appendix B
Demographic Form
Name: ________________________________________________
Current Address: ___________________________________________________
City/ State/ Zip: ____________________________________________________
Gender: Male Female Other
Language: English Other
Date of Birth: _____________________________________________________
School Year: ______________________________________________________
Major/ Minor: _____________________________________________________
Years of living in the US: ___________________________________________

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Appendix C
Sample of qualitative Questions
1. Which culture do you identify with more?
2. How long have you been living in the U.S?
3. How has Mass Medias messages about Muslim Refugees affect you individually? Your
daily living situations? Who you have become friends with? The relations you have with
family, friends’ teachers.
4. What were some difficulties for you as Muslims growing up in an American culture?
5. Have you faced discrimination for being Muslim? Where?
6. If so how have you coped with these experiences?
7. How do your experiences differ as men and women?
8. What messages portrayed in media about the current issue on Muslim Refugees do you
find to be misleading or inaccurate?
9. What are your thoughts about the current issue of Muslim refugees coming into the U.S?
10. What has driven you to achieve higher education?

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Appendix D
Sample of Media’s perpetuation of the Muslim stereotype.
Fig.1.Magazine coverassociatingMuslimswithpost9/11
VanessaSmall:“Arabs,Muslimsandthe Post-9/11Media”
IWU Spectrum:07 March. 2016: Web.