This study compared the effects of motivational and attitudinal factors on studying statistics for psychology students in two different learning contexts: an integrated teaching design and a non-integrated classic design. Survey results showed that students in the integrated design had significantly higher motivation, more positive attitudes, greater use of critical thinking and self-regulation strategies, and higher achievement scores. The integrated design was more effective at fostering motivations and attitudes conducive to learning statistics.
This study examined how social-cognitive factors influence students' interest in research-related careers. The researchers hypothesized that a student's perception of their research environment would impact their research self-efficacy and outcome expectations, which would in turn influence their research interests and career goals. Ninety-nine undergraduate students completed questionnaires assessing these variables. Results found the research environment indirectly influenced interests through its effect on self-efficacy and outcomes expectations. Self-efficacy and outcomes expectations also indirectly impacted goals by influencing interests. This study suggests cognitions like self-efficacy that develop from the undergraduate research experience can shape career interests and decisions during this pivotal period.
Applying Psychological Principles to Course DesignMelanie Meade
This document discusses applying psychological principles to course planning and teaching. It describes how psychology has contributed to the fields of education and teaching through various learning theories. Some key teaching strategies and assessments mentioned include using rubrics, problem-based learning, approaches that encourage deep learning over surface learning. The document also emphasizes the importance of clear learning outcomes, varied assessments, and focusing on student engagement.
This study examined the influence of teaching practices on undergraduate student mental health and wellbeing. Mixed methods were used, including a student survey, instructor interviews, and student focus groups. Preliminary findings indicate that clear expectations and feeling connected promote student wellbeing. Students feel supported when they understand what is expected for exams and coursework. However, too much detail can limit critical thinking. Providing engagement and clarity helps students feel able to succeed. Overall, teaching practices that motivate students and support their development best promote learning and mental health.
The issue of psychological well-being in education has emerged as an increasingly critical topic in recent years. This is due to the significance of psychological well-being in enhancing the performance of e ducational institutions, encompassing students, teachers, and the process of formulating school policies. This study sought to discover recent research on psychological well-being from an academic perspective. A total of 27 research articles were successfully gathered and reviewed based on the established criteria. This article review was conducted utilizing two databases (SCOPUS and WoS) and the following keywords: "psychological well-being" combined with "AND" and other search terms such as "school", "teacher", and "student". This systematic review offers a synthesis of results that can serve as the initial step in developing constructs of psychological well-being in educational institutions, thus implying the importance of psychological well-being for teachers and students. The results of the analysis from this systematic literature review have been discussed and concluded in this study.
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This document discusses using social-cognitive theory in mathematics education. It first identifies common difficulties students face in learning mathematics, such as problems with communication, creativity, reasoning, and problem solving. It then provides an overview of social-cognitive theory, noting that students learn through self-regulation, observing models, and developing self-efficacy. The document argues that social-cognitive theory can help address students' mathematics learning difficulties by emphasizing aspects like self-reflection, goal-setting, and observing peer and teacher models.
An introduction to Research Approaches in Higher Education for new or existing university teachers or academics interested in using research to inform their teaching.
reserarch paper on Co curricular activities -need of timeMayuri vadher
This document discusses a study on the importance of co-curricular activities in the overall development of MBA students. It includes an introduction describing co-curricular activities and their importance in education. The methodology section describes using a descriptive research design with surveys to collect primary data from 60 MBA students. Key findings from analyzing the data found that students have a positive perception of co-curricular activities and recognize their benefits, such as enhancing skills and adding value to resumes. The conclusion is that both students and institutions now recognize the need for co-curricular activities in developing students mentally and physically.
Participatory Action Research At A Public New England...Michele Thomas
The document summarizes the key differences between action research and action learning. Action research aims to improve practices through a structured, reflective process involving researchers studying their own practices. It focuses on generating new knowledge and understanding through analyzing issues, taking action, and reflecting on the results. In contrast, action learning focuses on the learning of participants as they select issues, analyze them, take action, and reflect, without necessarily generating new theoretical knowledge. The primary goal is learning rather than research.
This study examined how social-cognitive factors influence students' interest in research-related careers. The researchers hypothesized that a student's perception of their research environment would impact their research self-efficacy and outcome expectations, which would in turn influence their research interests and career goals. Ninety-nine undergraduate students completed questionnaires assessing these variables. Results found the research environment indirectly influenced interests through its effect on self-efficacy and outcomes expectations. Self-efficacy and outcomes expectations also indirectly impacted goals by influencing interests. This study suggests cognitions like self-efficacy that develop from the undergraduate research experience can shape career interests and decisions during this pivotal period.
Applying Psychological Principles to Course DesignMelanie Meade
This document discusses applying psychological principles to course planning and teaching. It describes how psychology has contributed to the fields of education and teaching through various learning theories. Some key teaching strategies and assessments mentioned include using rubrics, problem-based learning, approaches that encourage deep learning over surface learning. The document also emphasizes the importance of clear learning outcomes, varied assessments, and focusing on student engagement.
This study examined the influence of teaching practices on undergraduate student mental health and wellbeing. Mixed methods were used, including a student survey, instructor interviews, and student focus groups. Preliminary findings indicate that clear expectations and feeling connected promote student wellbeing. Students feel supported when they understand what is expected for exams and coursework. However, too much detail can limit critical thinking. Providing engagement and clarity helps students feel able to succeed. Overall, teaching practices that motivate students and support their development best promote learning and mental health.
The issue of psychological well-being in education has emerged as an increasingly critical topic in recent years. This is due to the significance of psychological well-being in enhancing the performance of e ducational institutions, encompassing students, teachers, and the process of formulating school policies. This study sought to discover recent research on psychological well-being from an academic perspective. A total of 27 research articles were successfully gathered and reviewed based on the established criteria. This article review was conducted utilizing two databases (SCOPUS and WoS) and the following keywords: "psychological well-being" combined with "AND" and other search terms such as "school", "teacher", and "student". This systematic review offers a synthesis of results that can serve as the initial step in developing constructs of psychological well-being in educational institutions, thus implying the importance of psychological well-being for teachers and students. The results of the analysis from this systematic literature review have been discussed and concluded in this study.
USING SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATIONSTKIP PGRI Pacitan
This document discusses using social-cognitive theory in mathematics education. It first identifies common difficulties students face in learning mathematics, such as problems with communication, creativity, reasoning, and problem solving. It then provides an overview of social-cognitive theory, noting that students learn through self-regulation, observing models, and developing self-efficacy. The document argues that social-cognitive theory can help address students' mathematics learning difficulties by emphasizing aspects like self-reflection, goal-setting, and observing peer and teacher models.
An introduction to Research Approaches in Higher Education for new or existing university teachers or academics interested in using research to inform their teaching.
reserarch paper on Co curricular activities -need of timeMayuri vadher
This document discusses a study on the importance of co-curricular activities in the overall development of MBA students. It includes an introduction describing co-curricular activities and their importance in education. The methodology section describes using a descriptive research design with surveys to collect primary data from 60 MBA students. Key findings from analyzing the data found that students have a positive perception of co-curricular activities and recognize their benefits, such as enhancing skills and adding value to resumes. The conclusion is that both students and institutions now recognize the need for co-curricular activities in developing students mentally and physically.
Participatory Action Research At A Public New England...Michele Thomas
The document summarizes the key differences between action research and action learning. Action research aims to improve practices through a structured, reflective process involving researchers studying their own practices. It focuses on generating new knowledge and understanding through analyzing issues, taking action, and reflecting on the results. In contrast, action learning focuses on the learning of participants as they select issues, analyze them, take action, and reflect, without necessarily generating new theoretical knowledge. The primary goal is learning rather than research.
Relational Assessment between Teacher's Implicit Theories, Rating Judgments a...AJHSSR Journal
In the context of the complementary roles (teacher-student), the teacher's implicit theories
interfere and form the educational relationship, direct the categorization, the resulting expectations and the
behaviors of the interacting persons, thus obstructing or facilitating the learning process. The aim of the present
study is to outline aspects of the teachers' implicit theories and discuss whether they can be altered, emphasizing
on the emergence of the imaginary element relying on student assessment. In order to achieve the aim above, a
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teachers are linked to the assessment judgments and the consequent expectations for student assessment.
Lester, derek a review of the student engagement literature focus v7 n1 2013William Kritsonis
William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Distinguished Alumnus, Central Washington University, College of Education and Professional Studies, Ellensburg, Washington; Invited Guest Lecturer, Oxford Round Table, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Hall of Honor, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System. Professor of Educational Leadership, The University of Texas of the Permian Basin.
Time perspective, hope, and learning strategy among rural australian universi...James Cook University
Ganzer, J., Caltabiano, N. J., & Hajhashemi, K. (2015). Time Perspective, Hope, and Learning Strategy among Rural Australian University Students. British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 10(4). doi: 10.9734/BJESBS/2015/19449
Achievement Goal Orientations And Self-Regulation In Writing An Integrative ...Mary Calkins
This study tested the hypothesis that students perceive different goal orientations for writing as involving different writing strategies. 211 Israeli high school students completed a writing assignment and reported on their goal orientations, self-regulation, and strategy use. Analysis found that self-regulation and strategies were seen as part of different goal orientations, suggesting motivation and self-regulation are integrated into task-oriented approaches. Findings indicated differences in these approaches between students from different learning environments and achievement levels.
Assessment of Student Engagement in Higher Education: A Synthesis of Literature and Assessment Tools .......... 1
B. Jean Mandernach, PhD
The Relevance of using Heuristic Strategies Problem Solving Strategies in your Math Lessons .............................. 15
Costică Lupu
The Effects of Three Types of Instructor Posting on Critical Thinking and Social Presence: No Posting, Facilitating
Discourse, and Direct Instruction ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Jamie Costley
Change in the Era of Common Core Standards: A Mathematics Teacher‟s Journey .................................................. 48
Laura B. Kent
Cooperative Learning Effectiveness in the Bureaucratic School: Views of Greek Secondary Education Teachers 64
Konstantina Koutrouba and Ioannis Christopoulos
Peer Tutoring as an Approach in Analysing Case Studies in a Business English Course .......................................... 89
Siew Fong Lin
A Case Study Exploring Junior High School Students’ Interaction Behavior in a Learning Community on
Facebook: Day and Time...................................................................................................................................................... 99
Chun-Jung Chen and Sheng-Yi Wu
Towards a Framework for Culturally Responsive Educational Leadership............................................................... 107
Brian Vassallo
The Survey on Classroom Discussion of Middle School Students .............................................................................. 121
Hua Zhang, Jinhui Cheng, Xinyu Yuan and Ying Zhang
The document summarizes a study that examined public school teachers' attitudes toward and self-efficacy in conducting action research in Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines. The study found that the teachers had an average level of research self-efficacy and tended to have positive attitudes toward research. The very highly influential factors that hindered teachers from conducting action research were work overload leaving little time for research, lack of training in action research, and lack of research centers and specialists to support teachers.
Psychosocial Factors which Influence College Student’s Academic PathwayINFOGAIN PUBLICATION
This research purpose is to identify psychosocial factors, which influence students decision for academic field. In this research there were used motivational questionnaire (identifying respondent’s portrait), Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) and Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). These instruments were applied on a sample of 170 students of both sexes from the faculties located in Bucharest. The data are introduced and operationalized with the Microsoft Excel (2007) and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics, v.20). The research results identifies that family, personal skills influenced students’ academic filed. Also, it show that high self-esteem is correlated with high academic motivation and high motivation for earning. This is also confirmed by other studies where high self-esteem and strength is an important factor in the prediction of academic achievement in students (Mohammad, A. 2010).
Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of StudentsSubmissionResearchpa
Counseling makes perfect any human being for living life smoothly. According to phycology people required someone near to him/her with whom he/she can share their thoughts, happiness, emotions etc. and this is required in education also, In education we need to give support to our students for knowing their problems and feeling regarding education, life, career, friends, family etc. in this paper researcher tried to find out the importance of the counseling in the mind of students of the effect of the same in students mind because in the recent time importance of the education is more and the use of technology is also more so its big problem for the students for connecting consciously with the learning, and without consciousness people cannot understand many thinks for life long time it’s just for examination. By using the qualitative research study research has tried to find out solution for the same with the sample of 60 students of undergraduate of Parul University. During the research researcher identified major two internal and external factors in which there are six other factors, with the help of the qualitative research technique. by Rahul Chauhan and Bhoomi R. Chauhan 2020. Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of Students. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 5 (Mar. 2020), 34-43. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i5.140. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140/137 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140
This document summarizes a study that examined the emotional dimensions of transformative learning processes in novice teachers. The study involved 100 novice teachers writing narratives about critical incidents from their teaching practicums. The narratives were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively to identify transformative processes and turning points in developing professional epistemologies. A first quantitative analysis found that most narratives focused on relationships with students, with few focusing on relationships with expert teachers or personal and professional beliefs. A qualitative analysis then examined narratives through triangulation to understand the intersection of epistemic, psychological, and socio-linguistic perspectives and how they changed to construct professional identities. The analysis aimed to provide insight into the emotions involved in transforming frames of reference during practicum experiences
“Organizational Psychology Theoretical Presentation of Ethical principles for...JJ1968
This document provides an undergraduate thesis in psychology that examines organizational psychology theories and presents ethical principles for college/university students. It discusses topics like social psychology, educational psychology, teacher education, organizational behavior, and effectiveness. The thesis aims to answer five research questions regarding organizational problems affecting students, relevant fields of study, making student perceptions significant, presenting ethical principles, and how student perceptions understand school organizational effectiveness. It provides literature on identification with organizations and effectiveness, reviews related frameworks, and discusses the research methodology used to analyze data from colleges and universities in Camarines Sur, Philippines.
Influences of the pedagogical content knowledge of graduate social studies te...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study that investigated how graduate social studies teachers' pedagogical content knowledge influences the questions they set for senior high school students in Ghana. A mixed methods approach was used, collecting data from questionnaires, interviews, and analyzing teacher-created exam questions. The study found that while teachers said they aimed to develop students' conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills, there were differences between their stated assessment goals and what was actually assessed. Most questions focused only on lower-level cognitive skills like recall, rather than higher-order thinking. The document provides background on effective assessment principles and the importance of teacher questioning skills in developing student thinking.
An Exploration Of Motivational Strategies Used By Library Media Specialists D...Nancy Rinehart
This study examined motivational strategies used by library media specialists (LMSs) during library skills instruction. Observers watched lessons at 8 schools and recorded LMS behaviors and student engagement. Results showed that LMSs primarily used attention-focusing strategies and extrinsic motivators. Middle school LMSs used more strategies than elementary. The study provided insight into how motivation impacts student learning during library instruction.
The document summarizes and analyzes two educational studies - a quantitative study on classroom support for at-risk students, and a qualitative case study on a teacher's learning in a multicultural curriculum course. It finds that while the individual studies were effective, combining quantitative and qualitative methods would have produced stronger conclusions. A mixture of methods allows statistical correlations to be shared alongside an in-depth analysis of behaviors and interactions. The document concludes that as a new researcher, qualitative research can complement any quantitative study by providing different perspectives to draw fewer gaps in conclusions.
An Analysis Of Student Reflections Of Semester Projects In Introductory Stati...Jennifer Roman
This document describes a study that analyzed student reflections on semester-long projects in introductory statistics courses. The study examined reflections from 254 students across six semesters to understand student perceptions of the projects and their relationship to learning outcomes. Students reported high levels of learning and interest in the projects. The projects provided authentic assessments of statistical skills by having students analyze real data and draw conclusions. Qualitative analysis of student reflections identified themes around the value and impact of the projects on student learning. The study illustrates how qualitative analysis can inform teaching practices and student thinking in statistics courses.
The effects of using game in cooperative learning strategy on learning outco...Eva Handriyantini
The game in learning can be used to increase the learning motivation of students, and having a contribution to development of students learning outcome. Research design used in this research is factorial non-equivalent control group design, where the research subject is students at 4th grade at SDN Lowokwaru III, Malang. Moderator variables in this research are learning motivations, grouped into high learning motivation and low learning motivation. Data analysis technique used in this research is ANCOVA ( Analysis of Covariance ) rank two 2x2. The instruments used in the learning motivation in this research adopting from Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Pintrich et. al., 1990). A scale of measurement a motivation in MSLQ contains 3 a major component indicators: (1) Intrinsic Goal Orientation; (2) Extrinsic Goal Orientation; (3) Task Value; (4) Control Beliefs; (5) Self-Efficacy; (6) Test anxiety. Based on data analysis, research outcome can be summarized as follows: (1) there is difference between average learning result of student group which use game-assisted cooperative learning strategy and average learning result of student group which use cooperative learning strategy without game; (2) there is difference between average learning result of students whohave low learning motivationand average learning result of students who have high learning motivation at all treatment groups; (3) there is significant difference of average learning result based on interaction between treatment group with game-assisted cooperative learning strategy and treatment group with non-game-assisted cooperative learning strategy, and learning motivation (low and high).
Creating and Maintaining Student EngagementStacyKirsch
This document discusses strategies for creating and maintaining student engagement. It notes that student engagement is correlated with academic achievement. The teacher's role is to plan engaging lessons that consider students' interests and make the content relevant. Suggested strategies include incorporating student interests, hands-on activities, technology, movement, games, and exit tickets to check understanding. Student engagement can be demonstrated in various ways depending on the classroom. The purpose is to share research-based, effective engagement strategies.
The document discusses the 14 principles of learner-centered psychology put forth by the American Psychological Association (APA). The principles are divided into 4 categories: cognitive/metacognition, motivation/affect, development/social, and individual differences. Some key principles discussed include how learning is an intentional meaning-making process, influenced by goals, prior knowledge, thinking strategies, context, and motivation. Constructivist teaching methods aim to incorporate these principles by having students actively construct knowledge through hands-on activities and social interactions.
School effectiveness-and-improvement-contribution-of-teacher-qualification-to...oircjournals
School examination results the world over are arguably the most important measure of perceived success or failure
of a candidate. It has been pointed out by the Nyanza Provincial Education Board that the province’s performance in
examinations and the quality of education in general is unsatisfactory and inadequate. The paper sought to determine
the contribution of teacher qualification to students’ scores. The study adopted the Theory of Organisational Climate
which defines organisational climate as the human environment within which an organization’s employees do their
work. A case study and survey design was used. Purposive sampling was used to identify the four schools under study
and form three students. Simple random sampling was used to select the respondents of the study. Data was analyzed
using both qualitative and quantitative using descriptive statistics in particular percentages and means. The study
found that teachers’ qualifications affect teaching ability while knowledge of teachers’ subject was among the major
teacher factors contributing to students’ academic achievements.
This document discusses different theories of learning and motivation in educational psychology. It describes behavioral views of learning developed by Skinner using principles of reinforcement and punishment. It also discusses cognitive views focusing on individual differences in cognition, and constructivist theories influenced by Piaget and Vygotsky that see learning as an active process of constructing knowledge. Constructivist teaching approaches recommend complex learning environments, social negotiation, multiple representations of content, and student-centered inquiry learning. The document also contrasts behavioral and humanistic views of motivation, with behavioral views emphasizing external rewards and incentives, and humanistic views emphasizing inner resources like competence and autonomy.
How To Write A Good Hook For An English Essay - How ToKayla Smith
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting assignment requests to the writing service HelpWriting.net. It describes a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied with the work. The service promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
The document provides instructions for using an essay writing service. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account, 2) Complete an order form providing instructions and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and select one, 4) Review the paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction. It emphasizes the service's commitment to original, high-quality work and full refunds for plagiarized content.
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In the context of the complementary roles (teacher-student), the teacher's implicit theories
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Assessment of Student Engagement in Higher Education: A Synthesis of Literature and Assessment Tools .......... 1
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The document summarizes a study that examined public school teachers' attitudes toward and self-efficacy in conducting action research in Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines. The study found that the teachers had an average level of research self-efficacy and tended to have positive attitudes toward research. The very highly influential factors that hindered teachers from conducting action research were work overload leaving little time for research, lack of training in action research, and lack of research centers and specialists to support teachers.
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This research purpose is to identify psychosocial factors, which influence students decision for academic field. In this research there were used motivational questionnaire (identifying respondent’s portrait), Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) and Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). These instruments were applied on a sample of 170 students of both sexes from the faculties located in Bucharest. The data are introduced and operationalized with the Microsoft Excel (2007) and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics, v.20). The research results identifies that family, personal skills influenced students’ academic filed. Also, it show that high self-esteem is correlated with high academic motivation and high motivation for earning. This is also confirmed by other studies where high self-esteem and strength is an important factor in the prediction of academic achievement in students (Mohammad, A. 2010).
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This document summarizes a study that examined the emotional dimensions of transformative learning processes in novice teachers. The study involved 100 novice teachers writing narratives about critical incidents from their teaching practicums. The narratives were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively to identify transformative processes and turning points in developing professional epistemologies. A first quantitative analysis found that most narratives focused on relationships with students, with few focusing on relationships with expert teachers or personal and professional beliefs. A qualitative analysis then examined narratives through triangulation to understand the intersection of epistemic, psychological, and socio-linguistic perspectives and how they changed to construct professional identities. The analysis aimed to provide insight into the emotions involved in transforming frames of reference during practicum experiences
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A Comparative Study Of The Effects Of Motivational And Attitudinal Factors On Studying Statistics
1. ICOTS-7, 2006: Bijker, Wynants, and van Buuren (Refereed)
1
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF MOTIVATIONAL AND
ATTITUDINAL FACTORS ON STUDYING STATISTICS
Monique Bijker, Gabriëlle Wynants, Hans van Buuren
Open Universiteit Nederland, the Netherlands
mmbijker@planet.nl
This study focuses on the differential effects of motivations and attitudes on Critical Thinking and
Self-Regulation. Two different samples of Psychology students of Open Universiteit Nederland
have been studied. The first sample is composed of students, confronted with an integrated,
research-based teaching and learning design; the second sample is composed of students,
exposed to classic service courses in statistics and research methods. Results reveal that
motivations significantly affect Critical Thinking and Self-Regulation and that motivations and
attitudes affect learning processes and achievement in their own characteristic way. Moreover
the crucial role of an integrated teaching and learning design as a significant contributor to
optimal motivations, more favourable attitudes and more adequate learning strategies for
studying statistics and research methods has been endorsed.
BACKGROUND
Most studies concerning statistics (service) courses in the social sciences focus on
attitudes and achievement. However, in the domain of educational psychology particularly
motivations are regarded as crucial contributors to the learning process (Pintrich and Schunk,
2002). In the domain of statistics education studies generally focus on attitudes, based on
empirically proven relations with achievement, disregarding or neglecting motives and learning
strategies. Nevertheless, Critical Thinking and Meta-Cognition are recognized as essential
learning strategies for the construction of statistical literacy and statistical reasoning (Pfannkuch,
1999; Reading, 1996; Watson and Callingham, 2003). Based on an extensive literature study in
the domain of education, psychology and statistics we decided to study motivations and attitudes
simultaneously to clarify their relations with Critical Thinking, Meta-Cognitive Strategies and
achievement in statistics and research methods. Our comprehensive study comprises four studies,
and our research findings go far beyond the space at our disposal in this paper, so we will
emphasize our findings concerning motivations, attitudes, Critical Thinking, Meta-Cognitive
Strategies and achievement in two different learning contexts in this paper, the latter because of
the endorsement of the impact and role of instructional design in educational literature.
Research Context
The School of Psychology of Open Universiteit Nederland has been challenged to
develop a new curriculum for statistics, in which the content of statistics and research methods
has been integrated (Van Buuren, 2006) and linked to psychological research. The goals of this
new curriculum are to actively involve students in the research process and to encourage and
support students in developing a research competence. Students are challenged to apply research
methods and statistics simultaneously in an authentic and integrated way, just like a professional
researcher does. Linking the research topics to psychology offers a profound method to trigger
and develop student’s interest in the fundamentals of their chosen branch of study (Eccles and
Wigfield, 2002) and to promote their inquisitiveness in psychological subjects, which in its turn is
supported by methodology and statistics. It took five years and ten quasi-experiments to develop a
definite new curriculum. The quasi-experiments have been conducted along with the teaching of
the classic, non-integrated service courses, resulting in a new curriculum that has been
implemented since September 2004, providing a research context for this present study to
compare students’ motivations, attitudes, learning strategies and achievement in different learning
contexts.
Research Questions
In this paper we will present research questions and findings concerning the following
questions: “Are motivations and attitudes different psychological constructs?”; “Do motivations
2. ICOTS-7, 2006: Bijker, Wynants, and van Buuren (Refereed)
2
and attitudes differ in their effects on learning strategies and achievement?”; “Are Critical
Thinking and Self-Regulation related to achievement?”; “Do groups that are given different
instructional models differ with respect to motivations, attitudes, Critical Thinking and Self-
Regulation and do the motivations and attitudes in the integrated curriculum lead to better
strategies and outcomes than the motivations and attitudes in the non-integrated curriculum?”
Figure 1 reflects the 3P model of Biggs (2003) that has been used as basic principle for our study
to clarify and emphasize the role of the teaching context, motivations, attitudes and learning
strategies in learning statistics and research methods.
Figure 1: 3P model (Biggs, 2003; Bijker, 2006; Van Buuren, 2006)
In the Presage stage two “actors” are distinguished: the students and their characteristics
and the teaching and learning context. In this paper we highlight the teaching context, activating
the targeted determinants for learning activities in the Process stage. In the Process stage we
distinguish motivations, attitudes, Critical Thinking and Self-Regulation. The activated
determinants lead to learning outcomes, reflected in quantitative and qualitative products,
analysed with the SOLO taxonomy (Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes, Biggs and
Collis, 1982).
Motivations
Pintrich et al. (2002) define motivation as “the process whereby goal-directed activity is
instigated and sustained,” reflecting a dynamic process between individual and context. In a
revised Expectancy Value model (see e.g., Eccles and Wigfield, 2002). Pintrich et al. relate
motivational dimensions to learning strategies. Biggs (2003) endorses that teaching activities and
tasks have to stimulate students’ interest (Renninger, Hidi and Krapp, 1992), which is related to
cognitive engagement and the cognitive strategies that are used (“CSU’s,” Pintrich, Smith,
Garcia, and McKeachie, 1991, 1993; Lewalter and Krapp, 2004).
Intrinsic Value is a mastery oriented task evaluation, characterised by positive affect and
related to interest, CSU’s and Self-Regulation (Pintrich et al., 1991, 1993). It represents the
cognitive and affective reasons for being engaged in a task, reflecting knowledge, positive affect
and appreciation of the task (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Renninger et al., 1992).
Task Value Research is a student’s evaluation of the importance and usefulness of the
research task, related to more distant or instrumental goals like, e.g., the future profession (Eccles
et al., 2002; Pintrich et al., 1991, 1993).
Presage Process Product
Teaching context
Learning goals
Qualitative and
quantitative
assessments
Paradigm: the
research cycle
Integrated and Non-
Integrated Teaching
and Learning Design
Learning
determinants
Motivation:
Intrinsic Value,
Task Value
Research, Self
Efficacy, Test
Anxiety
Attitudes
Affect, Cognitive
Competence, Task
Value Statistics,
Difficulty
Critical thinking
Achievement
Quantitative:
Number of facts,
Qualitative:
structure,
transfer
Cognitive
Strategies
Critical Thinking
Self-Regulation
The Student
3. ICOTS-7, 2006: Bijker, Wynants, and van Buuren (Refereed)
3
Test Anxiety is “a set of phenomenological, physiological and behavioural responses that
accompanies concern about possible negative consequences or failure on an exam or similar
evaluative situation” (Zeidner, in Pintrich et al., 2002). It relates to avoidance goals and occurs in
specific domains, like mathematics and perhaps statistics. Test Anxiety includes a cognitive and
affective component. Empirical studies have shown that the worry (cognitive) component in
particular is closely linked to performance decrement (Covington, 1993).
The expectancy component in the EV model is reflected by Self-Efficacy, which has been
defined as “people’s judgement of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action
required to attain designated types of performance” (see Pintrich et al., 2002). Self-Efficacy is
goal-directed and related to behavioural engagement, reflected by effort and persistence.
Compared with other self-concepts Self-Efficacy is the most contextual defined and domain
related construct, it varies as a function of personal and environmental differences and shows
little generalization across areas (Pintrich et al., 2002).
Based on literature in the motivational domain we can infer that motivations are intra-
individual, multi-dimensional dynamic processes constituted by the individual’s interactions with
the environment, closely linked to cognitions (goals) and affect and that they can be consciously
controlled and regulated by the individual himself. For learning processes motivations are
elementary conditions to start and sustain learning activities.
Attitudes
Attitudes originate from social psychology as fundamentals for constructs like social
categorisation and social identity. Attitudes mirror influences from the social environment on the
individual, reflected in automatic evaluations of situations. Eagly and Chaiken (1993) define
attitudes as “psychological tendencies, expressed by evaluating particular entities with some
degree of favour or disfavour.” They consider attitudes as well established subsystems of
cognitive schemas, having a considerable impact on behavioural and affective responses,
especially selective perception. Attitudes protect the ego against uncomfortable reality and
organize and simplify experiences, expressing self-concept and personalised values. Socialisation
processes, including academic socialisation (Donald, 2002), affect the construction of attitudes. In
their impact on behaviour, attitudes are more automatic and subconscious, and are assumed to act
via worn paths in subsystems of cognitive schemas. As a consequence attitudes are less flexible
and less sensitive to direct cognitive regulation, because they act from an established sublevel in
the cognitive schemes and show a tendency to outperform the coordinating cognitive schemes.
They automatically influence series of general behaviour rather than affecting specific behaviour.
Here we see an analogy with conditioned responses from behaviourism. Eagly and Chaiken
(1993) consider attitudes to be related to selective perception. A heritage of behaviourism though
is to neglect the information processes involved in learning. In the statistics domain attitudes
toward statistics are studied and related to statistics anxiety or achievement. Anxiety negatively
influences academic achievement. Schau, Stevens, Dauphinee and Del Vecchio (1995)
distinguish four attitudinal dimensions, which are of interest in studying statistics: Affect, which
reflects affective evaluations of statistics; Cognitive Competence, representing opinions about the
cognitive skills needed to master statistics; Task Value (statistics), which is an evaluation of the
usefulness and importance of statistics and Difficulty, reflecting beliefs about the problems that
will be met in studying statistics.
Based on literature regarding motivations and attitudes we can consider both
psychological concepts as different in their qualities and effects. Motivations are multi-
dimensional intra-individual concepts, goal-oriented, cognitively controlled by the individual and
flexible and dynamic in their interaction with the context. They start and sustain learning
processes. Motivations can be self-regulated, in contrast with attitudes, which act more or less
automatically from subschema levels, surpassing the coordinating cognitive schemas and
affecting perceptions. Attitudes act like conditioned evaluations and beliefs.
Critical Thinking and Self-Regulation
Critical Thinking is a constituent part of the process of constructing cognitive schemas
for information processing. The structure and complexity of cognitive schemas determine
4. ICOTS-7, 2006: Bijker, Wynants, and van Buuren (Refereed)
4
understanding (Biggs et al., 1982). Critical Thinking is applying knowledge and domain-related
criteria in a variety of situations in which problem solving, decision-making and critical
evaluations are required (Donald, 2002; Pintrich et al., 1991, 1993). It is a well reasoned,
substantiated and questioning strategy, investigating assumptions and seeking for evidence.
Critical Thinking encompasses logical thinking, problem solving and abstracting (Donald, 2002).
Self-Regulation is a meta-cognitive strategy, activating prior knowledge and monitoring, planning
and regulating the cognitive learning strategies that are used (Pintrich et al., 1991, 1993).
METHODS
Research Design
Two samples of distance students of the school of psychology are studied: a) Integrated
(I): students that either participated in the quasi CSCL experiments or the newly launched
curriculum since September 2004, the first part of the cyclical whole-task, research-based,
integrated curriculum (Van Buuren, 2006). b) Non-integrated (NI): students in a teaching context
of regular separate classic statistics and methods courses. A cross-sectional comparison of the two
groups has been executed using self-report questionnaires.
Participants and Procedures
Data were collected from 468 psychology students in distance education, in two different
samples (see above); 340 students participated in the non-integrated classic statistics and methods
courses; 128 students have been confronted with the whole-task based teaching design. Students
were invited to participate in the study via e-mail or a letter two weeks before the questionnaire
was submitted. The questionnaire was offered via a closed website or by letter for participants
without an e-mail address.
Measurement Instruments and Variables
Dutch translations of the MSLQ (Pintrich et al., 1991, 1993) and SATS (Schau et al.,
1995) were used to assess motivations, attitudes, Critical Thinking and Self-Regulation, using 1 to
5 points Likert scales, whereby 1 indicates “I don’t agree at all” and 5 “I totally agree.” A self-
developed scale for Intrinsic Value used similar Likert items. An example from this scale is “I’m
completely wrapped up in doing research.” The MSLQ scale for Critical Thinking was revised
and optimized, especially contextualized for statistical reasoning. An example from this revised
scale is “I always focus on the quality of the measurement instruments used in different studies
and check their reliability and validity.” For the included SOLO (Biggs and Collis, 1982)
statistics and methods assessment, seven open questions and one closed question were developed
(Van Buuren, 2006), based on the principles of the Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes
(Biggs et al., 1982; Reading, 1996; Watson et al., 2003) and theories, regarding statistical literacy
and statistical reasoning (Pfannkuch, 1999; Watson et al., 2003). All scales (including SOLO)
were analysed by the Rasch model for one dimensionality, misfits, and person and item
reliability, followed by Structural Equation Modelling of the Rasch scales in the 3P model.
Presage variables that were studied are Intrinsic Value (IV), Task Value Research (TVR), Self
Efficacy Research (SER), Test Anxiety (TA), Affect (Af), Cognitive Competence (CC), Task
Value Statistics (TVS) and Difficulty (Di) (SATS, Schau et al., 1992; 1995). Strategies
highlighted in this paper are Critical Thinking and Self-Regulation. The achievement variable
presented in this study is SOLO.
Analysis
Two independent raters, using statistical and methodological criteria developed by
experts, expressed in SOLO levels, simultaneously coded 620 SOLO responses. Cohen’s Kappa
for the SOLO tasks was between .90 and 1.0. All scales have been Rasch modelled. In AMOS 5.0
CFA was used to test the invariance of regression paths and factor covariances across samples, in
an equally split calibration and validation sample. Multi-sample structural equation modelling
was used to analyze the 3P model across samples. Alpha’s for all scales were sufficient and
between .62 and .92. Means differences were computed with t-tests and GLM multivariate
analysis in SPSS 11.5 for Windows.
5. ICOTS-7, 2006: Bijker, Wynants, and van Buuren (Refereed)
5
RESULTS
Testing for Differences in Means
The t-tests reveal that means of all variables are significantly higher and TA and
Difficulty are significantly lower in the I-group than in the NI-group. Attitudes means are
significantly more favourable in the I-group than in the NI-group, with the exception of TVS
mean (SATS). SR, CT and SOLO means are significantly higher in the I-group than in the NI-
group (Table 1).
Table 1: t-Test Process and Product variables Integrated versus Non-Integrated
F Sig. t df
Sig. (1-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
Flow 0.65 0.42 4.02 466 0.00 1.36 0.34
TVR 0.12 0.73 3.75 466 0.00 0.67 0.18
SER 5.84 0.02 3.68 328.24 0.00 0.84 0.23
TA 1.80 0.18 -2.24 466 0.02 -0.76 0.34
Affect 0.98 0.32 3.64 466 0.00 0.79 0.22
CC 8.24 0.00 4.11 301.59 0.00 0.73 0.18
TVS 2.38 0.12 1.30 466 0.10 0.23 0.18
Difficulty 6.05 0.01 -3.35 289.75 0.00 -0.45 0.13
CT 0.68 0.41 3.14 466 0.00 0.47 0.15
SR 0.00 0.97 3.91 466 0.00 0.36 0.09
SOLO 0.35 0.56 3.73 466 0.00 0.77 0.21
Multivariate analyses show that motivational levels have significant main effects on CT,
F(1,460) = 32.37, p = .00, SR: F(1,460) = 44.23, p = .00, and SOLO: F(1,460) = 8.89, p = .00.
Attitudinal levels have significant main effects on CT, F(1,460) = 5.50, p =.02; SR, F(1,460) =
4.83, p = .01, and SOLO, F(1,460) = 8.14, p = .02. Design has significant main effects on SR,
F(1,460) = 7.14, p = .01, and on SOLO, F(1,460) = 7.06, p = .01. None of the interactions is
significant. Cohen’s Kappa of motivational levels-attitudinal levels is .24.
SEM fit statistics of the constrained model are good, reflecting χ2
= 52.15, df = 43, GFI =
.98, AGFI = .94, CFI = 1.00, TLI = .99 and RMSEA = .02.
In the model motivations explain all unique variance in R2
(Critical Thinking) in Integrated which
is .28 and 15% unique variance of R2
(Critical Thinking), in Non-Integrated, with a total R2
(Critical Thinking) =
.26. Attitudes exclusively add 11% unique variance to R2
(Critical Thinking) in Non-Integrated.
Motivations explain all unique variance in Self-Regulation, both in Integrated and Non-
Integrated, with respective R2
’s(Self-Regulation) of .25 and .23. Attitudes explain between 6% and 10%
unique variance in R2
(SOLO) and Self-Regulation explains 4% unique variance in SOLO. In this
sub-study there are no significant paths from Critical Thinking to SOLO in both groups.
DISCUSSION
Our first research question has been answered. Motivations are dynamically involved in
the study process, while attitudes modestly affect the process. Motivations and attitudes act in
different ways, answering our second research question. Attitudes particularly have their effects
on achievement. All motivations, in different path patterns, affect Critical Thinking and Self-
Regulation. Affect and Task Value Statistics affect Critical Thinking exclusively in Non-
Integrated and do not significantly affect Self-Regulation in both groups. Attitudes significantly
affect cognitive achievement, both in Integrated and Non-Integrated, in combination with Self-
Regulation. Our third question partially has been answered in this sub-study, yet the answer has
been provided in our comprehensive study (Bijker, 2006). In this sub-study only Self-Regulation
significantly affects achievement and attitudes dominate the effects of Self-regulation in their
impact on SOLO. Yet, Intrinsic Value and Task Value Research are major contributors of Critical
Thinking, stressing the importance of the teaching design, as an activator of student’s interest and
provider of useful and important authentic research tasks. Exclusively in Integrated Task Value
6. ICOTS-7, 2006: Bijker, Wynants, and van Buuren (Refereed)
6
Research has a significant path to Critical Thinking. This endorses our findings and is part of the
answer to our last research question. The t-tests reveal that motivations, attitudes, strategies and
achievement are significantly more positive in the I-group than in the NI group. Multivariate
analyses reveal that particularly motivational levels and teaching and learning design have
substantial impacts on strategies and outcomes. Our comprehensive study will reveal how
integrated and motivating teaching and learning designs can optimize the impact of Critical
Thinking and Self-Regulation on studying statistics and research methods.
This sub-study clarifies Biggs’ basic assumption: teaching contexts affect students’
motivation, attitudes and strategies and integrated, research-based teaching and learning designs
can activate more appropriate strategies and facilitate and optimize learning and achievement in
statistics. The new teaching context for distance learning removes statistics as a discipline from
the narrow, mathematically focused and anxiety inducing perspective to a research embedded
context, related to the Psychology domain (Van Buuren, 2006), which triggers student’s interest
and engagement, and as a consequence, facilitates learning. Results are promising!
REFERENCES
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