66396005 standard-practice-for-concrete-for-civil-works-structures

CECW-EG
Engineer
Manual
1110-2-2000
Department of the Army
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Washington, DC 20314-1000
EM 1110-2-2000
1 February 1994
Engineering and Design
STANDARD PRACTICE FOR CONCRETE
FOR CIVIL WORKS STRUCTURES
Distribution Restriction Statement
Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.

EM 1110-2-2000
3 February 1994
US Army Corps
of Engineers
ENGINEERING AND DESIGN
Standard Practice for Concrete
for Civil Works Structures
ENGINEER MANUAL

CECW-EI
Manual
No, 111o-2-2000
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Washington, DC 20314-1000
EM 111 o-2-2000
Change 2
31 March 01
1. This Change 2 to EM 1110-2-2000, 1 February 1994, provides updated guidance for the
selection of aggregates in Chapter 2.
2. Substitute the attached pages as shown below:
Remove Page Insert page
2-10 2-10
2-11 2-11
3. File this change sheet in front of the publication for reference purposes.
FOR THE COMMANDER:
Colonel, Corps of Engineers
Chief of Staff

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-2000
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Change 1
CECW-ED Washington, DC 20314-1000
Manual
No. 1110-2-2000 31 July 94
1. This Change 1 to EM 1110-2-2000, 1 February 1994, updates Chapter 2.
2. Substitute the attached pages as shown below:
Remove page Insert page
2-1 2-1
2-6 2-6
3. File this change sheet in front of the publication for reference purposes.
FOR THE COMMANDER:
WILLIAM D. BROWN
Chief of Staff

DEPARTMENTDEPARTMENT OFOF THETHE ARMYARMY EM 1110-2-2000
US Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EG Washington, DC 20314-1000
Manual
No. 1110-2-2000 1 February 1994
1. Purpose. The purpose of this manual is to provide information and guidance for the investigation and
selection of concrete materials for civil works concrete structures. Elements discussed include design studies and
reports, preparation of contract plans and specifications, construction preparation, and concrete construction quality
verification. Emphasis is placed on the problems of concrete for hydraulic structures. Roller-compacted concrete,
shotcrete, rigid pavement, architectural concrete, and concrete for repairs are not included. These subjects are
discussed in EM 1110-2-2006, Roller-Compacted Concrete; EM 1110-2-2005, Standard Practice for Shotcrete; TM
5-822-7, Standard Practice for Concrete Pavements; EM 1110-1-2009, Architectural Concrete; and EM 1110-2-
2002, Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures, respectively.
2. Applicability. This manual is applicable to all HQUSACE elements, major subordinate commands, districts,
laboratories, and field operating activities having civil works responsibilities.
FOR THE COMMANDER:
WILLIAM D. BROWN
Chief of Staff
This manual supersedes EM 1110-2-2000, 5 September 1985.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-2000
US Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EG Washington, DC 20314-1000
Manual
No. 1110-2-2000 1 February 1994
Table of Contents
Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page
Chapter 1
Introduction and Policy
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 1-1
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1-1
Explanation of Abbreviations . . . . . . . 1-4 1-1
Engineering Responsibilities
and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 1-1
Reconnaissance phase . . . . . . . . . . 1-5a 1-1
Feasibility phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5b 1-1
Preconstruction engineering and
design phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5c 1-1
Construction phase . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5d 1-1
Delays in Contract Awards . . . . . . . . . 1-6 1-2
Chapter 2
Investigation and Selection of Materials
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2-1
Cementitious Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 2-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2a 2-1
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2b 2-1
Portland cement . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2b(1) 2-1
Blended hydraulic cement . . . . . 2-2b(2) 2-1
Pozzolan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2b(3) 2-1
GGBF slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2b(4) 2-1
Other hydraulic cements . . . . . . 2-2b(5) 2-1
Silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2b(6) 2-1
Air-entraining portland cement . . 2-2b(7) 2-1
Selection of cementitious materials . 2-2c 2-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2c(1) 2-1
Type of structure . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2c(2) 2-1
Other requirements . . . . . . . . . . 2-2c(3) 2-2
Requirements for use of other
hydraulic cements . . . . . . . . . . 2-2c(4) 2-4
Pozzolans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2c(5) 2-4
Availability investigation of
cementitious materials . . . . . . . . 2-2d 2-5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2d(1) 2-5
Portland cement and blended
hydraulic cements . . . . . . . . . . 2-2d(2) 2-5
Pozzolans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2d(3) 2-6
GGBF slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2d(4) 2-6
Silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2d(5) 2-6
Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 2-6
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3a 2-6
Sources of aggregate
(Government or commercial) . . 2-3a(1) 2-6
Minor structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3a(2) 2-7
Availability investigation . . . . . . . . 2-3b 2-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3b(1) 2-7
Service records . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3b(2) 2-7
Field exploration and sampling
of undeveloped sources . . . . . . 2-3b(3) 2-7
Field exploration and sampling
of developed sources . . . . . . . 2-3b(4) 2-7
Testing potential aggregate
sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3b(5) 2-8
Evaluating aggregate qualities . . 2-3b(6) 2-8
Nominal maximum size
aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3b(7) 2-12
Fine aggregate grading
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3b(8) 2-12
Required tests and test limits . . . 2-3b(9) 2-13
Aggregate processing study . . . . 2-3b(10) 2-13
Location of government-furnished
quarry or pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3b(11) 2-13
Water for Mixing and Curing . . . . . . . 2-4 2-14
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4a 2-14
Mixing water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4b 2-14
Curing water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4c 2-14
Chemical Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 2-14
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5a 2-14
Air-entraining admixtures . . . . . . . 2-5b 2-14
Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(1) 2-14
Strength loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(2) 2-15
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Table of Contents (Continued)
Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(3) 2-15
Batching AEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(4) 2-15
Dosage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(5) 2-15
Effects of water content
on air content . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(6) 2-15
Effects of fine aggregate grading
on air content . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(7) 2-15
Effects of temperature on
air content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(8) 2-15
Effect of other admixtures
on air content . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(9) 2-15
Effect of mixing action on
air content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5b(10) 2-15
Accelerating admixture . . . . . . . . . 2-5c 2-15
Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5c(1) 2-16
Nonchloride admixtures . . . . . . . 2-5c(2) 2-16
Effects on fresh concrete
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5c(3) 2-16
Effect on hardened concrete
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5c(4) 2-16
Other methods of accelerating
strength developments . . . . . . . 2-5c(5) 2-16
Retarding admixtures . . . . . . . . . . 2-5d 2-16
General uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5d(1) 2-16
Dosage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5d(2) 2-16
Batching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5d(3) 2-17
Effect on strength . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5d(4) 2-17
Water-reducing admixtures . . . . . . 2-5e 2-17
Use in mass concrete . . . . . . . . 2-5e(1) 2-17
Dosage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5e(2) 2-17
Use in hot or cool weather . . . . . 2-5e(3) 2-17
Air entrainment . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5e(4) 2-17
Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5e(5) 2-17
High-range water-reducing
admixtures (superplasticizers) . . . 2-5f 2-17
Effect on workability . . . . . . . . 2-5f(1) 2-18
Effect on segregation and
bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5f(2) 2-18
Effect on air entrainment . . . . . . 2-5f(3) 2-18
Effect on setting time . . . . . . . . 2-5f(4) 2-18
Compatibility with other
admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5f(5) 2-18
Antiwashout admixtures . . . . . . . . 2-5g 2-18
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(1) 2-19
Batching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(2) 2-19
Air entrainment . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(3) 2-19
Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(4) 2-19
Retardation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(5) 2-19
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(6) 2-19
Dosage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(7) 2-19
Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5g(8) 2-19
Extended set-control admixtures . . . 2-5h 2-19
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5h(1) 2-19
Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5h(2) 2-20
Activator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5h(3) 2-20
Effect on hardened properties . . . 2-5h(4) 2-20
Dosage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5h(5) 2-20
Antifreeze admixtures . . . . . . . . . . 2-5i 2-20
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5i(1) 2-20
Batching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5i(2) 2-21
Effect on strength . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5i(3) 2-21
Effect on resistance to freezing
and thawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5i(4) 2-21
Use with reactive aggregates . . . 2-5i(5) 2-21
Corrosion of steel . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5i(6) 2-21
Cost benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5i(7) 2-21
Chapter 3
Construction Requirements and
Special Studies
Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1a 3-1
Batch-plant location . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1b 3-1
Batch-plant type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1c 3-1
Mixer type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1d 3-1
Batching and mixing plant capacity 3-1e 3-2
Monolith size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1e(1) 3-2
Traditional placing method . . . . 3-1e(2) 3-2
Equation for minimum placing
capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1e(3) 3-2
Graphic calculation of minimum
placing capacity . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1e(4) 3-2
Other placing methods . . . . . . . 3-1e(5) 3-5
Conveying and placing
considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1f 3-5
Use of epoxy resins . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1g 3-5
Special Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2a 3-5
Thermal studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2b 3-5
Material properties needed for a
thermal study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2b(1) 3-5
Time of completion of thermal
study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2b(2) 3-6
Temperature control techniques . 3-2b(3) 3-6
Numerical analysis of temperature
control techniques . . . . . . . . . 3-2b(4) 3-6
Abrasion-erosion studies . . . . . . . . 3-2c 3-6
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2c(1) 3-6
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EM 1110-2-2000
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Test method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2c(2) 3-6
Application of test results . . . . . 3-2c(3) 3-6
Mixer grinding studies . . . . . . . . . 3-2d 3-6
Concrete subjected to high velocity
flow of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2e 3-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2e(1) 3-7
Quality of concrete . . . . . . . . . . 3-2e(2) 3-7
Construction joints . . . . . . . . . . 3-2e(3) 3-7
Unformed surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 3-2e(4) 3-7
Formed surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2e(5) 3-7
Unusual or complex problems . . . . 3-2f 3-7
Chapter 4
Mixture Proportioning Considerations
Selection of Concrete Mixture
Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4-1
Basis for Selection of
Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 4-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2a 4-1
Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2b 4-1
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2c 4-1
Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2d 4-1
Placeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2e 4-1
Criteria for Mixture
Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 4-2
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3a 4-2
Proportioning criteria . . . . . . . . . . 4-3b 4-2
Maximum permissible w/c . . . . . 4-3b(1) 4-2
Structural concrete . . . . . . . . . . 4-3b(2) 4-2
Mass concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3b(3) 4-2
Nominal maximum aggregate
size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3b(4) 4-5
Water content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3b(5) 4-5
Cement content . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3b(6) 4-6
Proportioning with pozzolans
or GGBF slag . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3b(7) 4-6
Government Mixture Proportioning . . . 4-4 4-6
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4a 4-6
Coordination between project, district
design personnel, and the division
laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4b 4-6
Sampling of materials . . . . . . . . . . 4-4c 4-7
Data supplied by division laboratory
to project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4d 4-7
Adjustment of government mixture
proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4e 4-7
Evaluation of Contractor-Developed
Mixture Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 4-8
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5a 4-8
Reviewing contractor submittals . 4-5b 4-8
Minor structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5b(1) 4-8
Cast-in-place structural concrete . 4-5b(2) 4-8
Chapter 5
Preparation of Plans and Specifications
Selection of Guide Specification
for Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1a 5-1
Guidelines for selection . . . . . . . . . 5-1b 5-1
Use of state specifications . . . . . . . 5-1c 5-1
Use of abbreviated specifications . . 5-1d 5-1
Guide Specification "Concrete (for Minor
Structures)", CW-03307 . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2a 5-1
Cementitious materials options . . . . 5-2b 5-1
Selection of compressive strength . . 5-2c 5-1
Selection of nominal maximum
aggregate size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2d 5-1
Finish requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2e 5-2
Guide Specification "Cast-in-Place Structural
Concrete," CW-03301 . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-2
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3a 5-2
Testing of cementitious materials . . 5-3b 5-2
Admixtures and curing compounds . 5-3c 5-2
Testing of aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3d 5-2
Nonshrink grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3e 5-2
Cementing materials option . . . . . . 5-3f 5-2
Specifying aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3g 5-3
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3h 5-3
Batch-plant capacity . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3i 5-3
Batch-plant controls . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3j 5-3
Concrete deposited in water . . . . . . 5-3k 5-3
Finishing unformed surfaces . . . . . 5-3l 5-3
Sheet curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3m 5-3
Areas to be painted . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3n 5-3
Finishing formed surfaces . . . . . . . 5-3o 5-3
Floor tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3p 5-3
Guide Specification "Mass Concrete,"
CW-03305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-3
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4a 5-3
Sampling of aggregates . . . . . . . . . 5-4b 5-4
Mixture proportioning studies . . . . 5-4c 5-4
Testing cementitious materials . . . . 5-4d 5-4
Surface requirements . . . . . . . . . . 5-4e 5-4
Class A finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4e(1) 5-4
Class AHV finish . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4e(2) 5-4
Class B finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4e(3) 5-4
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Class C finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4e(4) 5-4
Class D finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4e(5) 5-4
Absorptive form lining . . . . . . . 5-4e(6) 5-4
Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4f 5-4
Cementitious materials option . . . . 5-4g 5-4
Bid schedule for cementitious materials
option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4h 5-5
Retarder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4i 5-5
Water reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4j 5-5
Fine aggregate grading requirements 5-4k 5-5
Coarse aggregate grading
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4l 5-5
Batching and mixing plant . . . . . . . 5-4m 5-5
Type of plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4m(1) 5-5
Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4m(2) 5-5
Preset mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4m(3) 5-6
Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4m(4) 5-6
Conveying and placing . . . . . . . . . 5-4n 5-6
Conveyance methods . . . . . . . . . 5-4n(1) 5-6
Hot-weather mixing and placing . 5-4n(2) 5-6
Placing temperature . . . . . . . . . 5-4n(3) 5-6
Lift thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4n(4) 5-6
Placing concrete in unformed
curved sections . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4n(5) 5-6
Concrete deposited in water . . . . 5-4n(6) 5-6
Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4o 5-6
Unformed surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 5-4o(1) 5-6
Formed surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4o(2) 5-6
Insulation and special protection . 5-4o(3) 5-6
Areas to be painted . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4p 5-6
Setting of base plates and bearing
plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4q 5-6
Measurement and payment . . . . . . 5-4r 5-7
Guide Specification "Formwork for Concrete,"
CW-03101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5a 5-7
Shop drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5b 5-7
Sample panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5c 5-7
Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5d 5-7
Form removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5e 5-7
Guide Specification "Expansion, Contraction,
and Construction Joints in Concrete,"
CW-03150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6a 5-7
Cost of testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6b 5-7
Guide Specification "Precast Prestressed
Concrete," CW-03425 . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7a 5-7
Air content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7b 5-7
Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7c 5-7
Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7d 5-7
Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7e 5-7
Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7f 5-7
Guide Specification "Preplaced Aggregate
Concrete," CW-03362 . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 5-7
Chapter 6
Coordination Between Design and
Field Activities
Bidability, Constructibility, and
Operability Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1a 6-1
Review guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1b 6-1
Engineering Considerations and Instructions
for Construction Field Personnel . . . 6-2 6-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2a 6-1
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2b 6-1
Discussion by outline heading . . . . 6-2c 6-2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(1) 6-2
Cementitious materials requirements
or properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(2) 6-2
Aggregate requirements or
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(3) 6-2
Other materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(4) 6-2
Concrete qualities required at various
locations within the structures . 6-2c(5) 6-2
Concrete temperature-control
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(6) 6-3
Cold-weather concrete
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(7) 6-3
Hot-weather concrete
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(8) 6-3
Contractor quality control and quality
government assurance . . . . . . . 6-2c(9) 6-3
Critical concrete placement
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(10) 6-3
Architectural requirements . . . . . 6-2c(11) 6-3
Finish requirements . . . . . . . . . . 6-2c(12) 6-3
Chapter 7
Preparation for Construction
Materials Acceptance Testing . . . . . . . 7-1 7-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1a 7-1
Cement, pozzolan, and GGBF slag . 7-1b 7-1
Chemical admixtures . . . . . . . . . . 7-1c 7-1
Test of air-entraining admixtures 7-1c(1) 7-1
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EM 1110-2-2000
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Test of other chemical
admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1c(2) 7-2
Tests of accelerators . . . . . . . . . 7-1c(3) 7-2
Aggregates - listed source . . . . . . . 7-1d 7-2
Aggregates - nonlisted source . . . . 7-1e 7-2
Aggregates - minor concrete jobs . . 7-1f 7-2
Mixture Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7-2
Concrete Plant and Materials . . . . . . . 7-3 7-3
Review of concrete plant drawings . 7-3a 7-3
Estimating plant capacity . . . . . . . . 7-3b 7-3
Aggregate storage, reclaiming, washing,
and rescreening . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3c 7-3
Concrete cooling plant capacity . . . 7-3d 7-4
Batching and Mixing Equipment . . . . 7-4 7-4
Checking compliance with specification
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4a 7-4
Scale checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4b 7-4
Mixer blades and paddles . . . . . . . 7-4c 7-4
Recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4d 7-4
Batching sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4e 7-4
Mixer performance and
mixing time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4f 7-4
Conveying Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7-5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5a 7-5
Buckets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5b 7-5
Truck mixers and agitators . . . . . . 7-5c 7-5
Nonagitating equipment . . . . . . . . 7-5d 7-5
Positive-displacement pump . . . . . . 7-5e 7-5
Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5f 7-5
Chutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5g 7-5
Preparation for Placing . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6 7-6
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6a 7-6
Earth foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6b 7-6
Rock foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6c 7-6
Cleanup of concrete surfaces . . . . . 7-6d 7-6
Placing equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6e 7-6
Vibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6e(1) 7-6
Cold-weather and hot-weather
protection equipment . . . . . . . 7-6e(2) 7-6
Communication equipment . . . . . 7-6e(3) 7-6
Other equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6e(4) 7-7
Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6f 7-7
Curing and protection . . . . . . . . . . 7-6g 7-7
Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6h 7-7
Interim slabs on grade . . . . . . . . . . 7-6i 7-7
Chapter 8
Concrete Construction
Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8-1
Types of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1a 8-1
Quality verification . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1b 8-1
Form coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1c 8-1
Placing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2a 8-1
Bedding mortar on rock foundations 8-2b 8-1
Mass concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2c 8-1
Structural concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2d 8-2
Tunnel linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2e 8-2
Inverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2e(1) 8-2
Sidewalls and crown . . . . . . . . . 8-2e(2) 8-2
Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2f 8-2
Protection of waterstops . . . . . . . . 8-2g 8-2
Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8-2
Formed surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3a 8-2
Unformed surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3b 8-3
Ogee crest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3b(1) 8-3
Spillway aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3b(2) 8-3
Trapezoidal channel lining . . . . . 8-3b(3) 8-3
Surfaces exposed to high-velocity
flow of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3b(4) 8-3
Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3b(5) 8-4
Tolerance requirements for surface
finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3c 8-4
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3c(1) 8-4
Control surface tolerance by
straightedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3c(2) 8-4
Control floor tolerance by F-number
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3c(3) 8-4
Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 8-5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4a 8-5
Moist curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4b 8-5
Membrane curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4c 8-5
Sheet curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4d 8-5
Cold-Weather Concreting . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 8-6
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5a 8-6
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5b 8-6
Protection system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5c 8-6
Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5d 8-6
Accelerating early strength . . . . . . 8-5e 8-7
Hot-Weather Concreting . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 8-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6a 8-7
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6b 8-7
Alleviating measures . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6c 8-7
Placing temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6d 8-8
Plastic-shrinkage cracks . . . . . . . . 8-6e 8-8
Effect on strength and durability . . 8-6f 8-8
Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6g 8-9
Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6h 8-9
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Chapter 9
Concrete Quality Verification and Testing
Quality verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1a 9-1
Government quality assurance . . . . 9-1b 9-1
Quality assurance representative . 9-1b(1) 9-1
Testing technicians . . . . . . . . . . 9-1b(2) 9-1
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1b(3) 9-2
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1b(4) 9-2
Required Sampling and Testing
for CQC and GQC . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9-3
Aggregate grading . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2a 9-3
Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2a(1) 9-3
Size of samples . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2a(2) 9-3
Aggregate quality - large project . . 9-2b 9-4
Free moisture on aggregates . . . . . 9-2c 9-4
Slump and air content . . . . . . . . . . 9-2d 9-4
Concrete temperature . . . . . . . . . . 9-2e 9-4
Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . 9-2f 9-4
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2f(1) 9-4
Testing responsibility . . . . . . . . 9-2f(2) 9-5
Sampling plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2f(3) 9-5
Frequency and testing age . . . . . 9-2f(4) 9-5
Sampling and testing methods . . 9-2f(5) 9-5
Analysis of tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2f(6) 9-5
Control criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2f(7) 9-6
Prediction of later age strengths . 9-2f(8) 9-6
Nondestructive Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 9-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3a 9-7
Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3b 9-7
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3c 9-7
Nondestructive testing methods . . . 9-3d 9-7
Rebound hammer . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3d(1) 9-7
Penetration resistance . . . . . . . . 9-3d(2) 9-7
Cast-in-place pullout tests . . . . . 9-3d(3) 9-8
Maturity method . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3d(4) 9-8
Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3d(5) 9-8
Pulse velocity method . . . . . . . . 9-3d(6) 9-8
Other methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3d(7) 9-9
Preplacement Quality Verification . . . . 9-4 9-9
Project Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 9-9
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5a 9-9
Space requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5b 9-9
Large-volume project . . . . . . . . 9-5b(1) 9-9
Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5b(2) 9-9
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5c 9-9
Large-volume project . . . . . . . . 9-5c(1) 9-9
Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5c(2) 9-10
Chapter 10
Special Concretes
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10-1
Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete . . . . . . . 10-2 10-1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2a 10-1
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2b 10-1
Materials and proportioning . . . . . . 10-2c 10-1
Preplacing aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2d 10-2
Contaminated water . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2e 10-2
Preparation of underwater
foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2f 10-2
Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2g 10-2
Joint construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2h 10-2
Grouting procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2i 10-3
Horizontal layer . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2i(1) 10-3
Advancing slope . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2i(2) 10-3
Grout insert pipes and sounding
devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2i(3) 10-3
Finishing unformed surfaces . . . . . 10-2j 10-3
Underwater Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10-3
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3a 10-3
Tremie concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3b 10-4
Pumped concrete for use
underwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3c 10-4
Blockout Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10-5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4a 10-5
Blockout concrete proportions . . . . 10-4b 10-5
High-Strength Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5 10-5
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5a 10-5
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5b 10-5
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5c 10-5
Cement type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5d 10-5
Cement content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5e 10-6
Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5f 10-6
Pozzolans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5g 10-6
Use of HRWRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5h 10-6
Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5i 10-6
Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5j 10-6
Material handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5k 10-6
Preparation for placing . . . . . . . . . 10-5l 10-7
Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5m 10-7
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5n 10-7
Pumped Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6 10-7
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6a 10-7
Pump lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6b 10-7
Mixture proportions . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6c 10-7
Coarse aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6d 10-7
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Fine aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6e 10-8
Slump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6f 10-8
Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6g 10-8
Pumpability tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6h 10-8
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6i 10-8
Other requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6j 10-8
Quality verification . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6k 10-8
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . 10-7 10-9
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7a 10-9
Advantages and limitations . . . . . . 10-7b 10-9
Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7c 10-9
Performance characteristics . . . . . . 10-7d 10-9
Mixture proportioning . . . . . . . . . . 10-7e 10-9
Batching and mixing . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7f 10-9
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7g 10-10
Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7h 10-10
Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7i 10-10
Other fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7j 10-10
Effects of polypropylene fibers
on workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7k 10-10
Use of polypropylene fibers . . . . . . 10-7l 10-10
Porous Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8 10-10
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8a 10-10
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8b 10-10
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8c 10-11
W/C considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8d 10-11
Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8e 10-11
Percent voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8f 10-11
Proportioning porous concrete
mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8g 10-11
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8h 10-11
Flowing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9 10-11
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9a 10-11
HRWRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9b 10-12
Proportioining flowing concrete . . . 10-9c 10-12
Flowing concrete fresh properties . . 10-9d 10-12
Flowing concrete hardened
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-9e 10-12
Silica-Fume Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10 10-12
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10a 10-12
Properties of silica fume . . . . . . . . 10-10b 10-12
Effect on water demand and
bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10c 10-12
Effect on cohesiveness . . . . . . . . . 10-10d 10-13
Effect on air entrainment . . . . . . . . 10-10e 10-13
Effect on plastic shrinkage . . . . . . 10-10f 10-13
Effect on strength and modulus
of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10g 10-13
Effect on permeability and durability 10-10h 10-13
Chapter 11
Concrete Report
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11-1
Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1a 11-1
Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1b 11-1
Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1c 11-1
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2 11-1
Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2a 11-1
Detailed instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b 11-1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(1) 11-1
Aggregate sources . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(2) 11-1
Aggregate production . . . . . . . . 11-2b(3) 11-1
Cementitious materials . . . . . . . 11-2b(4) 11-4
Chemical admixtures . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(5) 11-4
Concrete batching and mixing
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(6) 11-4
Concrete mixtures used . . . . . . . 11-2b(7) 11-4
Equipment and techniques . . . . . 11-2b(8) 11-4
Concrete transportation and
placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(9) 11-4
Concrete curing and protection . . 11-2b(10) 11-4
Temperature control . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(11) 11-4
Special concretes . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(12) 11-4
Precast concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(13) 11-4
Quality verification and testing . . 11-2b(14) 11-4
Summary of test data . . . . . . . . 11-2b(15) 11-4
Special problems . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2b(16) 11-5
Appendix A
References
Appendix B
Abbreviations
Appendix C
Concrete Materials Design Memorandum
Appendix D
Alkali-Silica Aggregate Reactions
Appendix E
Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reactions
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EM 1110-2-2000
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1-1. Purpose
The purpose of this manual is to provide information and
guidance for the investigation and selection of concrete
materials for civil works concrete structures. Elements
discussed include design studies and reports, preparation of
contract plans and specifications, construction preparation,
and concrete construction quality verification. Emphasis is
placed on the problems of concrete for hydraulic structures.
Roller-compacted concrete, shotcrete, rigid pavements,
architectural concrete, and concrete for repairs are not
included. These subjects are discussed in EM 1110-2-2006,
Roller-Compacted Concrete; EM 1110-2-2005, Standard
Practice for Shotcrete; TM 5-822-7, Standard Practice for
Concrete Pavements; EM 1110-1-2009, Architectural
Concrete; and EM 1110-2-2002, Evaluation and Repair of
Concrete Structures, respectively.
1-2. Applicability
This manual is applicable to all HQUSACE elements, major
subordinate commands, districts, laboratories, and field
operating activities having civil works responsibilities.
1-3. References
Applicable references are listed in Appendix A. The most
current versions of all references listed in paragraphs A-1
and A-2 should be maintained in all districts and divisions
having civil works responsibilities. The references should
be maintained in a location readily accessible to those
persons assigned the responsibility for concrete materials
investigations and concrete construction. Terms used in this
document are defined in ACI 116R.
1-4. Explanation of Abbreviations
Abbreviations used in this manual are explained in
Appendix B.
1-5. Engineering Responsibilities and
Requirements
This paragraph outlines the concrete-related engineering
responsibilities and requirements during the development of
a civil works project. A summary of these engineering
requirements is presented in Table 1-1. Deviations from the
requirements described in this paragraph are possible, and
such an option as progression from a feasibility report
directly to plans and specifications may be permissible.
Requests for exceptions or deviations should be made in
accordance with ER 1110-2-1150.
a. Reconnaissance phase. Concrete investigation is
generally not required during the reconnaissance phase.
However, the engineering effort and budget required for
concrete investigation during the feasibility phase should be
identified and included in the Feasibility Cost-Sharing
Agreement (FCSA).
b. Feasibility phase. During the feasibility phase, a
preliminary investigation, in accordance with the
requirements given in Chapter 2, should be conducted to
determine the potential sources and suitability of concrete
materials. The engineering effort during this phase should
be sufficient so that the baseline cost estimate with
reasonable contingency factors for concrete materials can be
developed. The potential sources and suitability of concrete
materials for the project should be documented in the
engineering appendix to the feasibility report (or in a
general design memorandum (GDM)) in accordance with
ER 1110-2-1150, Engineering and Design for Civil Works
Projects. Any special studies required during the
preconstruction engineering and design (PED) phase should
be identified. These special studies may include, but not be
limited to, thermal studies, abrasion-erosion studies, mixer
grinding studies, and cavitation studies. The budget and
schedules for these special studies and for the concrete
report should be included in the project management plan
(PMP).
c. Preconstruction engineering and design
phase. During the PED phase and prior to the preparation
of plans and specifications (P&S), a detailed engineering
investigation on concrete materials, including cementitious
materials, aggregates, water for mixing and curing, and
chemical admixtures, should be conducted in accordance
with the requirements given in Chapter 2. Concrete mixture
proportioning and concrete construction procedures should
be investigated in accordance with pertinent requirements in
Chapters 4 and 7, respectively. The results of these
investigations should be documented in a concrete/materials
design memorandum (DM). The scope and format for the
DM will vary depending on the quantities and criticality of
concrete involved as outlined in Appendix C. Any special
studies identified in the feasibility phase should be carried
out during the PED. The concrete plans and specifications
should be prepared in accordance with Chapter 5. For any
project which includes major concrete construction, a report
outlining the engineering considerations and providing
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Table 1-1
Concrete-Related Engineering Responsibilities and Requirements
Phase Engineering Efforts Document
Reconnaissance Identify engineering efforts and budget
required for concrete investigation
during the feasibility phase
Input to FCSA
Feasibility Preliminary investigations to determine
the potential sources and suitability of
concrete materials
Engineering appendix to Feasibility Report or
GDM
Identify the engineering requirements,
budget, and schedules for the special
studies required during PED.
Engineering appendix to Feasibility Report (or
GDM) and PMP
PED Detailed investigations on concrete
materials, preliminary mixture
proportioning, and concrete construction
procedures
Concrete materials DM
Perform special studies DM or special study reports
Prepare concrete P&S ’s P&S
Prepare engineering considerations and
instructions for field personnel
Report
Construction Develop, adjust, or evaluate mixture
proportions
Site visits and QV
Support for concrete claims and
modifications
Prepare concrete report Concrete Report
instruction for field personnel to aid them in the supervision
and quality verification (QV) of concrete construction
should be prepared in accordance with Chapter 6.
d. Construction phase. Engineering effort during the
construction phase generally includes development,
adjustment or evaluation of mixture proportions, or both,
site visits and QV, support for concrete claims and
modifications, and preparation of a concrete report. The
concrete construction QV requirements are given in
Chapter 9. The guidelines for preparing a concrete report
can be found in Chapter 11.
1-6. Delays in Contract Awards
If delays of 5 years or longer occur between the time of
completion of the relevant concrete materials DM and the
start of construction, it will be necessary to reconfirm the
validity of the findings of the DM immediately prior to the
issuance of P&S’s to prospective bidders. The availability
of the types and sources of cementitious materials should be
rechecked. If changes have occurred, it may be necessary
to conduct tests to determine the suitability of the currently
available cementitious materials in combination with the
available aggregates and present findings in supplements to
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the earlier concrete materials DM. Aggregate sources that
have not been used in the period between the aggregate
investigations and the preparation for the contract award
may be assumed to remain acceptable. Commercial
aggregates sources that have been used should be examined
to verify that adequate materials remain in the pit or quarry
and that the lithology has not changed as materials have
been removed. If significant changes have occurred, they
should be confirmed petrographically. Depending on the
results of the petrographic examination, it may be necessary
to reevaluate the aggregate source for suitability. The
results of such a reevaluation should be presented as a
supplement to the earlier concrete materials DM.
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Chapter 2
Investigation and Selection of Materials
2-1. Introduction
During the investigations for a civil works structure that
incorporates concrete, it is necessary to assess the
availability and suitability of the materials needed to
manufacture concrete with qualities meeting the structural
and durability requirements. Materials involved include
cementitious materials, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate,
water for mixing and curing, and chemical admixtures.
These investigations will result in a separate DM or a
portion of a DM, in accordance with Appendix C.
2-2. Cementitious Materials
a. General. The goal of the investigation of
cementitious materials should be to determine the suitability
and availability of the various types of cement, pozzolan,
and ground granulated blast-furnace (GGBF) slag for the
structures involved and to select necessary options that may
be needed with the available aggregates. In cases where
types or quantities of available cementitious materials are
unusually limited, it may be necessary to consider altered
structural shapes, changing the types of structure, altered
construction sequence, imported aggregates, or other means
of achieving an economical, serviceable structure.
b. Types. The following types of cementitious
material should be considered when selecting the materials:
(1) Portland cement. Portland cement and air-
entraining portland cement are described in American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C 150
(CRD-C 201).
(2) Blended hydraulic cement. The types of blended
hydraulic cements are described in ASTM C 595
(CRD-C 203). ASTM Type I (PM) shall not be used;
reference paragraph 4-3b(7) of this manual.
(3) Pozzolan. Coal fly ash and natural pozzolan are
classified and defined in ASTM C 618 (CRD-C 255).
(4) GGBF slag. GGBF slag is described in ASTM C
989 (CRD-C 205).
* Test methods cited in this manner are from the American Society for
Testing and Materials Annual Book of ASTM Standards (ASTM 1992)
and from Handbook of Concrete and Cement (U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station (USAEWES) 1949), respectively.
(5) Other hydraulic cements.
(a) Expansive hydraulic cement. Expansive hydraulic
cements are described in ASTM C 845 (CRD-C 204).
(b) Calcium-aluminate cement. Calcium-aluminate
cements (also called high-alumina cement) are characterized
by a rapid strength gain, high resistance to sulfate attack,
resistance to acid attack, and resistance to high temperatures.
However, strength is lost at mildly elevated temperatures
(e.g. >85 °F) in the presence of moisture. This negative
feature makes calcium-aluminate cement impractical for
most construction. It is used predominantly in the
manufacture of refractory materials.
(c) Proprietary high early-strength cements. Cements
are available that gain strength very rapidly, sometimes
reaching compressive strengths of several thousand pounds
per square in. (psi) in a few hours. These cements are
marketed under various brand names. They are often not
widely available, and the cost is much higher than portland
cement. The extremely rapid strength gain makes them
particularly suitable for pavement patching.
(6) Silica fume. Silica fume is a pozzolan. It is a
byproduct of silicon and ferro-silicon alloy production.
Silica fume usually contains about 90 percent SiO2 in
microscopic particles in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 µm. These
properties make it an efficient filler as well as a very
reactive pozzolan. Silica fume combined with a high-range
* water reducer is used in very high-strength concrete. Silica
fume is described in ASTM C1240 (CRD-C270). Detailed
information can be found in paragraphs 2-2d(5) and 10-10.*
(7) Air-entraining portland cement. Air-entraining
portland cement is only allowed for use on structures co-
vered by the specifications for "Concrete for Minor Struc-
tures," CW-03307. Air-entraining admixtures are used on
all other Corps civil works structures since this allows the
air content to be closely controlled and varied if need be.
c. Selection of cementitious materials.
(1) General. The selection of one or several suitable
cementitious materials for a concrete structure depends on
the exposure conditions, the type of structure, the
characteristics of the aggregate, availability of the
cementitious material, and the method of construction.
(2) Type of structure. The type of structure, i.e. mass
or structural, provides an indication of the category of
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concrete that the structure may contain. Mass concrete is
defined as any volume of concrete with dimensions large
enough to require that measures be taken to cope with
generation of heat from hydration of the cementitious
materials and attendant volume change to minimize
cracking. A gravity dam and a navigation lock are
examples of massive structures. Structural concrete is
defined as concrete which will normally be placed in
reinforced structural elements such as beams, columns,
walls, and slabs that have dimensions such that heat
generation is not a problem. Many features of a structure
will fall between the two extremes of being either strictly
massive or structural, and the designer will need to decide
if measures to limit or mitigate the heat generation will be
required. For example, reinforced walls and slabs of 4- to
6-ft thickness in a pumping station that contains 3,000- to
5,000-psi concrete would probably generate sufficient heat
that measures should be taken to limit either the peak
temperature of the concrete or the rate at which heat is lost
from the concrete after the peak temperature is reached.
The factors that affect the amount of heat that is generated
and the peak temperature that the concrete will reach are the
amount and type of cementitious materials in the concrete,
the size of the placement, and the initial placing
temperature.
(a) Table 2-1 lists cementitious materials that should
be investigated for availability and suitability, according to
the type of structure. Other more specialized cementitious
materials, such as Type V portland cement or proprietary
high-early strength cement, should be investigated if needed.
(b) Specification details. Type II cement is described
by ASTM C 150 (CRD-C 201) as a cement for use when
moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of hydration is
desired. The heat-of-hydration part of this description
requires that the 70-calorie/gram optional limit be specified.
Many Type II cements evolve heat at rates comparable to
those of Type I cements. The chemical requirement which
is in ASTM C 150 for the purpose of limiting heats of
hydration is not a satisfactory means of assuring reduced
heat of hydration and should not be used. Neither Type IV
portland cement nor Type P portland-pozzolan cement are
generally available at the present time. Both also exhibit
very low rates of strength gain. These characteristics should
be addressed in the concrete materials DM prior to
specifying either type. ASTM C 989 (CRD-C 205) includes
a provision for three grades of GGBF slag, grade 120,
which contributes to the fastest strength development, grade
100 which is an intermediate grade, and grade 80 which
contributes least to strength development. However, at
present, only grade 120 is available. Generally, if other
grades were available, grade 80, 100, or 120 should be
considered for use in mass concrete, and grades 100 and
120 should be considered for use in structural concrete.
(3) Other requirements.
(a) General. The investigation of cementitious
materials must include an assessment of the impact on cost
and availability of special requirements or options.
Provisions that limit the heat of hydration, provide sulfate
resistance, limit the alkali content, or control false set should
be invoked based on a demonstrated need for cement having
these characteristics.
(b) Sulfate exposures. Precautions against the
potentially harmful effects of sulfate will be specified when
concrete is to be exposed to seawater or the concentration
of water-soluble sulfate (SO4) in soil or in fresh water that
will be in contact with the concrete (as determined by
CRD-C 403 and 408) is greater than 0.10 percent or 150
parts per million (ppm,) respectively. Concentrations higher
than these will be classified as representing moderate or
severe potential exposures according to the criteria shown in
Table 2-2. The precautions to be specified will vary with
the availability and anticipated costs of materials and with
other factors. Where moderate attack is to be resisted,
moderate sulfate-resisting cement (Type II, Type III with the
optional 8 percent limit on C3A invoked, Type IP(MS),
Type IS(MS), or Type P(MS)) should be specified. In
seawater where no greater precautions than moderate are
needed, the 8-percent limit on C3A may be increased to 10
percent if the water-cement ratio (w/c) of the concrete is
kept below 0.45 by mass and the concrete will be
permanently submerged in seawater. If moderate sulfate-
resisting cement is not economically available, concrete that
is resistant to moderate attack may be made by using Type
I cement having not more than 10 percent C3A or Types IS
or IP which contain an adequate amount of suitable Class F
pozzolan or slag or to which additional Class F pozzolan or
slag is added. Performance tests must be conducted to
determine the suitability of any substitutes for sulfate-
resistant cement. If straight portland cement is proposed,
the test method is described in ASTM C 452 (CRD-C 232).
If a blend of portland cement and pozzolan or a blended
hydraulic cement is proposed, the test method is ASTM C
1012 (CRD-C 211). Where severe attack is to be resisted,
highly sulfate-resistant cement (Type V, Type III with
5 percent limit on C3A) should be specified and used unless
problems of cost or availability are encountered, in which
case other materials as outlined above should be taken.
Additional information may be obtained from American
Concrete Institute (ACI) 201.2R.
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Table 2-1
Guide for Selection of Cementitious Materials According to Type Structure
Cementitious Material Mass Concrete Structural Concrete
Portland cement:
Type I X
Type II X X
Type II with heat of
hydration 70 cal/g or less
X X
Type I with pozzolan X
Type II with pozzolan X X
Type I with GGBF slag X
Type II with GGBF slag X X
Type III X
Type IV X
Blended hydraulic cements:
Type IS(MH) X X
Type IS X
Type IP(MH) X X
Type IP X
Type P X
Type P(LH) X
Type I(SM) X
Type I(SM), (MH) X
Type S, with Type I or Type II
Portland cement
X
Table 2-2
Guide for Determining Sulfate Exposure Condition
Exposure condition
SO4 concentration,
Fresh water
SO4 concentration,
Soil, %
Moderate 150 - 1,500 ppm 0.10 - 0.20
Severe >1,500 ppm >0.20
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(c) False set. False set is one type of the abnormal
premature stiffening of cement within a few minutes of
mixing with water. Remixing of the concrete after a few
minutes of maintaining the mixer at rest or a longer initial
mixing time will restore the plasticity of the mixture, and it
will then set and gain strength normally. False set normally
does not occur when ready-mix trucks are used to transport
concrete because of the length of the mixing cycle. When
such lengthy mixing or a remix step, as described above, is
impractical, then the optional requirement limiting false set
in ASTM C 150 (CRD-C 201) should be invoked. When
premature stiffening cannot be overcome by additional
mixing, it is probably "flash set" due to inadequate
retardation of the cement during manufacture.
(d) Cement-admixture interaction. Some cement-
admixture combinations show no tendency to cause early
stiffening when tested according to ASTM C 451 (CRD-C
259) but will cause early stiffening when used with some
water-reducing admixtures. The phenomenon can be
detected by testing the cement and admixture proposed for
use according to ASTM C 451. Also see paragraph 2-5 on
chemical admixtures.
(e) Alkali reactivity. The potential for deleterious
reactivity of the alkalies in the cement with the aggregate
should be evaluated as outlined in Appendixes D and E of
this manual. If the aggregates are potentially reactive,
paragraph D-6 presents options, including disapproval of the
aggregate source, use of low-alkali cements, or use of
GGBF slag or pozzolans.
(f) Heat of hydration. The heat of hydration should be
limited in those cases where thermal strains induced on
cooling of the concrete are likely to exceed the strain
capacity of the concrete in the structure. This is
accomplished by specifying the available option for limiting
the heat of hydration for Type II portland cement or using
Type IV cement, if available. For blended hydraulic
cements, the heat of hydration is limited by specifying the
suffix (MH) for Type IS, I(SM), IP, S, and (LH) for Type
P. The replacement of a portion of the portland cement or
in some cases blended hydraulic cement with a pozzolan or
GGBF slag should always be considered. The heat
generation of each proposed cement type and each
combination of cement and pozzolan or slag should be
determined. The amount of heat generated should be equal
to or less than the amount generated by the Type II with
heat-of-hydration option which is also normally specified.
(4) Requirements for use of other hydraulic cements.
(a) Expansive hydraulic cement. Expansive cements
have been used in floor slabs, in the top lifts of some lock
walls, and in the lining slab of spillway channels to reduce
shrinkage cracking. The applications have generally been
accomplished in closely controlled situations and after
extensive investigation. Additional reinforcement is usually
required to control the expansion. Since the use of
expansive cements in water-control structures is far from
common, its proposed use will require a comprehensive
investigation to be included in the concrete-materials DM.
(b) High-alumina cement. High-alumina cement is not
normally used in civil works structures and should be
considered only in those locations which justify its added
cost and after investigating the possible effects of its
tendency to lose strength when exposed to heat and
moisture. Its use should be preceded by a comprehensive
investigation which is made a part of the concrete materials
DM.
(c) Proprietary high early-strength cements. Cements
that develop high strength within a few hours are often
considered for use in cold weather applications or for repair
applications, or both, that are required to bear load soon
after finishing. The investigation that precedes its use
should determine availability and the characteristics of the
available material. The results of the investigation should
be included in the concrete materials DM.
(5) Pozzolans. The classes of pozzolans most likely
to be available are classes F and C fly ash and silica fume.
Class N may be considered at those sites where a source of
natural pozzolan is available.
(a) Regulations governing use of fly ash. The Solid
Waste Disposal Act, Section 6002, as amended by the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, requires
all agencies using Federal funds in construction to allow the
use of fly ash in the concrete unless such use can be shown
to be technically improper. The basis of this regulation is
both energy savings and waste disposal, since most fly ash
in use today is the result of the burning of coal for electrical
power.
(b) General. The use of pozzolan should be
considered coincident with the consideration of the types of
available cements. Portland cement to be used alone should
always be considered in the specifications as well as
blended hydraulic cements or the combination of portland
cement with slag cement or pozzolan unless one or the latter
is determined to be technically improper. Classes F and C
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fly ash are generally accepted on all Corps of Engineers’
(CE) civil works projects, and their use should be allowed
in all specifications unless there are technical reasons not to
do so.
(c) Class F pozzolan. Class F pozzolan is a fly ash
usually obtained from burning anthracite or bituminous coal
and is the class of fly ash that has been most commonly
used to date. It must contain at least 70.0 percent of
Si02 + Al203 + Fe203 by chemical analysis.
(d) Class C pozzolan. Class C pozzolan is a fly ash
that is usually obtained from the burning of lignite or
subbituminous coal. It must contain at least 50.0 percent
of Si02 + Al203 + Fe203 .
(e) Other considerations. Class C fly ashes often
contain considerably more alkalies than do Class F fly
ashes. However, when use of either class in applications
where alkali-aggregate reaction is likely, the optional
available alkali requirement of ASTM C 618 (CRD-C 255)
should be specified. Use of Class F fly ash in replacement
of portland cement results in reduction of heat of hydration
of the cementitious materials at early ages. Use of Class C
fly ash in the same proportions usually results in
substantially less reduction in heat of hydration. An
analysis of the importance of this effect should be made if
Class C fly ash is being considered for use in a mass
concrete application. See paragraph 3-2b, "Thermal
Studies." Class F fly ash generally increases resistance to
sulfate attack. However, if the portland cement is of high
C3A content, the amount of improvement may not be
sufficient so that the combined cementitious materials are
equivalent to a Type II or a Type V portland cement. This
can be determined by testing according to ASTM C 1012
(CRD-C 211). Class C fly ashes are quite variable in their
performance in sulfate environments, and their performance
should always be verified by testing with the portland
cement intended for use. Both Class F and Class C fly
ashes have been found to delay for initial and final set.
This retarding action should be taken into consideration if
important to the structure. Most Class C and Class F fly
ashes are capable of reducing the expansion from the alkali-
silica reaction. Use of an effective fly ash may eliminate
the need to specify low-alkali cement when a reactive
aggregate is used. The effectiveness of the fly ash must be
verified by ASTM C 441 (CRD-C 257). For additional
information, see Appendixes D and E.
(f) Class N pozzolan. Class N is raw or calcined
natural pozzolans such as some diatomaceous earths, opaline
cherts, tuffs, and volcanic ashes such as pumicite.
(g) Silica fume. Silica fume is a pozzolan. It is a
byproduct of the manufacture of silicon or silicon alloys.
The material is considerably more expensive than other
pozzolans. Properties of silica fume vary with the type of
silicon or silicon alloy produced, but in general, a silica
fume is a very finely divided product and consequently is
used in concrete in different proportions and for different
applications than are the more conventional pozzolans
discussed in the previous paragraphs. Applications for
which silica fume is used are in the production of concrete
having very high strengths, high abrasion resistance, very
low permeability, and increased aggregate bond strength.
However, certain precautions should be taken when
specifying silica-fume concretes. Use of silica fume
produces a sticky paste and an increased water demand for
equal slump. These characteristics are normally
counteracted by using high-range water-reducing admixtures
(HRWRA) to achieve the required slump. This
combination, together with an air-entraining admixture, may
cause a coarse air-void system. The higher water demand
for silica-fume concrete greatly reduces or eliminates
bleeding, which in turn tends to increase the likelihood of
plastic shrinkage cracking. Therefore, steps should be taken
as early as possible to minimize moisture loss, and the
curing period should be increased over that required for
conventional concrete. For additional information, see
paragraph 10-10i.
d. Availability investigation of cementitious materials.
(1) General. Following the investigation outlined
previously in paragraph 2-1c to determine the technical
requirements of the cementitious materials for a project, it
is necessary to assess availability of those materials in the
project area. Technical requirements to use a certain type
or kind of cementitious material to assure long-term
durability and serviceability of the structure shall not be
compromised because of the cost of obtaining the material.
All cementitious materials should be furnished by the
Contractor. The contract specifications should allow the
Contractor maximum flexibility to provide cementitious
materials that meet the technical requirements for the
project. The investigation should cover an area sufficient to
provide at least two sources of each cementitious material
to provide price competition. An estimate of the cost per
ton of each material delivered to the project should be
secured from each producer. The key objective of the
availability investigation is to ensure that materials meeting
the technical requirements can be obtained by the
Contractor.
(2) Portland cement and blended hydraulic cements.
The availability of the technically acceptable portland
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cement and blended hydraulic cement types must be invest-
igated prior to listing materials in the DM or the contract
specifications. Any optional physical or chemical require-
ments from ASTM C 150 (CRD-C 201) or ASTM C 595
(CRD-C 203) that are to be invoked by the designer must be
considered during the investigation. For example, Type II
cement or Type IP blended hydraulic cement may be readily
available in the project area, but when the heat-of-hydration
option is invoked from ASTM C 150 for portland cement or
from ASTM C 595 for blended hydraulic cement, the
availability may be severely reduced. Producers in the
project area should be queried about their current production
and also about their ability and willingness to produce
material that meets any optional physical or chemical
requirements that the designer deems necessary.
(3) Pozzolans. The availability of technically
acceptable pozzolans, both natural pozzolans and fly ashes,
must be investigated prior to listing materials in the contract
specifications. Normally, only commercial sources of
natural pozzolan and fly ash that are economically viable for
use on the project will need to be investigated.
Undeveloped sources of natural pozzolans should not be
investigated unless there are no other sources of pozzolan
available. CECW-EG should be contacted for guidance in
evaluating an undeveloped source of natural pozzolan. The
availability investigation should include any optional
chemical or physical options from ASTM 618 (CRD-C 255)
that the designer needs to invoke for technical reasons.
Producers in the project area should be queried about their
production and material properties and also about their
ability and willingness to produce material that meets any
optional requirements that the designer deems necessary. It
should be stressed that the uniformity requirement in
ASTM 618 will be required.
(4) GGBF slag. The availability of technically
acceptable GGBF slag must be investigated prior to listing
it in the contract specifications. Availability is presently
limited and only Grade 120 material is being produced.
GGBF slag must meet the requirements of ASTM C 989
(CRD-C 205).
(5) Silica fume. Silica fume is generally available
only from national distributors as a proprietary material. It
* is a relatively expensive material. Therefore, it is rarely
used in mass concrete structures but more likely in structural
concrete and shotcrete applications. When specifying silica
fume, the optional requirement of specific surface area in
ASTM C 1240 Table 4 should be invoked in all cases. The
optional Table 2 in ASTM C 1240 should be used only if
low alkali cement is required. The uniformity requirement
in Table 4 should be invoked when concrete is air-entrained.
The sulfate resistance expansion requirement in Table 4
need not be included except in areas where sulfate attack is
expected. All other optional requirements in Table 4 need
not be specified unless past experiences or environment
conditions justify these tests. *
2-3. Aggregates
a. General. One of the most important factors in
establishing the quality and economy of concrete is a
determination of the quality and quantity of aggregates
available to the project. Preliminary investigation to
determine potential aggregate sources should be performed
during the feasibility phase, and detailed investigations
should be performed during the PED prior to issuance of
P&S’s. All sources investigated during the PED should be
documented in the appropriate DM, and those sources found
capable of producing aggregates of suitable quality should
be listed for the Contractor’s information in the
specifications. Ideally, the sources investigated should be
within a few miles of the project; however, depending on
the quality of aggregates required and the availability of
transportation, aggregates may be transported a considerable
distance. Not all sources within a certain distance of a
project need be investigated, but representative sources from
various kinds of sources in the vicinity must be evaluated to
establish the quality of aggregates that can be produced.
The investigation should be comprehensive enough to assure
that more than one source of each aggregate type and size
is available to the Contractor. The decision of whether or
not to investigate a potential source should not be based on
the grading of materials currently stockpiled at the source
but should be based on determining the quality of the
aggregate from the source or formation. The
Contractor/producer should be given the opportunity during
construction to adjust his processing to meet the grading
specified. The investigation will result in a list of aggregate
qualities that are required for the project and an acceptance
limit for each quality. The aggregate qualities and their
respective limits must be documented in a DM and will be
used in preparation of specifications for the project.
(1) Sources of aggregate (Government or commercial).
The decision to investigate a Government source or only
commercial sources is based on appraisal of the economic
feasibility of an onsite source when compared to commercial
sources that contain aggregate of adequate quality and that
are within economic hauling distance of the project. The
appraisal should also consider the environmental
consequences of opening and restoring the Government site.
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If a Government source is investigated, it will be owned or
controlled by the Government and will be made available to
the Contractor for the production of aggregate. The
presence of a Government source does not preclude the
investigation of commercial sources that appear to be
economically feasible. All sources investigated will be
documented in the appropriate DM.
(2) Minor structures. For minor structural projects,
the source of aggregate need not be listed since a quality
requirement is specified by reference to ASTM C 33
(CRD-C 133). Before specifications are issued, the
availability of aggregate meeting these requirements should
be determined. If none are economically available to the
project, then the specifications should be altered to allow the
use of the specification under which most of the satisfactory
aggregate in the area is produced, whether that be a state or
local specification.
b. Availability investigation.
(1) General. The objectives of the availability
investigation are to determine the required aggregate quality
for the project, the quality of the aggregate available to the
project, and that sufficient quantity of the required quality
is available. The required aggregate quality is stated in the
appropriate DM as a list of aggregate properties and their
respective acceptance test limits. Preliminary investigations
to determine the potential sources and the required aggregate
quality shall be performed during the feasibility phase and
the results documented in the engineering appendix to the
feasibility report. During the PED, field explorations and
sampling and testing of aggregates should be initiated based
on the work previously completed in the feasibility report.
This activity should be continued with an increasingly
expanded scope through the completion of the concrete
materials DM. If satisfactory Technical Memorandum No.
6-370, "Test Data, Concrete Aggregates and Riprap Stone in
Continental United States and Alaska" (USAEWES 1953),
data are available and less than 5 years old, it will not be
necessary to repeat the sampling and testing of those sources
for which such data are available. See Appendix C for
further guidance on the scope of the investigation.
(2) Service records. Service records can be of great
value in establishing the quality of an aggregate where
reliable information on the materials used to produce the in
situ concrete, construction procedures, and job control are
available. The service record must be of sufficient time to
assure that possible deleterious processes have had time to
manifest themselves and the existing structure must be in
the same environment that the proposed structure will be
subjected to. Photographs should be used to document the
condition of the in situ concrete.
(3) Field exploration and sampling of undeveloped
sources. In undeveloped potential quarries, field
explorations should consist of a general pattern of core
borings arranged to reveal the characteristic variations and
quality of material within the deposit. Representative
portions of the cores should be logged in detail and should
be selected for laboratory testing in accordance with
CRD-C 100. In addition to the small holes, large calyx drill
holes should be used to obtain large samples for processing
into aggregate similar to that required for the project,
unless a test quarry or test pit is to be opened. Additional
information on the exploration of undeveloped quarry
sources is available in EM 1110-1-1804, "Geotechnical
Investigations," and EM 1110-2-2302, "Construction with
Large Stone," and these references should be consulted prior
to undertaking an investigation. During PED, for a source
of crushed stone for a large project, a test quarry should be
opened and samples tested to assure that the required quality
is available. In the case of undeveloped alluvial deposits,
explorations should consist of a sufficient number of test
pits, trenches, and holes to indicate characteristic variations
in quality and quantity of material in the deposit. Grading
of materials in alluvial deposits should be determined to
establish grading trends within the deposits. Representative
samples of materials should be selected for laboratory
testing in accordance with CRD-C 100. Procedures for
making subsurface explorations are described in
EM 1110-1-1804, "Geotechnical Investigations."
(4) Field exploration and sampling of developed
sources. In commercial sources, a thorough geologic
evaluation should be made of the deposit from which the
raw materials are being obtained to determine the extent of
the deposit and whether or not material remaining in the
deposit may be expected to be essentially the same as that
recovered from the source at the time of the examinations.
In quarries and mines, working faces should be examined,
logged, sampled, photographed, and when considered
necessary, mapped. When available, results of and samples
from subsurface explorations performed by the owner should
be examined and evaluated. Where no subsurface
information is available and proper appraisal cannot be
made without it, arrangements should be made with the
owner to conduct the necessary subsurface explorations.
The primary source of samples for quality evaluation testing
should be from material produced at the time of the
investigation. These samples should be supplemented by
samples from working faces and subsurface explorations.
All samples should be taken in accordance with
CRD-C 100.
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EM 1110-2-2000
1 Feb 94
(5) Testing potential aggregate sources. During the
PED phase, there should be sufficient testing to define the
quality of aggregates available within an economic hauling
distance of the project. The sampling and testing program
should be designed to evaluate geologic formations,
deposits, strata, or rock type available to the project. It is
not necessary to sample and test all producers within the
economic hauling distance of the project.
(6) Evaluating aggregate qualities.
(a) Significance of test results. Aggregate quality
cannot be measured by fixed numbers from laboratory test
results only. These results should be used as indicators of
quality rather than as positive numerical measures of
quality. An aggregate may still be considered acceptable for
a given project even though a portion of the test results fall
outside the conventional limits found in reference standards
such as ASTM C 33 (CRD-C 133). Results of individual
tests should be considered and the final judgment should be
based on overall performance, including service records
where available. The cost of obtaining aggregates of the
quality necessary to assure durability during the life of the
project should not be a factor in establishing the required
quality. The incremental cost of obtaining quality
aggregates during initial construction is always less than the
cost of repairs if concrete deteriorates during the service life
of the project due to aggregate deficiencies. Detailed
discussions of the interpretation of aggregate test data can
be found in ACI 221R and EM 1110-2-2302, "Construction
with Large Stone." See also the discussion in paragraph
2-3b(9)(b), "Acceptance Criteria."
(b) Petrographic examination (ASTM C 295 (CRD-C
127)). Results of a petrographic examination should be
used both for assessing the suitability of materials and for
determining what laboratory tests may be necessary to
evaluate the suitability of materials for use as concrete
aggregate. Petrographic examination is performed for two
purposes: (1) lithologic and mineralogic identification and
classification and (2) determination of composition, physical,
and chemical characteristics. From this examination, a
description of material should be written and a preliminary
estimate of the general quality of the material should be
made. It is possible to identify the presence of constituents
that are capable of reacting with the alkalies in cement from
petrographic examination. When such constituents are
identified, other investigations, including the Quick
Chemical Test (ASTM C 289 (CRD-C 128)) or Mortar-Bar
Test (ASTM C 227 (CRD-C 123)), or both, should be
performed to determine their potential reactive effects.
Table 2-3 lists the testing property, testing method, and
comments regarding the testing.
(c) Specific gravity (ASTM C 127; ASTM C 128).
Specific gravity of aggregates is necessary for calculating
the mass for a desired volume of material. It has no clearly
defined significance as a measure of suitability of material
for use as concrete aggregate. Aggregates with specific
gravity below 2.4 are usually suspected of being potentially
unsound and, thus, not suited for use in the exposed portions
of hydraulic structures in moderate-to-severe exposures.
However, these materials may still be used if their
performance in freezing-and-thawing tests is acceptable.
Low specific gravity has been indicative of poor quality in
porous chert gravel aggregates having high absorption.
Therefore, it may be necessary to set a limit on the
permissible amount of material lighter than a given specific
gravity when selecting chert gravel aggregates for use in
hydraulic structures in moderate or severe environment.
The specific gravity limit and the permissible amount lighter
than the limit should be established on the basis of results
of laboratory freezing-and-thawing tests.
(d) Absorption (ASTM C 127; ASTM C 128).
Absorption is determined primarily as an aid in estimating
amounts of water in aggregates for laboratory and field
control of amount of mixing water used in the concrete.
Absorption data are generally believed to be somewhat
indicative of the probable influence of aggregates on the
durability of concrete exposed to freezing and thawing when
subject to critical saturation. However, test results have
indicated that this premise must be used with caution in
assessing the quality of material. High absorption in
aggregates may be an indication of potential high shrinkage
in concrete and may need further investigation. However,
absorption alone should not be considered significant as a
measure of suitability of a material for use as concrete
aggregate.
(e) Organic impurities (ASTM C 87; ASTM C 40).
The test for presence of organic impurities should be used
primarily as warning that objectionable amounts of organic
impurities may be present in the aggregates. Objectional
amounts of organic matter will usually show "darker than
No. 3" in the ASTM C 40 test. Primary dependence should
be placed on the mortar strength tests as a basis for judging
whether or not objectionable amounts of organic impurities
are present in natural fine aggregate. Natural fine aggregate
showing the presence of organic matter and producing
mortar strength of less than 95 percent of those produced by
the same aggregate after washing with sodium hydroxide to
remove organic matter should not be selected for use unless
it is evident that the material can be adequately processed to
remove impurities.
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EM 1110-2-2000
1 Feb 94
Table 2-3
Standard Procedures for Obtaining Information on Aggregate Quality
During the Preconstruction Engineering and Design Phase
Testing Property Testing Method* Comments
Composition and
identification
ASTM C 295 This petrographic examination is recommended for all aggregate evaluation and should
be the basis for the determination of other procedures required.
Specific gravity and
absorption
ASTM C 127
ASTM C 128
Density will affect the density of concrete. In general, higher absorption of coarse
aggregate may indicate less F/T resistance (CRD-C 107 and 108, respectively).
Organic impurities ASTM C 40
ASTM C 87
Too much impurity will affect the concrete strength. ASTM C 87 (CRD-C 116) should be
performed if there are objectionable amounts of organic impurities (CRD-C 121 and 116,
respectively).
Soft constituents CRD-C 141
CRD-C 130
Soft materials in fine aggregate will affect concrete strength and workability. Soft
particles in coarse aggregate will affect the bonding with cement.
Clay lumps and friable
particles
ASTM C 142 Clay lumps and friable particles will affect concrete strength and workability (CRD-C
142).
Lightweight particles ASTM C 123 Lightweight particles will affect the density of concrete (CRD-C 122).
Particle shape ASTM D 4791
CRD-C 120
ASTM D 3398
Particle shape will affect the density and workability of concrete (CRD-C 129).
Soundness of
aggregate in concrete
CRD-C 114
(ASTM C 666)
Results are directly related to the F/T resistance of concrete.
Frost resistance ASTM C 682 This test may be valuable in evaluating frost resistance of coarse aggregate in concrete
(CRD-C 115).
Abrasion loss ASTM C 131
ASTM C 535
These tests may indicate the degree of resistance to degrading of coarse aggregates
during handling and mixing (CRD-C 117 and 145, respectively).
Specific heat CRD-C 124 Needed for thermal analysis.
Linear thermal
expansion
CRD-C 125
CRD-C 126
Needed for thermal analysis. Aggregates with very high or low thermal coefficient may
require further investigation.
Alkali-silica reactivity ASTM C 289
ASTM C 227
Perform these tests if there is an indication of potential alkali-silica reactivity (CRD-C 128
and 123, respectively). (See Appendix D for details.)
Alkali-carbonate
reactivity
ASTM C 586 Perform this test if there is an indication of potential alkali-carbonate reactivity (CRD-C
146). (See Appendix E for details.)
Concrete making
properties
ASTM C 39
and others
Perform these tests as needed to determine the suitability of aggregates for high strength
concrete (CRD-C 14).
*Test methods cited are from the American Society for Testing and Materials Annual Book of ASTM Standards (ASTM
Annual) and from Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Handbook of Concrete and Cement (USAEWES 1949).
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EM 111 o-2-2000
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Change 2
(f) Soft constituents, clay lumps, and lightweight
particles (ASTM C 123 (CRD-C 122); ASTM C 851(CRD-
C 130); CRD-C 141; ASTM C 142 (CRD-C 142)). Results
of tests for soft particles, clay lumps, and lightweight
pieces are largely used as information that may have a
bearing on or assist in rationalizing results of other tests
such as the accelerated weathering test or the strength
properties of the concrete. The tests may sometimes be
useful in determining whether or not processing of the
material to remove the undesirable constituents is
feasible when they occur in proportions which make the
material unfit for use without removal.
(g) Particle shape (ASTM D 4791; CRD-C 120; ASTM
D 3398 (CRD-C 129)). The test for flat and elongated
particles provides information on particle shape of
aggregates. Excessive amounts of flat or elongated
particles, or both, in aggregates will severely affect the
water demand and finishability. In mass concrete
structures, the amount of flat or elongated particles, or
both, at a 3:l length-to-width (L/W) or width-to-
thickness (W/T) ratio is limited to 25 percent in any size
group of coarse aggregate. Although there is no
requirement in structural concrete, the effect of more
than 25 percent flat or elongated particles should be
examined during the design process. The results of the
examination should be discussed in the appropriate
design memorandum. The maximum L/W or W/T
ratio, when testing in accordance with ASTM D 4791 is
normally 3:l.
(h) Soundness of aggregate by freezing and thawing
in concrete (CRD-C 114). This test is similar to ASTM C
666 (CRD-C 20), procedure A, except that a standard
concrete mixture is used to evaluate the effect of
aggregates on freezing-and-thawing resistance. This test
is more severe than the aggregates will experience in
service. Nevertheless, it provides an important
measurement in relative aggregate quality in freezing-
and-thawing resistance and is the best means now
available for judging the relative effect of aggregates on
frost resistance. In general, however, aggregates are
rated in relative quality by this test as shown in Table 2-
4. This table also provides the recommended DFE value based
upon the project location, and expected exposure. For the
purpose of simplicity the weathering region (Fig. I) in ASTM
C 33 is used as an indicator of the potential freeze and thaw
exposure for the area. The engineer may adjust this
requirement if there is data available indicating that the
situation is different from the one shown in ASTM C 33 Fig. 1.
Although the test is reasonably repeatable, it is not
possible to prevent small differences in the size and
distribution of air voids caused by different cements and
air-entraining admixtures and possible other factors;
thus, it is not possible to judge accurately the quality of
protection of cement paste in each instance even though
air content for all tests is kept within a small range.
Therefore, it is not unusual to find that these differences
will cause variations in test results of sufficient
magnitude from two separate tests on essentially
identical aggregate samples to shift the quality rating
from one level to another. The test also has limitations
on the size of aggregates that can be tested. The
maximum size of aggregate used in the tests is l% 19.0
mm (3/4 in.), whereas aggregate up to 150 mm (6 in.) is
frequently used in mass concrete. Therefore, the test is of
limited value when the +19.0-mm (+3/4in.) aggregate
varies substantially in characteristics from that finer than
19.0 mm (3/4 in.). In spite of its limitations, the test
provides an excellent means of evaluating the relative
quality of most materials and results of the test should
be given prime consideration in selecting aggregate
quality requirements. Where the laboratory freezing-
and-thawing test is considered inadequate as a basis for
judging the quality of the aggregates, particularly for
sizes larger than 19.0 mm (3/4 in.), concrete made with
the larger sizes may be exposed at Treat Island, Maine,
where the Corps of Engineers’ severe-weathering
exposure station is located to determine the durability of
the specimens. The decision to expose specimens at
Treat Island should be made early in the investigation so
that they may be exposed for at least two winters. To
determine durability, 2-ft cube specimens cast from air-
entrained concrete containing the desired maximum size
of aggregate should be used. In an average period of 2
years, specimens are subjected to at least 250 cycles of
freezing and thawing. If no marked reduction in pulse
velocity has occurred and no distress is visually evident
in the period, the aggregates may be considered to be of
good to excellent quality.
(i) Frost-resistance test (ASTM C 682 (CRD-C 115)).
This dilation test provides another indication of
aggregate quality in freezing-and-thawing resistance
when used in concrete. It measures the dilation of a
specimen under slow freezing-and-thawing cycles and is
similar to ASTM C 671 (CRD-C 40) except a standard air-
entrained concrete mixture is used. In air-entrained
concrete in which the paste is adequately protected
against frost action, the quality of the aggregate is the
main factor that contributes to deterioration. Results of
this test are very sensitive to the moisture condition of
aggregate and concrete and should be compared
carefully with the conditions in the field.
(j) Sulfate soundness (ASTM C 88 (CRD-c 137)). In
the past, ASTM C 88, “Soundness of Aggregates by Use
of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate,” has been used
quite often. This test is the only one which is performed
on aggregate directly by soaking material in sulfate
solution to simulate the effect of increase in volume of
water changing to ice or freezing in the aggregate pores.
ASTM C 88 is not recommended due to its poor
correlation with the actual service performance of
concrete.
(k) Abrasion loss (ASTM C 131 (CRD-C 117); ASTM
C 535 (CRD-C 145)). If a material performs well in other
tests, particularly resistance to freezing and thawing, high
2-10

EM 1110-2-2000
31 Mar 01
Change 2
Table 2-4
Concrete Durability Factors for Assessing Aggregate Durability.
DFE Range* Over 75 50-75 25-50 Less than 25
Region per
ASTM C33
Fig. I
Severe Moderate Negligible No F/T cycle
I L
Quality Rating Excellent Good Fair Poor
*DFE = Durability factor (based on relative dynamic modulus of elasticity).
abrasion loss may not be significant. It should be recognized,
however, that a material having high abrasion loss will tend to
degrade in handling and that excessive grinding may occur with
such materials during mixing. These aspects should be
investigated as a basis for evaluating the acceptability of a
material. It should be noted that there is no relationship between
abrasion loss from these tests and concrete abrasion or durability
in service.
(1) Specific heat and thermal expansion (CRD-C 124,
CRD-C 125, CRD-C 126). The results of these tests are
properties of the aggregate and are needed when performing
thermal analysis.
(m) Alkali-aggregate reactivity (ASTM C 227; ASTM C
289; ASTM C 586 (CRD-C 123, 128, and 146, respectively)).
Criteria for recognizing potentially deleterious constituents in
aggregate and for evaluating potential alkali-silica and alkali-
carbonate reactivity are given in Appendixes D and E,
respectively. If aggregates containing reactive constituents are to
be used, the problem then becomes one of identifying the
reactive constituents and determining the conditions under
which the available aggregates may be used. Where the reactive
constituents can be positively determined to occur in such small
proportions as to be innocuous, an aggregate, if otherwise of
suitable quality, may be used without special precautions. Where
the reactive constituents occur in such proportions that they are
potentially deleteriously reactive, it will be necessary to use low-
alkali cement or an effective pozzolan, or both, with the
aggregate. If the requirement of low-alkali cement would impose
serious difficulties of cement procurement or excessive increase
in cost, consideration should be given to the use of portland
blast-furnace slag cement (a blend of portland cement and slag),
Portland-pozzolan cement, cement with GGBF slag, or cement
with a pozzolan, or both, that will prevent excessive reaction
even when high alkali-cement is used. When consideration is
given to the use of any of these materials in lieu of low-alkali
cement, mortar-bar tests should be conducted to verify that the
potentially deleterious expansion will be reduced to meet the
criteria in Appendix D or E. If petrographic examination
determines the presence of potentially reactive materials in
excess of the limits given in Appendix D, mortar-bar tests,
ASTM C 227 shall be performed. If the petrographic
examination determines the presence of strained quartz in excess
of the limit given in Appendix D, the high- temperature mortar-
bar test shall be performed.
(n) Concrete making properties (ASTM C 39 (CRD-C
14)). When it is desired to select aggregate for concrete with
strengths of 6,000 psi or greater, some otherwise acceptable
aggregates may not be suitable. Concrete-strength specimens,
made from concrete using the aggregate being evaluated and of
the required slump and air contents, should be tested at various
cement factors, w/c, and including any required chemical
admixtures. If the required strength cannot be obtained with a
reasonable slump, air content, cement factor, and chemical
admixture(s), the aggregate should not be considered as
acceptable for the high strength concrete. Materials that are
satisfactory in other respects usually have acceptable strength
and bonding characteristics. A complete discussion of high-
strength concrete may be found in AC1 363R.
(0) Service performance. The performance of aggregates
in service in structures is considered the best general evidence of
aggregate quality when dependable records are available and the
exposure conditions are similar. Service records are usually of
greater usefulness when commercial sources of aggregate are
being investigated. Service performance, however, must be
considered with caution. Poor condition of a structure is not
necessarily evidence of poor quality aggregate. There are many
factors which may contribute to the poor performance of the
concrete in service. However, except where a slow acting
reactive aggregate is involved, a structure in good condition is
always an indication that the aggregates are of adequate quality
for concrete exposed to similar conditions.
(7) Nominal maximum size aggregate. In general, it is
economical to use the largest aggregate compatible with placing
conditions. Table 2-5 provides guidance in making the
selection. On projects not involving large quantities of
2-11

EM 1110-2-2000
1 Feb 94
Table 2-5
Nominal Maximum Size of Aggregate Recommended for
Various Types of Construction
Features Nominal Maximum Sizes
Section 7-1/2 in. or less in width or slabs 4 in. or less in
thickness. Heavily reinforced floor and roof slabs. Parapets,
corbels, and all sections where space is limited and surface
appearance is important.
High-strength concrete
19.0 mm (3/4 in.)
Section 7-1/2 in. wide and in which the clear distance
between reinforcement bars is at least 2-1/4 in. and slabs at
least 4 in. thick.
37.5 mm (1-1/2 in.)
Unreinforced sections over 12 in. wide and reinforced
sections over 18 in. wide, in which the clear distance
between reinforcement bars is over 4-1/2 in. Piers, walls,
baffles, and stilling basin floor slabs in which satisfactory
placement of 6-in. aggregate concrete cannot be
accomplished even though reinforcement spacing would
permit the use of large aggregate. Slabs 10 in. or greater in
thickness.
75 mm (3 in.)
Massive sections of dams and retaining walls; ogee crests,
piers, walls, and baffles in which clear distance between
reinforcement bars is at least 9 in. and for which suitable
provision is made for placing concrete containing the large
sizes of aggregate without producing rock pockets or other
undesirable results. Slabs 24 in. or greater in thickness.
150 mm (6 in.)
concrete, a careful study should be made of the economy of
large aggregates. The use of large aggregates reduces the
cement content, but it increases plant costs because
provision must be made for the handling of more individual
sizes. Nominal maximum size aggregate (NMSA), 150 mm
(6 in.) or even 75 mm (3 in.), should not be specified if the
volume of concrete is so small that savings in cement will
not pay for increased plant expenses. When an economic
study indicates the use of 75-mm (3-in.) or 150-mm (6-in.)
NMSA concrete results in comparable costs and the
additional cement required in the 75-mm (3-in.) NMSA
concrete does not detrimentally affect the concrete, optional
bidding schedules should be used. The additional
cementitious quantities of 40 lb/cu yd of concrete is typical
when 75-mm (3-in.) NMSA concrete is used in lieu of
150-mm (6-in.) NMSA concrete.
(8) Fine aggregate grading requirements. During the
course of the aggregate investigations, the grading of the
available fine aggregate from all sources should be
determined and compared to the anticipated project
specifications. The project grading requirements will
depend on the guide specification selected for the project.
If the most readily available materials do not meet the
applicable grading requirements and the processing required
to bring the material into the specified grading limits results
in increased costs, consideration should be given to
substituting a state or local specification that is determined
to cover the fine aggregate grading available at commercial
sources in the project area. The substitution should be
based on the determination that concrete meeting the project
requirements can be produced using the locally available
fine aggregate. If a large mass concrete structure is
involved which will be built to the requirements of
CW-03305, "Guide Specification for Mass Concrete," using
an onsite fine aggregate source, the decision to waive the
grading requirements will also be based on the results of the
processibility study, which includes estimates of waste and
laboratory data that show that concrete can be produced
using the fine aggregate grading proposed which meets all
the project requirements. The study should include an
economic evaluation which shows, clearly, that the increased
2-12

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