Derivation and solution of the heat equation in 1-DIJESM JOURNAL
Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature, that is, from hot to cool. In this paper we derive the heat equation and consider the flow of heat along a metal rod. The rod allows us to consider the temperature, u(x,t), as one dimensional in x but changing in time, t.
Temperature Distribution in a ground section of a double-pipe system in a dis...Paolo Fornaseri
Our analysis concerns the distribution network of a suburb in the city of Turin.
We analyzed the thermal needs, the network layout and many other engineering problems regarding
the distribution of heat.
In the following report we are going to analyze the simplified model of a couple of buried ducts,
conveying the fluid used for thermal needs in the houses.
We analyzed the thermal distribution in the pipeline, in particular we focused on a section of the
ground, in which the water passes through the double-pipe system, namely return and supply pipe.
We used the fundamental heat equation (conduction) and the subsequent numerical discretization, in
the transient and in the steady state.
To this aim, we made some simplifications in order to apply our mathematical model.
GATE Mechanical Engineering notes on Heat Transfer. Use these notes as a preparation for GATE Mechanical Engineering and other engineering competitive exams. For full course visit https://mindvis.in/courses/gate-2018-mechanical-engineering-online-course or call 9779434433.
Edhole School provides best Information about Schools in India, Delhi, Noida, Gurgaon. Here you will get about the school, contact, career, etc. Edhole Provides best study material for school students."
Experiment 4
Newtonian Cooling
EGME 306A
Group 2
ABSTRACT
The objective of this experiment is to understand the relationship between the change of temperature of an object and its surroundings. The Newtonian Cooling says that the temperature of an object is proportional to the temperature of the surrounding. The reason for the experiment is to make an experiment that measures temperature using a transducer of our own choice, understand the heat transfer and determine the coefficient of the heat transfer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………2
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction and Theory……………………………………………………….......4-9
Procedures………………………………………………………………………..10-11
Summary of Important Results…………………………………………………….12
Sample Calculations and Error Analysis…………………………………………...13
Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………14
References…………………………………………………………………………..15
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………16-19
INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
In this experiment, a mass of lead in a crucible will be heated to its melting point and a transducer will be inserted in the lead. The heating is then ceased and the data of temperature versus time are accumulated by some data-acquisition system of your choice.
It is known from thermodynamics that when two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, heat will flow from the hotter body to the cooler one in a process known as Heat Transfer. The rate of this heat flow depends upon the temperature difference and thermal resistances in much the same way that electric current depends upon the potential difference (voltage) and electrical resistances. In solids, heat transfer occurs by molecular motion in a process called conduction, whereas in fluids, such as air and water, heat is transferred by fluid motion in a process called convection. In addition, heat is also transferred by electromagnetic radiation in transparent substances, or in a vacuum.
Consider a solid object in contact with air. If the surface temperature of the body, , is higher than the air temperature, , then there will be heat transferred from the object to the air. Newton proposed that the rate of this heat transfer, q, is proportional to the surface area of the object, A, and the temperature difference, :
(IV-1)
where the constant of proportionality, h, is called the heat transfer coefficient. Equation (IV-1) is known as the Newton’s rate equation.
In Newton’s time, the actual mechanism whereby this heat transfer occurred was not well understood. Today, however, it is known that heat transfer from a surface involves convection and radiation, and that these two mechanisms occur in parallel. As a result, the total rate of heat transfer from the surface, q, is the sum of the parts due to convection, , and radiation,. Thus, from Eq. (IV-1),
(IV-2)
where,
= convective heat transfer coefficient ...
ABSTRACTThe objective of this experiment is to understa.docxannetnash8266
ABSTRACT
The objective of this experiment is to understand the relationship between the change of temperature of an object and its surroundings. The Newtonian Cooling says that the temperature of an object is proportional to the temperature of the surrounding. The reason for the experiment is to make an experiment that measures temperature using a transducer of our own choice, understand the heat transfer and determine the coefficient of the heat transfer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………2
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction and Theory……………………………………………………….......4-9
Procedures………………………………………………………………………..10-11
Summary of Important Results…………………………………………………….12
Sample Calculations and Error Analysis…………………………………………...13
Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………14
References…………………………………………………………………………..15
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………16-19
INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
In this experiment, a mass of lead in a crucible will be heated to its melting point and a transducer will be inserted in the lead. The heating is then ceased and the data of temperature versus time are accumulated by some data-acquisition system of your choice.
It is known from thermodynamics that when two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, heat will flow from the hotter body to the cooler one in a process known as Heat Transfer. The rate of this heat flow depends upon the temperature difference and thermal resistances in much the same way that electric current depends upon the potential difference (voltage) and electrical resistances. In solids, heat transfer occurs by molecular motion in a process called conduction, whereas in fluids, such as air and water, heat is transferred by fluid motion in a process called convection. In addition, heat is also transferred by electromagnetic radiation in transparent substances, or in a vacuum.
Consider a solid object in contact with air. If the surface temperature of the body, , is higher than the air temperature, , then there will be heat transferred from the object to the air. Newton proposed that the rate of this heat transfer, q, is proportional to the surface area of the object, A, and the temperature difference, :
(IV-1)
where the constant of proportionality, h, is called the heat transfer coefficient. Equation (IV-1) is known as the Newton’s rate equation.
In Newton’s time, the actual mechanism whereby this heat transfer occurred was not well understood. Today, however, it is known that heat transfer from a surface involves convection and radiation, and that these two mechanisms occur in parallel. As a result, the total rate of heat transfer from the surface, q, is the sum of the parts due to convection, , and radiation,. Thus, from Eq. (IV-1),
(IV-2)
where,
= convective heat transfer coefficient
= effective radiative heat transfer coefficien.
Temperature change in a material leaves it with
mechanical expansion & significance
Changes in material properties.
Expansion due to heat, induce
Strains internally.
Hence stress induced
Mohammad AlbuloushiExperiment IVNewtonian CoolingEGME 30.docxmoirarandell
Mohammad Albuloushi
Experiment IV
Newtonian Cooling
EGME 306A
Group members:
Bader Alrashidi – Yousef Ali – Christian Aguinaga
ABSTRACT
The objective of this experiment is to understand the relationship between the change of temperature of an object and its surroundings. The Newtonian Cooling says that the temperature of an object is proportional to the temperature of the surrounding. The reason for the experiment is to make an experiment that measures temperature using a transducer of our own choice, understand the heat transfer and determine the overall heat transfer coefficient. After finishing the experiment and calculating the data and graph them, we concluded that the area of the crucible was 33.53 by using either AutoCad or SolidWorks. Furthermore, the lead undergoes two phases and between these two phases there is a transition phase where the temperature stays constant for a period of time, which is between the 2nd and the 5th minute of the experiment. Point () turned out to be (17.0315,126.6141). And point () is (6.3648,301.5625). Moreover, then we got the heat transfer coefficient which is h = 2.6019.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………2
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction and Theory……………………………………………………….......4-9
Procedures………………………………………………………………………..10-11
Summary of Important Results…………………………………………………….12
Sample Calculations and Error Analysis…………………………………………...13
Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………14
References…………………………………………………………………………..15
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………16-19
INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
In this experiment, a mass of lead in a crucible will be heated to its melting point and a transducer will be inserted in the lead. The heating is then ceased and the data of temperature versus time are accumulated by some data-acquisition system of your choice.
It is known from thermodynamics that when two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, heat will flow from the hotter body to the cooler one in a process known as Heat Transfer. The rate of this heat flow depends upon the temperature difference and thermal resistances in much the same way that electric current depends upon the potential difference (voltage) and electrical resistances. In solids, heat transfer occurs by molecular motion in a process called conduction, whereas in fluids, such as air and water, heat is transferred by fluid motion in a process called convection. In addition, heat is also transferred by electromagnetic radiation in transparent substances, or in a vacuum.
Consider a solid object in contact with air. If the surface temperature of the body, , is higher than the air temperature, , then there will be heat transferred from the object to the air. Newton proposed that the rate of this heat transfer, q, is proportional to the surface area of the object, A, and the temperature difference, :
(IV-1)
where the constant of pro ...
Two basic topics of heat transfer have been covered up by me based on the famous books of :-
1) John H. Lienhard (Professor Emeritus, University of Houston)
2) J.P. Holman (Professor, Southern Methodist University)
3) Prabal Talukdar (Associate Professor, IIT, India)
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Derivation and solution of the heat equation in 1-DIJESM JOURNAL
Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature, that is, from hot to cool. In this paper we derive the heat equation and consider the flow of heat along a metal rod. The rod allows us to consider the temperature, u(x,t), as one dimensional in x but changing in time, t.
Temperature Distribution in a ground section of a double-pipe system in a dis...Paolo Fornaseri
Our analysis concerns the distribution network of a suburb in the city of Turin.
We analyzed the thermal needs, the network layout and many other engineering problems regarding
the distribution of heat.
In the following report we are going to analyze the simplified model of a couple of buried ducts,
conveying the fluid used for thermal needs in the houses.
We analyzed the thermal distribution in the pipeline, in particular we focused on a section of the
ground, in which the water passes through the double-pipe system, namely return and supply pipe.
We used the fundamental heat equation (conduction) and the subsequent numerical discretization, in
the transient and in the steady state.
To this aim, we made some simplifications in order to apply our mathematical model.
GATE Mechanical Engineering notes on Heat Transfer. Use these notes as a preparation for GATE Mechanical Engineering and other engineering competitive exams. For full course visit https://mindvis.in/courses/gate-2018-mechanical-engineering-online-course or call 9779434433.
Edhole School provides best Information about Schools in India, Delhi, Noida, Gurgaon. Here you will get about the school, contact, career, etc. Edhole Provides best study material for school students."
Experiment 4
Newtonian Cooling
EGME 306A
Group 2
ABSTRACT
The objective of this experiment is to understand the relationship between the change of temperature of an object and its surroundings. The Newtonian Cooling says that the temperature of an object is proportional to the temperature of the surrounding. The reason for the experiment is to make an experiment that measures temperature using a transducer of our own choice, understand the heat transfer and determine the coefficient of the heat transfer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………2
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction and Theory……………………………………………………….......4-9
Procedures………………………………………………………………………..10-11
Summary of Important Results…………………………………………………….12
Sample Calculations and Error Analysis…………………………………………...13
Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………14
References…………………………………………………………………………..15
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………16-19
INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
In this experiment, a mass of lead in a crucible will be heated to its melting point and a transducer will be inserted in the lead. The heating is then ceased and the data of temperature versus time are accumulated by some data-acquisition system of your choice.
It is known from thermodynamics that when two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, heat will flow from the hotter body to the cooler one in a process known as Heat Transfer. The rate of this heat flow depends upon the temperature difference and thermal resistances in much the same way that electric current depends upon the potential difference (voltage) and electrical resistances. In solids, heat transfer occurs by molecular motion in a process called conduction, whereas in fluids, such as air and water, heat is transferred by fluid motion in a process called convection. In addition, heat is also transferred by electromagnetic radiation in transparent substances, or in a vacuum.
Consider a solid object in contact with air. If the surface temperature of the body, , is higher than the air temperature, , then there will be heat transferred from the object to the air. Newton proposed that the rate of this heat transfer, q, is proportional to the surface area of the object, A, and the temperature difference, :
(IV-1)
where the constant of proportionality, h, is called the heat transfer coefficient. Equation (IV-1) is known as the Newton’s rate equation.
In Newton’s time, the actual mechanism whereby this heat transfer occurred was not well understood. Today, however, it is known that heat transfer from a surface involves convection and radiation, and that these two mechanisms occur in parallel. As a result, the total rate of heat transfer from the surface, q, is the sum of the parts due to convection, , and radiation,. Thus, from Eq. (IV-1),
(IV-2)
where,
= convective heat transfer coefficient ...
ABSTRACTThe objective of this experiment is to understa.docxannetnash8266
ABSTRACT
The objective of this experiment is to understand the relationship between the change of temperature of an object and its surroundings. The Newtonian Cooling says that the temperature of an object is proportional to the temperature of the surrounding. The reason for the experiment is to make an experiment that measures temperature using a transducer of our own choice, understand the heat transfer and determine the coefficient of the heat transfer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………2
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction and Theory……………………………………………………….......4-9
Procedures………………………………………………………………………..10-11
Summary of Important Results…………………………………………………….12
Sample Calculations and Error Analysis…………………………………………...13
Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………14
References…………………………………………………………………………..15
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………16-19
INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
In this experiment, a mass of lead in a crucible will be heated to its melting point and a transducer will be inserted in the lead. The heating is then ceased and the data of temperature versus time are accumulated by some data-acquisition system of your choice.
It is known from thermodynamics that when two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, heat will flow from the hotter body to the cooler one in a process known as Heat Transfer. The rate of this heat flow depends upon the temperature difference and thermal resistances in much the same way that electric current depends upon the potential difference (voltage) and electrical resistances. In solids, heat transfer occurs by molecular motion in a process called conduction, whereas in fluids, such as air and water, heat is transferred by fluid motion in a process called convection. In addition, heat is also transferred by electromagnetic radiation in transparent substances, or in a vacuum.
Consider a solid object in contact with air. If the surface temperature of the body, , is higher than the air temperature, , then there will be heat transferred from the object to the air. Newton proposed that the rate of this heat transfer, q, is proportional to the surface area of the object, A, and the temperature difference, :
(IV-1)
where the constant of proportionality, h, is called the heat transfer coefficient. Equation (IV-1) is known as the Newton’s rate equation.
In Newton’s time, the actual mechanism whereby this heat transfer occurred was not well understood. Today, however, it is known that heat transfer from a surface involves convection and radiation, and that these two mechanisms occur in parallel. As a result, the total rate of heat transfer from the surface, q, is the sum of the parts due to convection, , and radiation,. Thus, from Eq. (IV-1),
(IV-2)
where,
= convective heat transfer coefficient
= effective radiative heat transfer coefficien.
Temperature change in a material leaves it with
mechanical expansion & significance
Changes in material properties.
Expansion due to heat, induce
Strains internally.
Hence stress induced
Mohammad AlbuloushiExperiment IVNewtonian CoolingEGME 30.docxmoirarandell
Mohammad Albuloushi
Experiment IV
Newtonian Cooling
EGME 306A
Group members:
Bader Alrashidi – Yousef Ali – Christian Aguinaga
ABSTRACT
The objective of this experiment is to understand the relationship between the change of temperature of an object and its surroundings. The Newtonian Cooling says that the temperature of an object is proportional to the temperature of the surrounding. The reason for the experiment is to make an experiment that measures temperature using a transducer of our own choice, understand the heat transfer and determine the overall heat transfer coefficient. After finishing the experiment and calculating the data and graph them, we concluded that the area of the crucible was 33.53 by using either AutoCad or SolidWorks. Furthermore, the lead undergoes two phases and between these two phases there is a transition phase where the temperature stays constant for a period of time, which is between the 2nd and the 5th minute of the experiment. Point () turned out to be (17.0315,126.6141). And point () is (6.3648,301.5625). Moreover, then we got the heat transfer coefficient which is h = 2.6019.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………2
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction and Theory……………………………………………………….......4-9
Procedures………………………………………………………………………..10-11
Summary of Important Results…………………………………………………….12
Sample Calculations and Error Analysis…………………………………………...13
Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………14
References…………………………………………………………………………..15
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………16-19
INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
In this experiment, a mass of lead in a crucible will be heated to its melting point and a transducer will be inserted in the lead. The heating is then ceased and the data of temperature versus time are accumulated by some data-acquisition system of your choice.
It is known from thermodynamics that when two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, heat will flow from the hotter body to the cooler one in a process known as Heat Transfer. The rate of this heat flow depends upon the temperature difference and thermal resistances in much the same way that electric current depends upon the potential difference (voltage) and electrical resistances. In solids, heat transfer occurs by molecular motion in a process called conduction, whereas in fluids, such as air and water, heat is transferred by fluid motion in a process called convection. In addition, heat is also transferred by electromagnetic radiation in transparent substances, or in a vacuum.
Consider a solid object in contact with air. If the surface temperature of the body, , is higher than the air temperature, , then there will be heat transferred from the object to the air. Newton proposed that the rate of this heat transfer, q, is proportional to the surface area of the object, A, and the temperature difference, :
(IV-1)
where the constant of pro ...
Two basic topics of heat transfer have been covered up by me based on the famous books of :-
1) John H. Lienhard (Professor Emeritus, University of Houston)
2) J.P. Holman (Professor, Southern Methodist University)
3) Prabal Talukdar (Associate Professor, IIT, India)
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
2. Introduction
In the early 1800s, J. Fourier began a mathematical study of
heat. A deeper understanding of heat flow had significant
applications in science and within industry. A basic version of
Fourier's efforts is the problem
𝛼2𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡
BC
𝑢 0, 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑢 𝐿, 𝑡 ; 𝑢 𝑥, 0 = 𝑓 𝑥
where
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 is the temperature at position x at time t
𝛼2 a constant
f is a given function
3. Fourier's analysis resulted in the following solution form
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 =
𝑛=1
∞
𝑏𝑛 𝑒−𝑡 Τ
(𝛼𝑛𝜋 𝐿)2
sin
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐿
Provided f could be written in the form
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑛=1
∞
𝑏𝑛 sin
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐿
This prompted Fourier to form a method for expressing
functions as infinite sums of sines (and/or cosines), called
Fourier series.
4. Derivation of Heat Equation in One
Dimension
Suppose we have a thin bar of length L wrapped around the x-
axis, so that x = 0 and x = L are the ends of the bar.
x = 0 x = L
B
A
C
At point A, B and C: Temperature u is function of only x and t
and remains same as
we have assumed that Bar is thin.
5. Assumptions
• bar is of homogeneous material, is straight and has uniform
cross-sections.
• sides of the bar are perfectly insulated so that no heat passes
through them.
• Since our bar is thin, the temperature u can be considered as
constant on any given cross-section and so depends on the
horizontal position along the x-axis. Hence u is a function
only of position x and time t.
6. Let’s derive heat equation as given below
𝛼2𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 (1)
where 𝛼2 = k/ρc is called the thermal diffusivity (in (length)2/time). It
has the SI derived unit of m2/s.
k, ρ and c are positive constants that depend on the material of the bar.
7. Consider a section D of the bar, with ends at xo and x1.
x0 x1
D
**Thermal diffusivity is the thermal conductivity divided
by density and specific heat capacity at constant pressure. It
measures the rate of transfer of heat of a material from the hot
end to the cold end.
8. Now, the total amount of heat H = H(t) in D (may be in joules, calories)
is
𝐻 𝑡 = න
𝑥0
𝑥1
ρc 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
Differentiating we obtain
𝑑𝐻 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= ρc න
𝑥0
𝑥1
𝑢𝑡 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
Above, c is the specific heat of the material (it is the amount of heat that
must be added to one unit of mass of the substance in order to cause an
increase of one unit in temperature) and ρ is the density of the material.
9. Now, since the sides of the bar are insulated, the only way
heat can flow into or out of D is through the ends at xo and x1.
Fourier's law of heat flow states that heat flows from hotter
regions to colder regions and the flow rate is proportional to
ux.
Now, the net rate change of heat H in D is just the rate at
which heat enters D minus the rate at which heat leaves D. i.e.,
𝑑𝐻
𝑑𝑡
= −k𝑢𝑥(𝑥0, 𝑡) − (−k𝑢𝑥(𝑥1, 𝑡))
10. The minus sign appears in the above two terms since there will be a
positive flow of heat from left to right only if the temperature is greater
to the left of x = xo than to the right (in this case, 𝑢𝑥(𝑥0, 𝑡) will be
negative).
Now. simplifying the above and applying the fundamental theorem of
calculus we obtain
𝑑𝐻
𝑑𝑡
= k𝑢𝑥(𝑥1, 𝑡) − k𝑢𝑥(𝑥0, 𝑡)
𝑑𝐻 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= k න
𝑥0
𝑥1
𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
The first fundamental theorem of calculus states that, if f is
continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and F is the indefinite
integral of f on [a,b], then
න
𝑎
𝑏
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹(𝑎)
11. Now, comparing our two expressions for dH/dt we form the
relationship
cρ න
𝑥0
𝑥1
𝑢𝑡 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = k න
𝑥0
𝑥1
𝑢𝑥𝑥 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
Differentiating both sides with respect to xl we obtain
cρ𝑢𝑡 = 𝑘𝑢𝑥𝑥 (2)
12. Since the above arguments work for all intervals from xo to x1 and for all t > 0 it
follows that the above PDE is satisfied for our interval of interest: from x = 0 to x =
L (and all t > 0)
The PDE (2) essentially describes a fundamental physical balance: the rate at which
heat flows into any portion of the bar is equal to the rate at which heat is absorbed
into that portion of the bar.
Hence the two terms in (2) are sometimes referred to as:
"absorption term" (cρ𝑢𝑡); and the "flux term” (𝑘𝑢𝑥𝑥)
Interpretation of heat equation
What is 2D heat equation
13.
14.
15.
16.
17. The function will
satisfy the heat
equation and the
boundary condition of
zero temperature on
the ends of the bar.