Chapter 1 of the document introduces learning as an experiential process that leads to relatively permanent changes in behavior, discussing its definitions and limitations. It examines various behavioral theories, including functionalism and behaviorism, incorporating insights from figures like Thorndike and Pavlov on learning and conditioning. The chapter also addresses ethical considerations in learning research involving humans and animals.

1. Introduction to Learning
Chapter 1

2. A Definition of Learning
 Learning is:
 An experiential process
 Resulting in a relatively permanent change
 Not explained by temporary states, maturation, or
innate response tendencies.

3. Three Limits on the Definition
 The change that occurs during learning is a
potential for behavior that depends on other
conditions.
 Learning is not always a permanent change.
 What can be learned can be unlearned.
 Changes also occur for other reasons –
maturation, motivation.

4. Roots of Behavior Theory
 Functionalism – behavior promotes survival,
study behavior to understand its adaptive
function.
 Dewey – lower animals have reflexes, humans
have a flexible mind
 James – people have instincts
 Brucke – internal biochemical forces motivate
behavior in all species.

5. Criticisms of Functionalism
 The variety of behavior across cultures is
inconsistent with universal human instincts.
 Infants seem to have few innate instincts
(only fear, rage, love?).
 Labeling everything an instinct doesn’t aid
understanding much.
 Bernard cataloged 2000+ instincts

6. Behaviorism
 A search for the laws governing learning –
across species.
 Emphasis on experience.
 Avoidance of mentalistic concepts.
 Based on Aristotle’s idea of the association of
ideas.
 In order for two ideas to become associated, they
must be paired together in time (temporally).

7. British Associationists
 Locke (1690) – thinking consists of:
 Simple ideas – passive impressions received by
the senses.
 Complex ideas – the combination (association) of
simple ideas (a rose).
 Hume (1748) – associations are based on:
 Resemblance (similarity)
 Contiguity in time or place
 Cause and effect

8. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKvNqe8c
KU4&feature=player_embedded
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDOL
re-8

9. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

10. Learning Curve for Cats in Box

11. Thorndike’s Laws (1898)
 Also called S-R learning.
 Law of effect – A chance act becomes a
learned behavior when a connection is formed
between a stimulus (S) and a response (R) that
is rewarded.
 Law of exercise – the S-R connection is
strengthened by use and weakened with
disuse.

12. Thorndike’s Laws (Cont.)
 Law of readiness – motivation is needed to
develop an association or display changed
behavior.
 Associative shifting – a learned behavior
(response) can be shifted from one stimulus to
another.
 Once a behavior is learned, the stimulus is
gradually changed.
 Fish + “stand up”, then “stand up” alone.

13. Pavlov’s Studies (1927)

14. Pavlov’s Conditioned Reflex
 Conditioning -- a stimulus that initially
produces no response can acquire the ability
to produce one.
 Learning occurs through pairing in time and
place of one stimulus with another stimulus
that produces a response.
 This is a kind of associative shifting, but the
response is involuntary.

15. Terminology of Conditioning
 Unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS)
 Produces a reflexive response without learning.
 Unconditioned response (UR or UCR)
 The response that occurs, typically a reflex,
involuntary and automatic.

16. More Terminology
 Neutral stimulus
 A stimulus not capable of producing an
unconditioned response.
 Conditioned stimulus (CS)
 A previously neutral stimulus that has acquired
the ability to evoke a response.
 Conditioned response (CR)
 The learned response, similar to the UCR, an
involuntary reflex.

17. Example of Classical Conditioning
 Jim & Dwight – The Office

18. Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(tone)
(Orientation to sound
but no response)
UCS
(food powder in mouth)
UCR
(salivation)
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus
CS (tone)
UCS
(food powder)
+
CR
(salivation)
After conditioning
CS
(tone)
CR
(salivation)

19. Conditioning Processes
 Stimulus generalization – stimuli like the CS
become able to evoke the conditioned
response.
 Extinction – if the UCS and CS are not paired,
the CS loses its ability to produce a
conditioned response.
 Spontaneous recovery – an extinguished CS
briefly returns but quickly goes away again.

20. Acquisition, Extinction, and
Spontaneous Recovery

21. Little Albert (1920)

22. Watson & Raynor
 Human fears can be acquired through
Pavlovian conditioning.
 Rat paired with loud noise
 Stimulus generalized to other white objects
(white rabbit, white fur coat)
 Mary Cover Jones developed
counterconditioning -- a technique for
eliminating conditioned fears.
 Acquisition of fear-inhibiting response

23. Ethics of Learning Research
 Animals and humans are now protected by
oversight and ethical guidelines.
 Pain or injury to animals and humans must be
weighed against and justified by the
knowledge to be gained.
 Electric shock typically is uncomfortable and
upsetting but not physically harmful.

24. Why Use Animals in Research?
 People are more complex in their behavior.
 It is difficult to control prior learning,
environment and experiences in people.
 Some types of research cannot be done with
humans:
 Case histories cannot be used to infer causality.
 Animals can be lesioned to show which brain
areas control behaviors, showing causality.