Professional Writing Service http://StudyHub.vip/A-BRIEF-HISTORY-OF-DIGITAL-ARCHITECTURE 👈

1. 1
Abstract of PhD Thesis:
“The Paradigm of Complexity in Architectural and Urban Design”
University of Alcala, 2017
(Chapter 3: Digital Tools)
ABSTRACT:
This text summarizes the origin and development of digital architecture during the last
decades, citing key authors and projects. The document concludes with reflections on
the current state of digital architecture and its role in contemporary design.
KEYWORDS: digital architecture, digital tools, contemporary history, cybernetics,
pioneers
A BRIEF HISTORY OF DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE
HISTORICAL REVIEW AND REFLECTIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ARCHITECTURE AND DIGITAL TOOLS
Author: Jon Arteta Grisaleña

2. 2
_BACKGROUND: THE PARENTS OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS
The incorporation of digital design tools in the field of architecture is the result
of a long process of development, from the emergence of the first approaches related
to computing and informatics, to its full development and implementation within the
discipline throughout the 1990s.
The term "computation" refers to the ability to perform calculations and
develop processes according to formal or logical instructions, while informatics,
meanwhile, refers to the automation of these computing processes through the use of
the computer1
. The idea of using machines to develop the tedious tasks of computing
and information management will arise from 1920, originating the birth of computer
science. Thanks to the contributions of some pioneers like Alan Turing (Turing
machine, 1936) or John Von Neumann (Von Neumann machine/architecture, 1945)2
,
among others, this science will be developed and consolidated as an important field of
research, being especially driven in its beginnings by the military intelligence
departments. In fact, it will be in the 50s when the first computer tools with a certain
level of sophistication appear, such as the SAGE (Semi-Automated Ground
Environment) system, used for the coordination of military operations through radar.
Another significant fact is the emergence of the first formal studies around the
idea of "Artificial Intelligence" (A.I). This new discipline, promulgated by scientists such
as John McCarthy or Marvin Minsky, among others, will invite us to imagine the
influence of computing on different areas of knowledge and everyday life, evidencing
the relevance of computer advances in the vast majority of disciplines and fields of
knowledge. In the case of architecture, the consideration and incorporation of concepts
and tools from computer science will begin to occur in the 1960s, as we will see below.
1 RAE. “Informatics”: A set of scientific and technical knowledge that enables the automatic
processing of information by means of computers
2 Both the "Turing machine" and the "Von Neumann machine" are theoretical models,
fundamental logical schemes for the subsequent development of real computing machines. The
"Turing machine" was presented for the first time in an article published in the journal
"Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society", in 1936. The "von Neumann architecture"
was coined from the memorandum "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC ", 1945.

3. 3
_ARCHITECTURE AND COMPUTING IN THE 1960’s :PIONEERS AND INITIATORS
Exploring man-machine relations
In 1960, the American computer scientist J.C.R.Licklider published a visionary
article entitled "Man-Computer Symbiosis" (Licklider, 1960), which not only established
the work program for computer engineering in the coming decades, but also opens the
door to a new way of conceiving and confronting the relationship between man and
machine. Far from proclaiming the supremacy of one over another, Licklider imagines
the man and the machine collaborating together, establishing a productive interaction
that will lead to the idea of symbiosis. This way of understanding the possibilities of
computer science will give rise to a new field of research, a hybrid field between the
technological and the humanistic, which will find its main development paths in
cybernetics and Artificial Intelligence.
The impact of this new vision in the field of design will be evident, as
evidenced by the exhibition held at the Institute for Contemporary Arts (ICA) in London,
entitled "Cybernetic Serendipity" (1968), which collected works belonging to to the field
of art, music, cinema, dance or architecture, developed by prominent authors such as
Norbert Wiener, Stafford Beer, Gordon Pask or John Cage, among others.
In the field of architecture, it will be important to highlight the importance of
researchers such as Gordon Pask or Nicholas Negroponte, pioneers in the
incorporation of computer concepts and tools within the discipline, and main explorers
of this supposed symbiosis between man and machine.
In the article "The Architectural Relevance of Cybernetics" (1969) Gordon Pask
will vindicate the necessity to consider the cybernetics like a fundamental means to
surpass the modern functionalism and to advance towards a much more adaptable and
dialoguing architecture, towards an architecture based on the concept of mutuality.
Pask will bet for an architecture where the user and the object/building establish a
dynamic dialogue, a relationship of mutual interaction that opens the possibility of
conceiving an architecture in constant evolution.

4. 4
Figure 3.1. Installation "Colloquy of Mobiles" by Gordon Pask for the exhibition "Cybernetic Serendipity" of
the Institute for Contemporary Arts (ICA) of London, 1968
Dunn, 2012
The American architect Nicholas Negroponte, meanwhile, will explore the
possibility of establishing a productive dialogue between designer and computer,
interpreting the latter as a true work partner, thanks to the possibilities offered by
Artificial Intelligence. Through his work at the head of the "Architecture Machine Group"
at M.I.T3
, Negroponte will try to create a machine capable of interacting with architect in
the process of creation and project development, establishing an extremely ambitious
and singular vision of what a true desing assisted by computer should be.
Figure 3.2. Hardware and software for the URBAN 5 project, developed by the "Architecture Machine
Group", MIT, 1969. Negroponte, 1973
3 Nicholas Negroponte, together with Leon Groisser, founded the "Architecture Machine Group"
(AMG) at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) in 1967, which continues to this day, now
under the name of Mit Meda Lab. Gordon Pask was one of the assiduous collaborators of this
group.

5. 5
Digitality as part of utopian thinking
Despite the importance and interest of the work done by the pioneers previously
explained, in no case can be considered as part of the architectural "mainstream" of
the time. Most of the architects of the 60s did not have the technical knowledge or the
technological means previously described, so they could not put them into practice. In
any case, computing and its application to architecture began to become a common
reason for reflection and theoretical thinking. In this sense, the experience of John
Frazer is especially revealing, when he states that, at the end of the 60s, "we did not
have computers within our reach, so that the only thing we could do was imagine that
they existed, and also imagine all the advances in technology and the sociopolitical
changes necessary to make our dreams come true. That's what I mean by "computing
without computers". (Frazer, 2005)
The utopian spirit of the 60s will encourage these "intellectual experiments",
imagining futuristic architectures and cities provided by cybernetic and digital devices.
Here are some of the most important proposals in this field:
"Fun Palace" (1958-1964), Cedric Price and Gordon Pask -> "Fun Palace" is a
cultural center project conceived as an adaptable and changing construction, as a
megastructure in which different uses and artistic spaces can be arranged in different
ways, according to the preferences of the users. The idea is to have a fixed support
structure equipped with mobile cranes to move the containers or programmatic
volumes according to the needs of each moment. To establish a relationship of
interactivity between architecture and user, Price and Pask imagined the
implementation of a computerized system that guarantees the constant transmission of
information between agents.
Figure 3.3. (Left) Cybernetic diagram for the Fun Palace. Gordon Pask..
(Right) Drawing of the interior of the Fun Palace. Cedric Price.
Cedric Price Archives, Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal

6. 6
"Flatwriter" (1960), Yona Friedman-> "Flatwriter" was a software project
conceived for the development of the "Spatial City", by Yona Friedman. The proposal
of the French architect considered a large three-dimensional structure that would serve
as support for different uses and programmatic volumes, designed and located
according to the wishes of the inhabitants. The computerized system "Flatwriter" would
serve as an instrument to register and codify the preferences of each user and
communicate them to the constructors, thus enabling the construction of a city in
permanent change.
Figure 3.4. (Left) Scheme with the codes and operations of the "Flatwriter" system
(Right) Drawing of the “Ville Spatiale”, by Yona Friedman
www.yonafriedman.com
“"Computer City" (1965), Dennis Crompton, Archigram -> "Computer City" is a
system of sensors and electronic devices interconnected for the monitoring, control and
management of different processes and activities that take place in the urban
environment. Crompton imagines a system capable of generating an intelligent and
self-regulated city: “the mechanism is at once digital and biological, producing rational
and random actions, reactions and counter-actions” (Crompton, 1963). This proposal,
formulated at the level of theoretical hypothesis, was designed as a complement to the
concept of Plug-in City, incorporating electronic circuits and cybernetic behavior into
the mega-structure. The lucubrations around the possibilities of digital technology will
become a frequent part of the techno-futuristic universe of the Archigram group.

7. 7
Figure 3.5. (Left) Sketch of the “Computer City”, by Dennis Crompton (Dunn, 2012)
(Right) Detail of the “Plug-in City”, Peter Cook, Archigram, 1963-64. (Banham, 2001)
“World Game” (1967), Buckminster Fuller -> Fuller's "World Game" is a
system designed to be applied into the real city, reinterpreted from a new planetary
scale. "World Game" is a simulation project proposed by Fuller to test the possible
optimization of resources worldwide; facing the scarcity of resources and the
overpopulation of the planet, the British architect adopts a holistic vision considering
the whole world as a unit of analysis. The prototypes and proposals of Fuller, officially
presented at the "World Design Science Conference" in 1967, were an important
source of inspiration for future generations, eventually founding the "World Game
Institute" in 1972.
Figure 3.6. (Left) Picture of R. Buckminster Fuller working on the “World Game” project.
(www.herbertmatter.org)
(Right) “Dymaxion Map”. Representation of the Planet Earth elaborated by Fuller, and used as a base for
the development of the "World Game".
(Fuller, 1969b)

8. 8
Another outstanding contribution in this period is the work of the architect Luigi
Moretti, author of the first explorations in the field of parametric architecture, an
unknown concept until then. His first reflections on parametric architecture will go back
to texts published in the 40s, although it will be in 1960 when Moretti presents his first
prototypes digitally designed, thanks to the use of an IBM 610 computer. The attached
image shows the model presented by Moretti for the XII Triennale di Milano, a proposal
for a sports stadium whose design considers 19 different parameters, including factors
such as visual conditions or economic costs, among others.
Figure 3.7. Stadium model designed by parametric methods. Luigi Moretti. 1960.
(Bucci & Mulazzani, 2002)
_ARCHITECTURE AND COMPUTINGIN 1970’s AND 1980’s: BACKGROUND DEVELOPERS
Technological field: developing the road map marked in the 60s
As stated by Frazer, the basic agenda of the 70s and 80s had been defined
almost entirely in the 60s. The era of the pioneers and initiators will give way to a
second stage starring the " developers "(Frazer, 2005), a stage focused mainly on the
development of technological tools.
One of the clearest examples of this new context is the "Generator Project",
developed by Cedric Price in collaboration with John Frazer and his wife, Julia. This
project is the direct heir of the principles set out in the "Fun Palace" (1964), so that the
implementation of this new computing device would allow the creation of the first
prototype of "intelligent building".
It is also necessary to highlight the efforts to create useful tools for
architecture and its graphic representation, evolving from the first experiences of Ivan

9. 9
Sutherland4
and his optical pencil (Sketchpad), to the creation of tools such as
Autocad, with its version 1.0 launched in 1982.
Figure 3.8. The "Generator" interface, developed by John Frazer and his wife Julia,
in collaboration with architect Cedric Price. (1976-1980).
Dunn, 2012
The disconnection between tools and objectives
In spite of the technological advances developed during this period, the 70s
and 80s can not be considered a prosperous period for the integration of technology in
everyday practices, nor in the field of architecture. Frazer will describe the cause of this
gap as a problem of disconnection between technology and reality (Frazer, 2005),
which will manifest itself in different fronts:
On the one hand, it is worth highlighting the significant gap between the rapid
evolution of technology and the typical inertia of social, political and economic systems.
The oil crisis of '73, for example, will cause a first disagreement by calling into question
the indefinite growth and the validity of technological positivism as a driving force for
the new society. It generated a distrust that little by little resulted in the decline of
creativity and the proactive spirit, a decline especially evident under the regimes of
Tatcher or Reagan, for example. Another particular representative case of this gap
4 The American computer scientist Ivan Sutherland is considered to be the father of computer-
assisted drawing. In 1963 he developed the Sketchpad, a computer interface capable of
recording drawings made with the help of an optical pencil.

10. 10
between technology and socio-political context is the case of Chile and the Synco5
project, a project destined to turn Santiago de Chile into the first "intelligent city" in the
world, and whose development was radically truncated after Pinochet’s regime.
To this general mismatch we must add the resistance of the architectural
discipline itself to assimilate the advances of the new technological context. Fred Scott,
in his book "How it's made"6
, laments the lack of interest of architects to know how
things are done, an uselfishment that will even become a rejection to see that
machines threaten to transform traditional uses and techniques of the discipline. An
otherwise understandable attitude, taking into account the poor manageability of the
first digital design tools and the poor results they produced at the level of graphic
representations. In brief, the technological advances developed to date, although
important, were still insufficient to achieve the popularization of information technology.
A sign of the context experienced in the 70s and 80s is the emergence of the
cultural movement called "cyberpunk", characterized by the dystopian stories related to
the future and technology. This science fiction genre will perfectly reflect the
coexistence between the concern for a technological future and the questioning of its
effects and possible becomings. In fact it will be in one of the main works of this genre,
"Neuromancer" by William Gibson, where the term "cyberspace" is coined for the first
time.
Figure 3.9. Picture belonging to the movie Blade Runner (1982), one of the most popular and
representative films of cyberpunk.
5 "Synco/Cybersyn" was a project of the Chilean government of Salvador Allende to implement a
cybernetic system to control and manage the economy of the country. The main architect of the
system was the British scientist Stafford Beer. For more information consult the book of Eden
Medina entitled "Revolucionarios Cibernéticos", LOM Ediciones, 2013.
6 Scott,Fred. “How it`s made”. Cosmorama, in Architectural Design, november 1968, page 57.
Cited in Frazer, John. “Computing without Computers, en Architectural Design vol 75, Ed. John
Willey and Sons, Nueva York, 1995, pages 76-77.

11. 11
_THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION IN THE 1990’s
Throughout the 1990s, computing will experience unprecedented growth and
dissemination, giving rise to what we know as the "digital revolution." Advances in the
development of microprocessors and the progressive reduction of production costs will
allow to computer technology become popular, making the computer an ubiquitous
device in offices and homes around the world.
The digital revolution will provoke transformations in all areas and scales of
contemporary life. With regard to the field of architectural and urban design, this
influence will manifest itself both internally - modifying its tools and work methodologies
- as well as externally - transforming the context and conditions to which the design
should respond.
Internal Revolution: “Digital Architecture”
Thanks to this spectacular development of digital technology, architecture will
eventually merge the technological and discursive aspects, marking the beginning of
an era dedicated to the development of a new "Digital Architecture"7
.
The emergence of this synergy will be due to the confluence of interests
between architectural discourse, especially concerned with formal experimentation,
and the potential offered by digital technology in order to represent and manipulate
complex geometries. The digital tools will allow working with geometries that are
difficult to approach from traditional methods and techniques, thus opening a new and
fruitful field for formal experimentation. The architect Frank Gehry can be considered
as one of the pioneers in this field, being one of the first to combine analog and digital
techniques for the design and execution of buildings of great formal complexity, such
as the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao (1992-97) or the Disney Concert Hall of Los
Angeles (1987-2003). These experiences are simply the origin of a broad movement
marked by the progressive digitalization of processes and by the ideation of new
methodologies of formal generation, with architects such as Gregg Lynn, FOA, NOX,
Zaha Hadid or Coop Himmelblau, among many others.
7 The architect Yu Tung Liu, professor at the National Chiao-Tung University of Taiwan and
expert in new digital technologies, will define the digital architecture as “any architecture that
strategically utilizes any computing digital media in the process of its architectural design: from
the design concept; through the early design, design development, detail design, and
construction planning. As long as the computing digital media is used in any (or ideally all) of
these stages, to create important results in architecture´s function, form, mass, space or
architecture theory, such architecture could generally be defined as Digital Architecture.”

12. 12
Figure 3.10. Photograph of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, the work of architect Frank O. Gehry.
(www.guggenheim-bilbao.eus)
The advent of digital architecture will be a phenomenon widely celebrated and
disseminated both inside and outside the architectural discipline itself, which will be
reflected in the proliferation of publications, exhibitions and events dedicated to this
topic. A representative example is the fact that the Spanish magazine Arquitectura Viva
(AV), in the issue dedicated to the review of the architectural production of the 1990s,
adopted the title "The Digital Decade"8
. Likewise, other prestigious publications such as
the British magazine "Architectural Design" (AD) will dedicate various issues and
monographs to this topic, highlighting examples such as "Architects in Cyberspace I
(1995) and II (1998)", "Architecture after Geometry" (1997), "Hypersurface Architecture
I (1998) and II (1999)", etc.
External Revolution: the “Information Society”
The digital revolution will not only affect the internal mechanisms of
architecture, but will also have an indirect influence, transforming the social context in
which the discipline is framed. ICT (Information and Communication Technologies)
have produced radical changes in practically all areas of contemporary life, giving rise
to what is known as the "Information Society". The popularization of computers and the
Internet network has generated a society based on the circulation of data, on the
8 Arquitectura Viva. La década digital. Nº 69. 11-12/1999

13. 13
transmission of information at a speed never before imagined, causing changes in all
areas and scales.
According to philosopher and mathematician Javier Echeverría, the digital
revolution will not only bring about important changes in the established structures, but
will contribute to generate a new environment of action, "a new social space that differs
profoundly from the natural and urban environments in which traditionally human
beings have lived and acted "(Echeverría, 1999). Echeverría introduces theidea of a
digital "Third Environment"9
that, superimposed and interrelated with the physical
world, will contribute to generate a new hybrid reality (physical-virtual).
The consideration of this third environment will imply in turn the acceptance of
new rules of the game, of a new functioning of the reality on which many studies and
conceptualizations have been developed. In addition to the contribution of Echeverría,
it is necessary to highlight reflections from thinkers such as M.McLuhan ("global
village"), M.Castells ("the informational city"), P.Virilio ("dromology")10
, A.Toffler ("the
third wave"), etc.
Figure 3.11: Structural properties of the Third Environment
(Echeverría, 1999; 145)
9 The environments considered by Echeverría are: natural environment (E1), urban environment
(E2) and digital environment or third environment (E3). E3 will be the sustenance of the new
digital city or "Telepolis".
10 "Dromología" is a concept created by the French essayist Paul Virilio to study the speed with
which transformations and social relations take place in the context of the new digital age. Virilio
studies "dromology" to know how new technologies are affecting man, the new concept of time,
virtuality, cyberspace, and new modes of communication.

14. 14
Adopting the words of architect Manuel Gausa, we can effectively talk about the
emergence of new "contextual conditions" (Gausa, 2010; 89) for architecture, a new
complex scenario in which architecture must redefine and adapt its meaning and
function. Faced with this challenge, the tools of digital design seem an especially
valuable ally, and its analysis, an inescapable task.
_DIGITALITY AND ARCHITECTURE IN THE CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT
The process of digitalization experienced in the early 90's will be the beginning
of a permanent and productive alliance between architecture and digitality, an
irreversible symbiosis whose consequences continue to be the subject of study and
experimentation in the current contemporary context. They are already more than three
decades in which the digital has gone from being something new and unique to
become a daily reality, in a basic aspect of contemporary design. As Stan Allen states,
"in the 1980s and 1990s, the computer maintained a cult status; It divided the
architecture between believers and skeptics, a world of prophets, disciples and
enthusiastic converts (...) Today the computer is not a new technology that must be
celebrated or deconstructed, it is a simple fact ". (Allen, 2009; 162).
The generalization of the "digital architecture" will cause certain transformations
in the development of the architectural practice, originating a new framework of action.
At a general level, we could describe this new context based on two ideas or concepts:
“Non-standard Architecture”
Digitization has caused a paradigm shift in design, moving from the mechanistic
and industrial logic of "standardization" to a new complex and post-Fordist logic based
on "non-standard" design and production. The explorations on complex geometries of
the early 90s are a clear example of breaking with the regular and standardized,
although these experiences should be understood as the first reflection of a much
deeper logic, a new way of thinking and conceiving the process of design. Patrick
Beaucé and Bernard Cache (Beauce & Cache, 2004) will speak of a new paradigm in
which adaptability and variation become protagonists; the design will no longer be
governed by rigid and fully deterministic laws, but by schemes capable of absorbing
certain degrees of variation and indetermination.
“The feedback loop between Architecture and Digitality"
Digital tools can serve to channel and materialize ideas previously conceived,
but they will also serve as inspiration or starting point for new searches and theoretical-
practical approaches. As in most fields of knowledge, the computer has opened new

15. 15
doors to action and experimentation, causing a global change in the way of seeing,
studying and designing the world around us. A.Bundy will speak of an "intellectual
revolution" triggered by the emergence of a new type of thinking, "computational
thinking" (Bundy, 2007).
In the current context of full technological immersion it will no longer make
sense to speak of inspiring and inspired, but of a constant loop of feedback between
theoretical thinking and digital tools, establishing a process of mutual catalysis.
This condition will be especially reflected in the functioning of some large
architectural firms, in which specific teams dedicated to the development of digital
technologies and software are created to support the work of architects, promoting
dialogue and mutual enrichment. Such will be the case, for example, of the company
Gehry Technologies11
, created to support the office of the architect F. Gehry, or of the
"BlackBox Studio"12
, as well, created as a complement to the North American office
SOM, among many others.
Towards a Theory of Digital Design
In order to develop a "digital architecture" that is increasingly consistent and
operational, it will be fundamental to progressively expand knowledge about digital
technology and its possibilities. This fact, however, will contrast with the denunciation
of numerous authors (K. Terzidis, R. Oxman, T. Kotnik, etc.) about the lack of
commitment, interest and rigor on which architecture approaches are related with..
In the field of university education, for example, there is not a sufficiently broad
and deep teaching block that provides students with a global and operational vision of
the architectural possibilities associated with digital media. Thus, digital resources are
11 Gehry Technologies was founded in 2002 by the R&D department of Frank Gehry and
Associates, with the aim of developing new software tools that help design and produce new
architectures. Among the most outstanding software products will be different adaptations of the
Catia aerospace design program, and especially the "Digital Project" program. Among the usual
collaborators Gehry we can find names like Gregg Lynn or John Frazer.
12 BlackBox Studio was founded in 2007 as a research group in digital technology, incorporated
in the Chicago office of the architectural firm SOM (Skidmore, Owing & Merrill). BlackBox works
for the improvement of BIM systems (Building Information Modeling), the exploration of new
parametric tools, ideation of algorithmic processes for formal generation, etc.

16. 16
usually studied in a punctual and discontinuous manner, always understood as an
auxiliary or subsidiary tool for the development of ideas acquired in other subjects. The
architect Rivka Oxman will explicitly denounce this situation, claiming the need to
consider "digital design" as a discipline by itself. A discipline capable on inspiring and
promoting on its own the emergence of new project strategies (Oxman, R., 2006; 230).
With regard to the publishing field, the search for media impact tends to
generate a suggestive but at the same time dispersed and confusing scenario. The
magazines make a bombardment of images, in general little or scarcely explained and
linked, under the pretext of not restricting or limiting the associative and imaginative
capacity of the reader. Even in publications that are more closely linked to theoretical
reflection, texts dealing with the topic of digital in architecture predominate as a
chronicle, as a description that fails to delve into the true mechanisms and foundations
of the digital world.
Finally, we should also refer to the field of professional practice, where the
utilitarian and auxiliary vision of the software clearly predominates over any other
consideration. Even in many of the offices linked to experimentation and singular
architecture, digital is usually treated more as a media resource rather than as a true
tool for innovation and reflection.
Faced with this situation, authors such as Rivka Oxman, Kostas Terzidis or
Toni Kotnik, among others, will vindicate the need to create a specific theoretical body
for "digital design", a field of knowledge that allows to set concepts, investigate and
experiment in the field of architectural digitality. Only in this way it will be possible to
generate a true dialogue between architecture and digitality, a genuine bidirectional link
with mutual inspiration.

17. 17
BLIOGRAPHY
Allen, S. (2009). El complejo digital: diez años después. En L. Ortega, La digitalización toma el
mando (pág. 159.168). GG.
Banham, R. (2001). Megaestructuras. Gustavo Gili.
Beauce, P., & Cache, B. (2004). Towards a non-standard mode of production. En FOA,
Phylogenesis: FOA's ark (págs. 390-405). Barcelona: Actar.
Bucci, F., & Mulazzani, M. (2002). Luigi Moretti: Works and Writings. New York: Princeton
Architectural Press.
Bundy, A. (2007). Computational Thinking is Pervasive. Journal of Scientific and Practical
Computing, 67-69.
Crompton, D. (1963). City Synthesis. Living Arts(2).
Dunn, N. (2012). Proyecto y Construcción Digital en Arquitectura. Blume.
Echeverria, J. (1999). Los Señores del Aire: Telépolis y el tercer Entorno. Destino.
Frazer, J. (1995). An Evolutionary Architecture. Architectural Association.
Frazer, J. (2005). Computing without Computers. Architectural Design, 77(4), 54-61.
Fuller, R. B. (1969b). 50 Years Of The Design Science Revolution And The World Game. A
Collection of Articles and Papers on Design. Southern Illinois University.
Gausa, M. (2010). OPEN: Espacio, Tiempo, Información. Barcelona: Actar.
Gibson, W. (1998). Neuromante. Minotauro.
Kotnik, T. (2010). Digital Design as Exploration of Computable Functions. International Journal
of Architectural Computing, 8(1).
Licklider, L. (1960). Man- Computer Symbiosis. IRE Transactions on Human Factors in
Electronics, HFE-1, 4-11.
Lynn, G. (1999). Animate Form. Princeton Architectural Press.
Mark, E., Mark, E., Oxman, R., & Martens, B. (2001). The Ideal Computer Curriculum.
Architectural Information Management, 19th CAAD Conference Proceedings (págs. 4-
11). Helsinki: Penttila.
Medina, E. (2013). Revolucionarios Cibernéticos. LOM Ediciones.
Negroponte, N. (1973). The Architecture Machine. MIT Press.
Negroponte, N. (1996). Being Digital. Coronet Books.
Ortega, L. (2009). La digitalización toma el mando. GG.
Oxman, R. (2006). Theory and Design in the First Digital Age. Design Studies (27), 229-265.
Oxman, R., & Oxman, R. (2010). The New Structuralism. Design, engineering and architectural
technologies. Architectural Design, New Structuralism, 15-23.
Pask, G. (1969). The Architectural Relevance of Cybernetics. Architectural Design, 494-496.

18. 18
Terzidis, K. (2006). Algorithmic Architecture. Routledge.
WEBSITES
www.andres.harris.cl
www.guggenheim-bilbao.eus
www.herbertmatter.org
www.rae.es
www.yonafriedman.com