41
Standard language and poetic language
Standard language and poetic
language
Jan Mukařovský
Jan Mukařovský (1891–1975) was a literary scholar and aesthetician, one of the ma-
jor fi gures of Czech structuralism and a member of the Prague Linguistic Circle. He
was a professor of aesthetics (1945) and rector at Charles University (1948–1953). Af-
ter World War II, he renounced his pre-war structuralism and became politically and
ideologically active. In his work, he stressed the role of the aesthetic function, consid-
ering it the crucial characteristic of any work of art. Th e meaning of a work of art is
the outcome of its dynamic structure, a sum of all component parts. Amongst others,
he developed the notions of the aesthetic norm and the aesthetic function, pointing
out the way works of art fulfi l, as well as violate, existing norms. Th e violations of the
norm, which arise from the foregrounding of some components of the work of art,
ultimately have the potential to become new norms.
42
CHAPTERS FROM THE HISTORY OF CZECH FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS
Th is article explores the relationship between the poetic language and the standard.
Mukařovský identifi es poetic language as an entity separate and distinct from the stand-
ard language. In his view, the standard provides the background against which various
distortions are produced with the aim of creating aesthetic eff ects. Th e notions of autom-
atization and foregrounding are then introduced: the former refers to production of an
utterance in an automatic manner, the latter is associated with a more conscious execu-
tion of the utterance that arises when the appropriate norms are violated. In a work of
art, we may fi nd the foregrounding of various components that are mutually hierarchi-
cally organized in terms of domination and subordination.
Th e problem of the relationship between standard language and poetic language can
be considered from two standpoints. Th e theorist of poetic language poses it somewhat
as follows: is the poet bound by the norms of the standard? Or perhaps: how does this
norm assert itself in poetry? Th e theorist of the standard language, on the other hand,
wants to know above all to what extent a work of poetry can be used as data for ascer-
taining the norm of the standard. In other words, the theory of poetic language is pri-
marily interested in the diff erences between the standard and poetic language, whereas
the theory of the standard language is mainly interested in the similarities between them.
It is clear that with a good procedure no confl ict can arise between the two directions
of research; there is only a diff erence in the point of view and in the illumination of the
problem. Our study approaches the problem of the relationship between poetic language
and the standard from the vantage point of poetic language. Our procedure will be to
subdivide the general problem into a number of special problems.
Th e fi rst probl.
The article considers stage-by-stage changes of language phraseological units, including stylistic ones, which appear at first as occasional violations of literary norms, becoming usual character and thus enter the system. by Rano Zaripova 2020. STAGES OF THE STYLISTIC MOVEMENT OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 1 (Mar. 2020), 56-61. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i1.289. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/289/282 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/289
Comparison between the Prague Circle and Copenhagen Circle of LinguisticsHani Khan
Prague School of Linguistics was established in Prague in the 1920s by Vilém Mathesius. In 1928 the Circle publicized its theses presented to the First International Congress of Linguists in The Hague, which was drafted by Roman Jacobson, in co-operation with Nikolai Trubetzkoy, Sergey Karchevskiy, and others. The Circle covered various areas of the sciences of language; Trubetzkoy dealt with phonetics and phonology, Vilém Mathesius dealt with syntax, Roman Jacobson was interested in poetics and Jan Mukarovky tackled poetic language.
The Copenhagen School, officially the "Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen”, was a group of scholars dedicated to the study of structural linguistics founded by Louis Hjelmslev and Viggo Brøndal. The Copenhagen Circle evolved with the developing theory of language, glossematics based on the model of Prague Circle.
The article considers stage-by-stage changes of language phraseological units, including stylistic ones, which appear at first as occasional violations of literary norms, becoming usual character and thus enter the system. by Rano Zaripova 2020. STAGES OF THE STYLISTIC MOVEMENT OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 1 (Mar. 2020), 56-61. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i1.289. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/289/282 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/289
Comparison between the Prague Circle and Copenhagen Circle of LinguisticsHani Khan
Prague School of Linguistics was established in Prague in the 1920s by Vilém Mathesius. In 1928 the Circle publicized its theses presented to the First International Congress of Linguists in The Hague, which was drafted by Roman Jacobson, in co-operation with Nikolai Trubetzkoy, Sergey Karchevskiy, and others. The Circle covered various areas of the sciences of language; Trubetzkoy dealt with phonetics and phonology, Vilém Mathesius dealt with syntax, Roman Jacobson was interested in poetics and Jan Mukarovky tackled poetic language.
The Copenhagen School, officially the "Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen”, was a group of scholars dedicated to the study of structural linguistics founded by Louis Hjelmslev and Viggo Brøndal. The Copenhagen Circle evolved with the developing theory of language, glossematics based on the model of Prague Circle.
Poetry can be differentiated from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a less condensed way, using more logical or narrative structures. This does not imply poetry is illogical. Poetry is often created from the desire to escape the logical, as well as expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed manner. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability.
Prose poetry combines the characteristics of poetry with the superficial appearance of prose. Other forms include narrative poetry and dramatic poetry, used to tell stories and so resemble novels and plays.
Most of what is considered characteristics of literary language nevertheless has its Roots in everyday uses of language and can best be studied with some reference to these uses. Just as there are no firm lines of division between 'poetic' and ' ordinary ' language so it would be artificial to enforce a clear division between the languages of poetry considered as verse literature and that of other literary kind as prose. The creative writer and more particularly the poet enjoy unique freedom.
Among users of the language, without respect to the social or historical contexts to which they belong. This means: among other things. The poet can draw on the language of past Ages, or can borrow features belonging to other non literary use of language.
Christian Schussele Men of ProgressOil on canvas, 1862Coope.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Schussele Men of Progress
Oil on canvas, 1862
Cooper Union, New York, New York
Transfer from the National Gallery of Art; gift of Andrew W. Mellon, 1942
NPG.65.60
Edward Sorel, “People of Progress” 1999, Cooper Union, New York, New York
Syllabus
The clerks of the Department of State of the United States may be called upon to give evidence of transactions in the Department which are not of a confidential character.
The Secretary of State cannot be called upon as a witness to state transactions of a confidential nature which may have occurred in his Department. But he may be called upon to give testimony of circumstances which were not of that character.
Clerks in the Department of State were directed to be sworn, subject to objections to questions upon confidential matters.
Some point of time must be taken when the power of the Executive over an officer, not removable at his will, must cease. That point of time must be when the constitutional power of appointment has been exercised. And the power has been exercised when the last act required from the person possessing the power has been performed. This last act is the signature of the commission.
If the act of livery be necessary to give validity to the commission of an officer, it has been delivered when executed, and given to the Secretary of State for the purpose of being sealed, recorded, and transmitted to the party.
In cases of commissions to public officers, the law orders the Secretary of State to record them. When, therefore, they are signed and sealed, the order for their being recorded is given, and, whether inserted inserted into the book or not, they are recorded.
When the heads of the departments of the Government are the political or confidential officers of the Executive, merely to execute the will of the President, or rather to act in cases in which the Executive possesses a constitutional or legal discretion, nothing can be more perfectly clear than that their acts are only politically examinable. But where a specific duty is assigned by law, and individual rights depend upon the performance of that duty, it seems equally clear that the individual who considers himself injured has a right to resort to the laws of his country for a remedy.
The President of the United States, by signing the commission, appointed Mr. Marbury a justice of the peace for the County of Washington, in the District of Columbia, and the seal of the United States, affixed thereto by the Secretary of State, is conclusive testimony of the verity of the signature, and of the completion of the appointment; and the appointment conferred on him a legal right to the office for the space of five years. Having this legal right to the office, he has a consequent right to the commission, a refusal to deliver which is a plain violation of that right for which the laws of the country afford him a remedy.
To render a mandamus a proper remedy, the officer to whom it is directed must be one to who.
Christian EthicsChristian ethics deeply align with absolutism. E.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Ethics
Christian ethics deeply align with absolutism. Ethical absolutism claims that moral principles do exist. According to Christians, God created moral absolutes. These absolutes can be seen in God’s revelation. God’s special and general revelation reveal his moral truths. This does not mean that only Christians can understand moral truths. Because humans are made in God’s image, they can recognize moral truths even if they do not believe in God
[1]
. These absolutes were instated by God. Therefore, they apply to all of humanity. This worldview is in direct opposition to the idea of relativism. Christian ethics cannot be viewed through a relativistic point of view. According to relativism, there is no moral truths. There is no absolute distinction between right and wrong within this way of thinking. Right and wrong can be decided by individuals or groups of people. Cultures decide what is right for themselves and their way of life. Even individuals have the ability to decide their own personal moral code. This can seem somewhat reasonable at times. Some things that were considered moral or immoral in the past are viewed differently today. Even with this understanding, Christians deny the idea of relativism. Christians hold to the belief that moral truths come from God. Therefore, these truths do not change. God himself never changes; therefore, his moral truths remain the same. According to Christian ethics, mankind is expected to hold to the moral absolutes mandated by God himself. This understanding is not compatible with relativism. Relativism makes no place of a God. From a relativistic point of view, mankind decides their own morality. Right and wrong are not fixed. In Christian ethics, right and wrong are permanently decided by the God of the universe.
The subjective aspects of Christian ethics can look similar to relativism. The areas that are somewhat subjective in Christian aspects are referred to as the liberties of a Christian. There are some matters that are not said to be morally wrong in the Bible. Some see these issues to be wrong; therefore, they are. Others do not find certain issues to be morally wrong. These individuals are claiming their Christian liberty. One of these issues is drinking alcohol. Some Christians believe that ingesting any amount of alcohol is morally wrong. According to the idea of Christian liberty, it would be wrong for the individuals who hold to this belief to drink alcohol. Others do not have this conviction and are not doing wrong by consuming alcohol. On the surface, the idea of Christian liberty can seem to be related to relativism, but upon closer inspection these ideas are not closely related. Christian liberty is a Biblical concept that harmonize well with the overall message of the Bible. Relativism is nowhere found in the Bible. The Bible is clear that there are universal moral laws. These laws are placed upon humanity by God himself. There are some areas where the Bible remain.
More Related Content
Similar to 41Standard language and poetic languageStandard langua.docx
Poetry can be differentiated from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a less condensed way, using more logical or narrative structures. This does not imply poetry is illogical. Poetry is often created from the desire to escape the logical, as well as expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed manner. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability.
Prose poetry combines the characteristics of poetry with the superficial appearance of prose. Other forms include narrative poetry and dramatic poetry, used to tell stories and so resemble novels and plays.
Most of what is considered characteristics of literary language nevertheless has its Roots in everyday uses of language and can best be studied with some reference to these uses. Just as there are no firm lines of division between 'poetic' and ' ordinary ' language so it would be artificial to enforce a clear division between the languages of poetry considered as verse literature and that of other literary kind as prose. The creative writer and more particularly the poet enjoy unique freedom.
Among users of the language, without respect to the social or historical contexts to which they belong. This means: among other things. The poet can draw on the language of past Ages, or can borrow features belonging to other non literary use of language.
Christian Schussele Men of ProgressOil on canvas, 1862Coope.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Schussele Men of Progress
Oil on canvas, 1862
Cooper Union, New York, New York
Transfer from the National Gallery of Art; gift of Andrew W. Mellon, 1942
NPG.65.60
Edward Sorel, “People of Progress” 1999, Cooper Union, New York, New York
Syllabus
The clerks of the Department of State of the United States may be called upon to give evidence of transactions in the Department which are not of a confidential character.
The Secretary of State cannot be called upon as a witness to state transactions of a confidential nature which may have occurred in his Department. But he may be called upon to give testimony of circumstances which were not of that character.
Clerks in the Department of State were directed to be sworn, subject to objections to questions upon confidential matters.
Some point of time must be taken when the power of the Executive over an officer, not removable at his will, must cease. That point of time must be when the constitutional power of appointment has been exercised. And the power has been exercised when the last act required from the person possessing the power has been performed. This last act is the signature of the commission.
If the act of livery be necessary to give validity to the commission of an officer, it has been delivered when executed, and given to the Secretary of State for the purpose of being sealed, recorded, and transmitted to the party.
In cases of commissions to public officers, the law orders the Secretary of State to record them. When, therefore, they are signed and sealed, the order for their being recorded is given, and, whether inserted inserted into the book or not, they are recorded.
When the heads of the departments of the Government are the political or confidential officers of the Executive, merely to execute the will of the President, or rather to act in cases in which the Executive possesses a constitutional or legal discretion, nothing can be more perfectly clear than that their acts are only politically examinable. But where a specific duty is assigned by law, and individual rights depend upon the performance of that duty, it seems equally clear that the individual who considers himself injured has a right to resort to the laws of his country for a remedy.
The President of the United States, by signing the commission, appointed Mr. Marbury a justice of the peace for the County of Washington, in the District of Columbia, and the seal of the United States, affixed thereto by the Secretary of State, is conclusive testimony of the verity of the signature, and of the completion of the appointment; and the appointment conferred on him a legal right to the office for the space of five years. Having this legal right to the office, he has a consequent right to the commission, a refusal to deliver which is a plain violation of that right for which the laws of the country afford him a remedy.
To render a mandamus a proper remedy, the officer to whom it is directed must be one to who.
Christian EthicsChristian ethics deeply align with absolutism. E.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Ethics
Christian ethics deeply align with absolutism. Ethical absolutism claims that moral principles do exist. According to Christians, God created moral absolutes. These absolutes can be seen in God’s revelation. God’s special and general revelation reveal his moral truths. This does not mean that only Christians can understand moral truths. Because humans are made in God’s image, they can recognize moral truths even if they do not believe in God
[1]
. These absolutes were instated by God. Therefore, they apply to all of humanity. This worldview is in direct opposition to the idea of relativism. Christian ethics cannot be viewed through a relativistic point of view. According to relativism, there is no moral truths. There is no absolute distinction between right and wrong within this way of thinking. Right and wrong can be decided by individuals or groups of people. Cultures decide what is right for themselves and their way of life. Even individuals have the ability to decide their own personal moral code. This can seem somewhat reasonable at times. Some things that were considered moral or immoral in the past are viewed differently today. Even with this understanding, Christians deny the idea of relativism. Christians hold to the belief that moral truths come from God. Therefore, these truths do not change. God himself never changes; therefore, his moral truths remain the same. According to Christian ethics, mankind is expected to hold to the moral absolutes mandated by God himself. This understanding is not compatible with relativism. Relativism makes no place of a God. From a relativistic point of view, mankind decides their own morality. Right and wrong are not fixed. In Christian ethics, right and wrong are permanently decided by the God of the universe.
The subjective aspects of Christian ethics can look similar to relativism. The areas that are somewhat subjective in Christian aspects are referred to as the liberties of a Christian. There are some matters that are not said to be morally wrong in the Bible. Some see these issues to be wrong; therefore, they are. Others do not find certain issues to be morally wrong. These individuals are claiming their Christian liberty. One of these issues is drinking alcohol. Some Christians believe that ingesting any amount of alcohol is morally wrong. According to the idea of Christian liberty, it would be wrong for the individuals who hold to this belief to drink alcohol. Others do not have this conviction and are not doing wrong by consuming alcohol. On the surface, the idea of Christian liberty can seem to be related to relativism, but upon closer inspection these ideas are not closely related. Christian liberty is a Biblical concept that harmonize well with the overall message of the Bible. Relativism is nowhere found in the Bible. The Bible is clear that there are universal moral laws. These laws are placed upon humanity by God himself. There are some areas where the Bible remain.
Christian Ethics BA 616 Business Ethics Definiti.docxtroutmanboris
Christian Ethics
BA 616 Business Ethics
Definition of Christian Ethics
A system of values based upon the Judeo/Christian Scriptures
Principles of behavior in concordance with the behaviors of Christian teachings
Standards of thought and behavior as taught by Jesus.
Discussion
What are some of the “ethical” attributes presented in the teachings of Jesus?
What are some ethical attributes presented in the teachings of other religious persons?
Quotes about Christian Ethics
Quotes on Christian Ethics
Recognize the value of work
“And when you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not reap your field right up to its edge, nor shall you gather the gleanings after your harvest. You shall leave them for the poor and for the sojourner: I am the Lord your God.” (Leviticus 23:22).
Do not give the poor the food, rather allow the poor to work for themselves
Discussion
What are examples of the value of work?
Today, some U.S. state governors are trying to get those “able bodied” individuals to work for welfare. They are meeting great resistance politically, why do you think this is?
The value of work
Confirmed by Elton Mayo
Fulfills social, psychological and economic needs of the individual
“If a man will not work, he shall not eat” (2 Thessalonians 3:10)
Christian Ethics
The fruit of a people that have inwardly committed their lives to Christ and are outwardly aligning their actions with His teachings.
“May the favor of the Lord our God rest on us; establish the work of our hands for us— yes, establish the work of our hands” (Psalms. 90:17).
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Welcome accountability
Happy to show their efforts
A system of checks and balances
Sees possible training moment
Fosters collaboration with management
“Those who work their land will have abundant food, but those who chase fantasies have no sense” (Proverbs 12:11)
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Not motivated by greed
Work is its own reward
Measure success in a non-monetary way
Seek payment for the work they do
Money is second to obedience
“Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters” (Colossians 3:23).
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Are highly productive
Are work focused
Work hard throughout the day
Find value in completing assigned tasks
Understand that they are there to work
“Diligent hands will rule, but laziness ends in forced labor” (Proverbs 12:24).
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Have a strong work ethic
Believe in a Biblical perspective of work
Reliable
Recognize the value of work
Relate their job to their faith
“All hard work brings a profit, but mere talk leads only to poverty” (Proverbs 14:23)
Employees with a Christian Code of Ethics
Bring a cooperative spirit to the workplace
Supportive of management
Strong contribu.
CHPSI think you made a really good point that Howard lacks poli.docxtroutmanboris
CH/PS
I think you made a really good point that Howard lacks political aspects-especially for presidency. I have no heard his speeches quite yet (since I tend to stray away from politics altogether because people are so aggressive), do you think he is a great leader-type and is he charismatic at all? Great leaders, especially for presidency, should be honest, charismatic, and not only cater to the audience's needs but to the entire country's needs without sugar coating things.
Also, I am not sure what you mean by "In order to improve his leadership style, Jeff should change his model of carrying out business activities. This is because it can be copied and imitated by other companies (Mauri, 2016)".- how can it be imitted by other companies? In what way?
Do you think Jeff Bezos is a bad leader? and why?
CH/AR
I found your comparison of Howard Schultz and Jeff Bezos interesting and compelling. When I was looking at the list of leaders to select from, it was staggering to me how many of the corporate leaders have run or are planning to run for political office. I'm not sure, given our current political environment, that running a large corporation is the right background and experience for the leader of the United States. We'll see what happens in the next year and a half!
Amazon is an amazing, transformative company to watch. I work in the financial services industry and one of our leaders recently described our competition not as other financial services firms but as Amazon. Financial services firms pretty much all offer the same products and services and at a very reasonable price point. Amazon, however, has excelled in service delivery. I would imagine that at sometime in the future, Amazon will partner with a financial service firm to deliver products and services. I'll admit that I was and still am skeptical about Amazon's purchase of Whole Foods, but Bezos seems to be up for trying just about anything.
In your analysis of the two leaders, you didn't mention directly the challenges faced by either the leaders or the organization. Last year, Starbucks was all over the news regarding the incident involving two African American gentlemen and how they were treated by a manger at Starbucks. I'm curious how you or others in the class through about how Schultz led the organization through that crisis. Bezos, as well, has not been immune to controversy with his recent affair and divorce becoming public. How do the personal lives and behaviors of leader impact the organizations they lead? Should it matter?
SO
The first leader I chose to research is Sundar Pichai, the CEO of Google. Sundar began to show in interest in technology at an early age, and eventually earned a degree in Metallurgy, and an M.B.A from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He then began working at Google in 2004 as the head of product management and development (Shepherd). From there, he assisted in the development of many different departme.
Chosen brand CHANELStudents are required to research a fash.docxtroutmanboris
Chosen brand:
CHANEL
Students are required to research a fashion brand of their choice and analyze its positioning strategy in the market.
● The report will assess students’ ability to collect data, in an efficient manner and use this data to scrutinise the marketing aspects of a fashion brand.
● The report will be covering the following subjects:
1. Analysis Of The Macro And Micro-environment of the brand.
2. Positioning Strategy Of The Brand: Target Customer(Pen Portrait)
3. Competitor Analysis.
4. Critical evaluation of the marketing communications strategy of the brand
supporting the development of the individual report, using relevant PRIMARY and SECONDARY RESEARCH.
NB: Please kindly devise a survey (Google forms) and make up some responses to it so as to then incorporate PRIMARY results into the report. Thanks
see attached file
word count: 2000 words
.
Chose one person to reply to ALBORES 1. Were Manning’s acti.docxtroutmanboris
Chose one person to reply to:
ALBORES
1. Were Manning’s actions legal under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, and what are the possible penalties for violating the act?
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act states (1977) “It shall be unlawful for any issuer...to offer, payment, promise to pay, or authorization of the payment of any money, or offer, gift, promise to give... “. Manning assumed the duty of an issuer because he attended dinner with the prime minister to discuss the contract. Then, Manning offered to fly the prime minister to New York, which he then promised to pay for all of the prime minister's expenses. However, according to the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (1977) a promise or offer is acceptable if the expense was ”reasonable and bona fide expenditure, such as travel and lodging expenses, incurred by or on behalf of a foreign official… was directly related to the promotion, demonstration, or explanation of products or services”. Manning promised to fly out the prime minister because he wanted to “discuss business further” (UMUC, 2019). Further, Manning used company funds to take the prime minister to luxurious activities and restaurants because he wanted to retain the contract from the prime minister.
Even though Manning did not directly give money to the prime minister, he authorized payment for the prime minster’s two-week stay, which did not involve discussing the contract. Out of the two weeks, business was only conducted for a day. In addition, Manning can be held responsible for bribing the customs officials at Neristan. According to the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (1977), it is unlawful to influence “any act or decision of such foreign official in his official capacity... omit to do any act in violation of the lawful duty of such official”. Manning influenced the customs officials because Manning gave each custom official $100 to clear the shipment. Custom officials act on behalf of the Neristan government and sometimes require large shipments to be inspected. Manny will likely be held responsible for offering payment to the customs officials in exchange for expediting the company’s shipment.
If Manning violated the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, he could face imprisonment. Also, the company may have to pay the penalty. The penalty for violating the act is “a fine of up to $2 million per violation. Likewise, an individual may face up to five years in prison and/or a fine of $250,000 per violation of the anti-bribery provision” (Woody, 2018, p. 275).
2. Were Manning’s actions legal under the UK Bribery Act and what are the possible penalties for violating the act?
Based on the UK Bribery Act (2010), an individual is guilty of bribing an official if “intention is to influence F (government official) in F's capacity as a foreign public official...intend to obtain or retain business, or an advantage in the conduct of business.”. Manning bribed the prime minister because he stated: “If, after we are done conducting busi.
Choosing your literary essay topic on Disgrace by J. M. Coetzee .docxtroutmanboris
Choosing your literary essay topic on
Disgrace
by J. M. Coetzee is the first step to writing your literary analysis paper.
After reading the novel, you should be able to decide in which direction you'd like to take your paper.
Topics/ approaches
(Focus on only one of the following, though some may overlap):
Analyze one of the minor characters, such as Petrus.
Example
: Analyze not only the chosen characters' personality but also what role they played in advancing the overall theme of the novel.
The protagonist's conflict, the hurdles to be overcome, and how he resolves it.
Examples:
It could be hope for change, both in South Africa and in David Lurie. OR: the disgrace David Lurie has suffered over the affair with a student and how that matches the disgrace South Africa has suffered through apartheid.
The function of setting to reinforce theme and characterization.
Example
: post-apartheid South Africa is a setting arguably more important than anything else in the novel. Your outside sources would be a bit of history concerning apartheid.The use of literary devices to communicate theme: imagery, metaphor, symbolism, foreshadowing, irony
Symbolism in the novel--
Examples:
Determine if David Lurie represents the old, white authorities of South Africa, while Lucy represents the new white people of South Africa. OR: Analyze what dogs symbolize in this story. Another example: What is symbolized by the opera David Lurie is writing on Byron?
Careful examination of one or more central scenes and its/their crucial role in plot development, resolution of conflict, and exposition of the theme.
Example:
Analyze one or more scenes in which hope that change for the better is possible through a character's remorse and subsequent action, for example, the scene in which David Lurie apologizes to the parents OR the scene in which Lucy gets raped.
The possible issue to be addressed in introduction or conclusion:
Characteristics that make the work typical (or atypical) of the period, the setting, or the author that produced it. For this information, you must go to a library database (you must read "How to Access Miami Dade Databases" if you don't know how) or a valid search site, such as Google Scholar (there is often a fee for this one).
Do
not
open or close with biographical material on the author. Biographical material is important as it influences the author’s writing only and should not be a focus of your paper.
Guidelines for Literary Essay
Be aware that you will be writing about a novel, which in its broadest sense is any extended fictional narrative almost always in prose, in which the representation of character is often the focus. Good authors use the elements of fiction, such as plot, theme, setting etc. purposefully, with a very clear goal in mind. One of the paths to literary analysis is to discover what the author's purpose is with each of his choices. Avoid the problem th.
Choosing your Philosophical Question The Final Project is an opp.docxtroutmanboris
Choosing your Philosophical Question
The Final Project is an opportunity for you to investigate one of the discussion questions to a much greater degree than in the forums. For your Final Project you will choose a philosophical question (stage 1), conduct an analysis of the claims and arguments relevant to the question by reading the primary texts of the philosopher (stage 2), and then take a position on the chosen question and offer an argument in support of your position (stage 3).
For this first stage of your Final Project assignment, (a) choose a question that appears as a discussion question (listed below, with some exceptions). You may choose one that you have previously begun to answer in the discussion forums, or one that you have yet to consider, then (b) explain briefly why you are interested in exploring this philosopher, the primary text and the question further. Submit this assignment on a Word .docx.
Week Four: Philosopher: Thomas Aquinas, Primary Text: Summa Theologica, Part 1, Question 2, Article 1-3
Q1. Does God really exist?
Question to write on, and answer the question fully in all its parts. Be mindful of the question. You are making a claim about something and offering support for it. Try to use examples from the Primary Texts you have read and/or your own experiences in that support.
DISCUSSION QUESTION CHOICE #1: Philosophy of Religion. Study Aquinas' five "ways" of demonstrating God's existence in the learning resources then engage in the study of ontology by examining your belief in God:
Answer the question: Does God really exist?
Use Aquinas and your own reasoning in your argument.
Kreeft, Peter. A Shorter Summa: The Essential Philosophical Passages of St. Thomas Aquinas'
Summa Theologica, Ignatius Press (San Francisco, 1993), chapter II.
Summa Theologica, Part 1, Question 2, Articles 1-3
The Existence of God
Because the chief aim of sacred doctrine is to teach the knowledge of God, not only as He is in
Himself, but also as He is the beginning of things and their last end, and especially of rational
creatures, as is clear from what has been already said, therefore, in our endeavor to expound this
science, we shall treat: (1) Of God; (2) Of the rational creature’s advance towards God; (3) Of
Christ, Who as man, is our way to God.
In treating of God there will be a threefold division: For we shall consider (1) Whatever concerns
the Divine Essence; (2) Whatever concerns the distinctions of Persons; (3) Whatever concerns the
procession of creatures from Him
Concerning the Divine Essence, we must consider: (1) Whether God exists? (2) The manner of His
existence, or, rather, what is not the manner of His existence; (3) Whatever concerns His
operations — namely, His knowledge, will, power.
Concerning the first, there are three points of inquiry: (1) Whether the proposition “God exists” is
self-evident? (2) Whether it is demonstrable? (3) Whether God exists?-
FIRST ARTICLE
Whether the Existence .
Choosing Your Research Method in a NutshellBy James Rice and.docxtroutmanboris
Choosing Your Research Method in a Nutshell
By James Rice and Marilyn K. Simon
Research Method Brief Type
Action research Participatory ‐ problem identification, solution,
solution review
III
Appreciative inquiry Helps groups identify solutions III, IV
Case Study research Group observation to determine how and why a
situation exists
III
Causal‐comparative research Identify causal relationship among variable that
can't be controlled
IV
Content analysis Analyze text and make inferences IV
Correlational research Collect data and determine level of correlation
between variables
I
Critical Incident technique Identification of determining incident of a critical
event
III
Delphi research Analysis of expert knowledge to forecast future
events
I, IV
Descriptive research Study of "as is" phenomena I
Design based research/ decision analysis Identify meaningful change in practices II
Ethnographic Cultural observation of a group
Evaluation research Study the effectiveness of an intervention or
program
IV
Experimental research Study the effect of manipulating a variable or
variables
II
Factor analysis Statistically assess the relationship between large
numbers of variables
I
Grounded Theory Produce a theory that explains a process based on
observation
III, IV
Hermeneutic research Study the meaning of subjects/texts (exegetics is
text only) by concentrating on the historical
meaning of the experience and its developmental
and cumulative effects on the individual and society
III
Historical research historical data collection and analysis of person or
organization
IV
Meta‐analysis research Seek patterns in data collected by other studies and
formulate principals
Narrative research Study of a single person's experiences
Needs assessment Systematic process of determine the needs of a
defined demographic population
Phenomenography Answer questions about thinking and learning
Phenomenology Make sense of lived experiences of participants
regarding a specified phenomenon.
III, IV
Quasi‐experimental Manipulation of variables in populations without
benefit of random assignment or control group.
II
Q‐method A mixed‐method approach to study subjectivity ‐
patterns of thought
I
Regression‐discontinuity design (RD) Cut‐off score assignment of participants to group
(non‐random) used to study effectiveness of an
intervention
II
Repertory grid analysis Interview process to determine how a person
interprets the meaning of an experience
I
Retrospective record review Study of historic data collected about a prior
intervention (both effected and control group)
II
Semiology Studies the meaning of symbols II, III
Situational analysis Post‐modernist approach to grounded theory
(holistic view rather than isolated variables) by
studying lived experiences around a phenomenon
Trend Analysis research Formulate a f.
Choose two of the systems (education, work, the military, and im.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
two
of the systems (education, work, the military, and immigration). Explain how they fit into the domain of social work and the social justice issues social workers should be aware of in these systems.
How does the education, military, workplace, or immigration system rely on social workers?
What is one social justice issue found in education, the military, the workplace, or immigration that influences the practice of social work?
.
Choose two disorders from the categories presented this week.C.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
two disorders from the categories presented this week.
Create
a 15- to 20-slide Microsoft® PowerPoint® presentation that includes the following:
Describes the disorders and explains their differences
Discusses how these disorders are influenced by the legal system
Discusses how the legal system is influenced by these disorders
Include
a minimum of two peer-reviewed sources.
Format
your presentation consistent with APA guidelines.
Submit
your assignment.
*3 slides on How is the legal system influenced by schizophrenia with speaker notes*
.
Choose ONE of the following topics Length 750-900 words, .docxtroutmanboris
Choose
ONE
of the following topics
Length:
750-900 words, double spaced, 12 pt. font
Identify the different forms of religious groups that are comprised in the typology outlined by the classic sociologists of religion. Explain the basic characteristics of each and provide examples.
Establish a distinction between the popular misuses of the term "myth" and its meaning in the scholarly context of Religious Studies. Explain the functions of myth according to the scholar Joseph Campbell.
.
Choose one of the following topicsAmerica A Narrative.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
one
of the following topics
America: A Narrative History
notes Thomas Jefferson's election to the presidency set the tone of "republican simplicity". In what ways was this still true in 1850 following the "Market Revolution" and in what ways was it not?
Connect the technological improvements in water transportation of the early 19th century to the territory acquired in the LA Purchase.
.
Choose one of the following topics below. Comparecont.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
one
of the following topics below.
Compare/contrast the role women played in Puritan Society in colonial Massachusetts with their role in the Great Awakening of the 18th century.
Why is the Declaration of Independence considered historically as a product of the Age of Enlightenment?
500 words
.
Choose one of the following topics below. Comparecon.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
one
of the following topics below.
Compare/contrast the role women played in Puritan Society in colonial Massachusetts with their role in the Great Awakening of the 18th century.
Why is the Declaration of Independence considered historically as a product of the Age of Enlightenment?
requirement of this assignment
Write a 500 word essay
.
Choose one of the states of RacialCultural Identity Development.docxtroutmanboris
Choose one of the states of Racial/Cultural Identity Developmental Model and reflect on how you will intervine with a client in that stage.
Stages:
Conformity
Dissonance and Appreciating
Resistance and immersion
Introspection
Integrative Awareness
.
Choose one of the following topicsNative AmericansWomenEnvi.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
one of the following topics:
Native Americans
Women
Environment
Latin Americans
Sexual liberation
Read
at least three different newspaper articles between 1968 and 1980 that cover important changes affecting your topic. In the University Library, use the ProQuest
®
historical newspaper archive (available under
General Resources > ProQuest >
Advanced Search
>
Search Options
>
Source Type
), which includes the following major newspapers, among others:
New York Times
Washington Post
Wall Street Journal
Los Angeles Times
Christian Science Monitor
Write
a 700- to 1,050-word paper in which you describe the status of the chosen group or idea and how that group or idea was affected by the changes brought about during the 1960s. Include information gleaned from the newspaper articles as well as other material.
.
Choose one of the following films for review (with faculty’s appro.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
one of the following films for review (with faculty’s approval). Put yourself in the movie by choosing one character to follow. What cultural issues would you face? What are cultural challenges? Write a short paper describing the film and your observations. Present your findings in class.
•
Secret Lives of Bees
•
Chocolate
•
Under the Same Moon
•
Maid in Manhattan
•
Walk in the Clouds
•
Get Rich or Die Trying (Gang Culture
) "I like this one"
•
Mu
lan
•
Mississippi Burning
•
A Time to Kill - "
I Also like this one
"
•
Only Fools Rush In
.
Choose and complete one of the two assignment options.docxtroutmanboris
Choose
and
complete
one of the two assignment options:
Option 1: Forecasting Comparison Presentation
Identify
a state, local, or federal policy that impacts your organization or community.
Create
an 8- to 10-slide Microsoft® PowerPoint® presentation in which you complete the following:
Describe how forecasting can be used to implement this policy and highlight any limitations of the usage of forecasting.
Compare and contrast the different forms of forecasting used to aid decision-makers when evaluating policy outcomes.
Discuss the types of information needed to ensure forecasts are accurate.
Analyze the relationship between forecasting, monitoring of observed policy outcomes, and normative futures in goals and agenda setting.
Include
speaker notes with each slide. The presentation should also contain and at least four peer-reviewed references from the University Library.
I live in Lawrence, KS if you can find a policy within this community.
.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
41Standard language and poetic languageStandard langua.docx
1. 41
Standard language and poetic language
Standard language and poetic
language
Jan Mukařovský
Jan Mukařovský (1891–1975) was a literary scholar and
aesthetician, one of the ma-
jor fi gures of Czech structuralism and a member of the Prague
Linguistic Circle. He
was a professor of aesthetics (1945) and rector at Charles
University (1948–1953). Af-
ter World War II, he renounced his pre-war structuralism and
became politically and
ideologically active. In his work, he stressed the role of the
aesthetic function, consid-
ering it the crucial characteristic of any work of art. Th e
meaning of a work of art is
the outcome of its dynamic structure, a sum of all component
parts. Amongst others,
he developed the notions of the aesthetic norm and the aesthetic
function, pointing
out the way works of art fulfi l, as well as violate, existing
norms. Th e violations of the
norm, which arise from the foregrounding of some components
of the work of art,
ultimately have the potential to become new norms.
2. 42
CHAPTERS FROM THE HISTORY OF CZECH FUNCTIONAL
LINGUISTICS
Th is article explores the relationship between the poetic
language and the standard.
Mukařovský identifi es poetic language as an entity separate
and distinct from the stand-
ard language. In his view, the standard provides the background
against which various
distortions are produced with the aim of creating aesthetic eff
ects. Th e notions of autom-
atization and foregrounding are then introduced: the former
refers to production of an
utterance in an automatic manner, the latter is associated with
a more conscious execu-
tion of the utterance that arises when the appropriate norms are
violated. In a work of
art, we may fi nd the foregrounding of various components that
are mutually hierarchi-
cally organized in terms of domination and subordination.
Th e problem of the relationship between standard language and
poetic language can
be considered from two standpoints. Th e theorist of poetic
language poses it somewhat
as follows: is the poet bound by the norms of the standard? Or
perhaps: how does this
norm assert itself in poetry? Th e theorist of the standard
language, on the other hand,
wants to know above all to what extent a work of poetry can be
used as data for ascer-
taining the norm of the standard. In other words, the theory of
poetic language is pri-
3. marily interested in the diff erences between the standard and
poetic language, whereas
the theory of the standard language is mainly interested in the
similarities between them.
It is clear that with a good procedure no confl ict can arise
between the two directions
of research; there is only a diff erence in the point of view and
in the illumination of the
problem. Our study approaches the problem of the relationship
between poetic language
and the standard from the vantage point of poetic language. Our
procedure will be to
subdivide the general problem into a number of special
problems.
Th e fi rst problem, by way of introduction, concerns the
following: what is the rela-
tionship between the extension of poetic language and that of
the standard, between the
places of each in the total system of the whole of language? Is
poetic language a special
brand of the standard, or is it an independent formation? Poetic
language cannot be called
a brand of the standard, if for no other reason that poetic
language has at its disposal,
from the standpoint of lexicon, syntax, etc., all the forms of the
given language – oft en of
diff erent developmental phases thereof. Th ere are works in
which the lexical material is
taken over completely from another form of language than the
standard (thus, Villon’s or
Rictus’ slang poetry in French literature). Diff erent forms of
the language may exist side
by side in a work of poetry (for instance, in the dialogues of
a novel dialect or slang, in the
narrative passages the standard). Poetic language fi nally also
4. has some of its own lexicon
and phraseology as well as some grammatical forms, the so-
called poetisms such as zor
[gaze], oř [steed], pláti [be afl ame], 3rd p. sg. můž [can; cf.
English -th] (a rich selection of
examples can be found in the ironic description of “moon
language” in [Svatopluk] Čech’s
[1846–1908, a realist] Výlet pana Broučka do měsíce [Mr.
Brouček’s Trip to the Moon]).
43
Standard language and poetic language
Only some schools of poetry, of course, have a positive attitude
towards poetisms (among
them the Lumír Group including Svatopluk Čech), others reject
them.
Poetic language is thus not a brand of the standard. Th is is not
to deny the close con-
nection between the two, which consists in the fact that, for
poetry, the standard lan-
guage is the background against which is refl ected the
esthetically intentional distortion
of the linguistic components of the work, in other words, the
intentional violation of the
norm of the standard. Let us, for instance, visualize a work in
which this distortion is
carried out by the interpenetration of dialect speech with the
standard; it is clear, then,
that it is not the standard which is perceived as a distortion of
the dialect, but the dialect
as a distortion of the standard, even when the dialect is
5. quantitatively preponderant. Th e
violation of the norm of the standard, its systematic violation, is
what makes possible
the poetic utilization of language; without this possibility there
would be no poetry. Th e
more the norm of the standard is stabilized in a given language,
the more varied can be
its violation, and therefore the more possibilities for poetry in
that language. And on the
other hand, the weaker the awareness of this norm, the fewer
possibilities of violation,
and hence the fewer possibilities for poetry. Th us, in the
beginnings of Modern Czech
poetry, when the awareness of the norm of the standard was
weak, poetic neologisms
with the purpose of violating the norm of the standard were
little diff erent from neolo-
gisms designed to gain general acceptance and become a part of
the norm of the stand-
ard, so that they could be confused with them.
Such is the case of M. Z. Polák [1788–1856, an early romantic],
whose neologisms are
to this day considered poor neologisms of the standard. […]
A structural analysis of Polák’s1 poem would show that [Josef ]
Jungmann [a leading
fi gure of the Czech national renascence] was right [in
evaluating Polák’s poetry positive-
ly]. We are here citing the disagreement in the evaluation of
Polák’s neologisms merely
as an illustration of the statement that, when the norm of the
standard is weak as was
the case in the period of national renascence, it is diffi cult to
diff erentiate the devices
intended to shape this norm from those intended for its
6. consistent and deliberate viola-
tion, and that a language with a weak norm of the standard
therefore off ers fewer devices
to the poet.
Th is relationship between poetic language and the standard,
one which we could call
negative, also has its positive side which is, however, more
important for the theory of
the standard language than for poetic language and its theory.
Many of the linguistic
components of a work of poetry do not deviate from the norm of
the standard because
they constitute the background against which the distortion of
the other components is
refl ected. Th e theoretician of the standard language can
therefore include works of po-
etry in his data with the reservation that he will diff erentiate
the distorted components
from those that are not distorted. An assumption that all
components have to agree with
the norm of the standard would, of course, be erroneous.
44
CHAPTERS FROM THE HISTORY OF CZECH FUNCTIONAL
LINGUISTICS
Th e second special question which we shall attempt to answer
concerns the diff erent
function of the two forms of language. Th is is the core of the
foregrounding of the ut-
terance. Foregrounding is the opposite of automatization, that
is, the deautomatization
7. of an act; the more an act is automatized, the less it is
consciously executed; the more it
is foregrounded, the more completely conscious does it become.
Objectively speaking:
automatization schematizes an event; foregrounding means the
violation of the scheme.
Th e standard language in its purest form, as the language of
science with formulation as
its objective, avoids foregrounding [aktualisace]: thus, a new
expression, foregrounded
because of its newness, is immediately automatized in a
scientifi c treatise by an exact
defi nition of its meaning. Foregrounding is, of course, common
in the standard lan-
guage, for instance, in journalistic style, even more in essays.
But here it is always subor-
dinate to communication: its purpose is to attract the reader’s
(listener’s) attention more
closely to the subject matter expressed by the foregrounded
means of expression. All that
has been said here about foregrounding and automatization in
the standard language
has been treated in detail in Havránek’s paper in this [book]; we
are here concerned with
poetic language. In poetic language foregrounding achieves
maximum intensity to the
extent of pushing communication into the background as the
objective of expression
and of being used for its own sake; it is not used in the services
of communication, but in
order to place in the foreground the act of expression, the act of
speech itself. Th e ques-
tion is then one of how this maximum of foregrounding is
achieved in poetic language.
Th e idea might arise that this is a quantitative eff ect, a matter
of the foregrounding of the
8. largest number of components, perhaps of all of them together.
Th is would be a mistake,
although only a theoretical one, since in practice such
a complete foregrounding of all
the components is impossible. Th e foregrounding of any one of
the components is neces-
sarily accompanied by the automatization of one or more of the
other components; thus,
for instance, the foregrounded intonation in [Jaroslav]
Vrchlický [1853–1912, a poet of
the Lumír Group, see above] and [Svatopluk] Čech has
necessarily pushed to the lowest
level of automatization the meaning of the word as a unit,
because the foregrounding of
its meaning would give the word phonetic independence as well
and lead to a distur-
bance of the uninterrupted fl ow of the intonational (melodic)
line; an example of the de-
gree to which the semantic independence of the word in context
also manifests itself as
intonational independence can be found in [Karel] Toman’s
[1877–1946, a modern poet]
verse. Th e foregrounding of intonation as an uninterrupted
melodic line is thus linked to
the semantic “emptiness” for which the Lumír Group has been
criticized by the young-
er generation as being “verbalistic”. – In addition to the
practical impossibility of the
foregrounding of all components, it can also be pointed out that
the simultaneous fore-
grounding of all the components of a work of poetry is
unthinkable. Th is is because the
foregrounding of a component implies precisely its being placed
in the foreground; the
unit in the foreground, however, occupies this position by
comparison with another unit
9. or units that remain in the background. A simultaneous general
foregrounding would
thus bring all the components into the same plane and so
become a new automatization.
45
Standard language and poetic language
Th e devices by which poetic language achieves its maximum of
foregrounding must
therefore be sought elsewhere than in the quantity of
foregrounded components. Th ey
consist in the consistency and systematic character of
foregrounding. Th e consistency
manifests itself in the fact that the reshaping of the
foregrounded component within
a given work occurs in a stable direction; thus, the
deautomatization of meanings in
a certain work is consistently carried out by lexical selection
(the mutual interlarding
of contrasting areas of the lexicon), in another equally
consistently by the uncommon
semantic relationship of words close together in the context.
Both procedures result in
a foregrounding of meaning, but diff erently for each. Th e
systematic foregrounding of
components in a work of poetry consists in the gradation of the
interrelationships of
these components, that is, in their mutual subordination and
superordination. Th e com-
ponent highest in the hierarchy becomes the dominant. All other
components, fore-
grounded or not, as well as their interrelationships, are
10. evaluated from the standpoint of
the dominant. Th e dominant is that component of the work
which sets in motion, and
gives direction to, the relationships of all other components. Th
e material of a work of
poetry is intertwined with the interrelationships of the
components even if it is in a com-
pletely unforegrounded state. Th us, there is always present, in
communicative speech as
well, the potential relationship between intonation and meaning,
syntax, word order, or
the relationship of the word as a meaningful unit to the phonetic
structure of the text,
to the lexical selection found in the text, to other words as units
of meaning in the con-
text of the same sentence. It can be said that each linguistic
component is linked directly
or indirectly, by means of these multiple interrelationships, in
some way to every other
component. In communicative speech these relationships are for
the most part merely
potential, because attention is not called to their presence and to
their mutual relation-
ship. It is, however, enough to disturb the equilibrium of this
system at some point and
the entire network of relationships is slanted in a certain
direction and follows it in its
internal organization: tension arises in one portion of this
network (by consistent uni-
directional foregrounding), while the remaining portions of the
network are relaxed (by
automatization perceived as an intentionally arranged
background). Th is internal orga-
nization of relationships will be diff erent in terms of the point
aff ected, that is, in terms,
of the dominant. More concretely: sometimes intonation will be
11. governed by meaning
(by various procedures), sometimes, on the other hand, the
meaning structure will be
determined by intonation; sometimes again, the relationship of
a word to the lexicon
may be foregrounded, then again its relationship to the phonetic
structure of the text.
Which of the possible relationships will be foregrounded, which
will remain automa-
tized, and what will be the direction of foregrounding whether
from component A to
component B or vice versa, all this depends on the dominant.
Th e dominant thus creates the unity of the work of poetry. It is,
of course, a unity of
its own kind, the nature of which in esthetics is usually
designated as “unity in variety”,
a dynamic unity in which we at the same time perceive harmony
and disharmony, con-
vergence and divergence. Th e convergence is given by the
trend towards the dominant,
46
CHAPTERS FROM THE HISTORY OF CZECH FUNCTIONAL
LINGUISTICS
the divergence by the resistance of the unmoving background of
unforegrounded com-
ponents against this trend. Components may appear
unforegrounded from the stand-
point of the standard language, or from the standpoint of the
poetic canon, that is, the
set of fi rm and stable norms into which the structure of a
12. preceding school of poetry
has dissolved by automatization, when it is no longer perceived
as an indivisible and un-
dissociable whole. In other words, it is possible in some cases
for a component which is
foregrounded in terms of the norms of the standard, not to be
foregrounded in a certain
work because it is in accord with the automatized poetic canon.
Every work of poetry
is perceived against the background of a certain tradition, that
is, of some automatized
canon with regard to which it constitutes a distortion. Th e
outward manifestation of this
automatization is the ease with which creation is possible in
terms of this canon, the pro-
liferation of epigones, the liking for obsolescent poetry in
circles not close to literature.
Proof of the intensity with which a new trend in poetry is
perceived as a distortion of
the traditional canon is the negative attitude of conservative
criticism which considers
deliberate deviations from the canon errors against the very
essence of poetry.
Th e background which we perceive behind the work of poetry
as consisting of the
unforegrounded components resisting foregrounding is thus
dual: the norm of the stan-
dard language and the traditional esthetic canon. Both
backgrounds are always poten-
tially present, though one of them will predominate in the
concrete case. In periods of
powerful foregrounding of linguistic elements, the background
of the norm of the stan-
dard predominates, while in periods of moderate foregrounding,
that of the traditional
13. canon. If the latter has strongly distorted the norm of the
standard, then its moderate
distortion may, in turn, constitute a renewal of the norm of the
standard, and this pre-
cisely because of its moderation. Th e mutual relationships of
the components of the
work of poetry, both foregrounded and unforegrounded,
constitute its structure, a dy-
namic structure including both convergence and divergence and
one that constitutes an
undissociable artistic whole, since each of its components has
its value precisely in terms
of its relation to the totality.
It is thus obvious that the possibility of distorting the norm of
the standard, if we
henceforth limit ourselves to this particular background of
foregrounding, is indispens-
able to poetry. Without it, there would be no poetry. To criticize
the deviations from
the norm of the standard as faults, especially in a period which,
like the present, tends
towards a powerful foregrounding of linguistic components,
means to reject poetry. It
could be countered that in some works of poetry, or rather in
some genres, only the “con-
tent” (subject matter) is foregrounded, so that the above
remarks do not concern them.
To this it must be noted that in a work of poetry of any genre
there is no fi xed border, nor,
in a certain sense, any essential diff erence between the
language and the subject matter.
Th e subject matter of a work of poetry cannot be judged by its
relationship to the extralin-
guistic reality entering into the work; it is rather a component
of the semantic side of the
14. work (we do not want to assert, of course, that its relationship
to reality cannot become
a factor of its structure, as for instance in realism). Th e proof
of this statement could be
47
Standard language and poetic language
given rather extensively; let us, however, limit ourselves to the
most important point: the
question of truthfulness does not apply in regard to the subject
matter of a work of poet-
ry, nor does it even make sense. Even if we posed the question
and answered it positive-
ly or negatively as the case may be, the question has no bearing
on the artistic value of
the work, it can only serve to determine the extent to which the
work has documentary
value. If in some work of poetry there is emphasis on the
question of truthfulness (as in
[Vladislav] Vančura’s [1891–1942, a modern author] short story
Dobrá míra [Th e Good
Measure]), this emphasis only serves the purpose of giving the
subject matter a certain
semantic coloration. Th e status of subject matter is entirely diff
erent in case of commu-
nicative speech. Th ere, a certain relationship of the subject
matter to reality is an import-
ant value, a necessary prerequisite. Th us, in the case of
a newspaper report the question
whether a certain event has occurred or not is obviously of basic
signifi cance.
15. Th e subject matter of a work of poetry is thus its largest
semantic unit. In terms of
being meaning, it has certain properties which are not directly
based on the linguistic
sign, but are linked to it insofar as the latter is a general
semiological unit (especially its
independence of any specifi c signs, or sets of signs, so that the
same subject matter may
without basic changes be rendered by diff erent linguistic
devices, or even transposed
into a diff erent set of signs altogether, as in the transposition
of subject matter from one
art form to another), but this diff erence in properties does not
aff ect the semantic char-
acter of the subject matter. It thus holds, even for works and
genres of poetry in which
the subject matter is the dominant, that the latter is not the
“equivalent” of a reality to be
expressed by the work as eff ectively (for instance, as
truthfully) as possible, but that it is
a part of the structure, is governed by its laws, and is evaluated
in terms of its relationship
to it. If this is the case, then it holds for the novel as well as for
the lyrical poem that to
deny a work of poetry the right to violate the norm of the
standard is equivalent to the
negation of poetry. It cannot be said of the novel that here the
linguistic elements are the
esthetically indiff erent expression of content, not even if they
appear to be completely
devoid of foregrounding: the structure is the total of all the
components, and its dy-
namics arises precisely from the tension between the
foregrounded and unforegrounded
components. Th ere are, incidentally, many novels and short
stories in which the linguis-
16. tic components are clearly foregrounded. Changes eff ected in
the interest of correct lan-
guage would thus, even in the case of prose, oft en interfere
with the very essence of the
work; this would, for instance, happen if the author or even
translator decided, as was
asked in Naše řeč, to eliminate “superfl uous” relative clauses.
Th ere still remains the problem of esthetic values in language
outside of the realm of
poetry. A recent Czech opinion has it that “esthetic evaluation
must be excluded from
language, since there is no place where it can be applied. It is
useful and necessary for
judging style, but not language” (J. Haller, Problém jazykové
správnosti (Th e Problem of
Correct Language), Výroční zpráva č. st. ref. real. gymnasia
v Ústí nad Labem za r. 1930-
31, p. 23). I am leaving aside the criticism of the
terminologically inaccurate opposition
of style and language; but I do want to point out, in opposition
to Haller’s thesis, that
48
CHAPTERS FROM THE HISTORY OF CZECH FUNCTIONAL
LINGUISTICS
esthetic valuation is a very important factor in the formation of
the norm of the stan-
dard; on the one hand because the conscious refi nement of the
language cannot do with-
out it, on the other hand because it sometimes, in part,
determines the development of
17. the norm of the standard.
Let us start with a general discussion of the fi eld of esthetic
phenomena. It is clear that
this fi eld by far exceeds the confi nes of the arts. Dessoir says
about it: “Th e striving for
beauty need not be limited in its manifestation to the specifi c
forms of the arts. Th e es-
thetic needs are, on the contrary, so potent that they aff ect
almost all the acts of man”.2 If
the area of esthetic phenomena is indeed so broad, it becomes
obvious that esthetic val-
uation has its place beyond the confi nes of the arts; we can cite
as examples the esthetic
factors in sexual selection, fashion, the social amenities, the
culinary arts, etc. Th ere is, of
course, a diff erence between esthetic valuation in the arts and
outside of art. In the arts,
esthetic valuation necessarily stands highest in the hierarchy of
the values contained in
the work, whereas outside of art its position vacillates and is
usually subordinate. Fur-
thermore, in the arts we evaluate each component in terms of
the structure of the work
in question, and the yardstick is in each individual case
determined by the function of
the component within the structure. Outside of art, the various
components of the phe-
nomenon to be evaluated are not integrated into an esthetic
structure and the yardstick
becomes the established norm that applies to the component in
question, wherever the
latter occurs. If, then, the area of esthetic valuation is so broad
that it includes “almost all
of the acts of man,” it is indeed not very probable that language
would be exempt from
18. esthetic valuation; in other words, that its use would not be
subject to the laws of taste.
Th ere is direct proof that esthetic valuation is one of the basic
criteria of purism, and that
even the development of the norm of the standard cannot be
imagined without it.
[…]
Esthetic valuation clearly has its indispensable place in the refi
nement of language, and
those purists who deny its validity are unconsciously passing
judgment on their own prac-
tice. Without an esthetic point of view, no other form of the
cultivation of good language
is possible, even one much more effi cient than purism. Th is
does not mean that he who
intends to cultivate good language has the right to judge
language in line with his per-
sonal taste, as is done precisely by the purists. Such an
intervention into the development
of the standard language is effi cient and purposeful only in
periods when the conscious
esthetic valuation of phenomena has become a social fact — as
was the case in France in
the 17th century. In other periods, including the present, the
esthetic point of view has
more of a regulatory function in the cultivation of good
language: he who is active in the
cultivation of good language must take care not to force upon
the standard language, in
the name of correct language, modes of expression that violate
the esthetic canon (set of
norms) given in the language implicitly, but objectively;
intervention without heed to the
esthetic norms hampers, rather than advances, the development
19. of the language. Th e es-
thetic canon, which diff ers not only from language to language,
but also for diff erent de-
velopmental periods of the same language (not counting in this
context other functional
49
Standard language and poetic language
formations of which each has its own esthetic canon), must
therefore be ascertained by
scientifi c investigation and be described as accurately as
possible. Th is is the reason for the
considerable signifi cance of the question of the manner in
which esthetic valuation infl u-
ences the development of the norm of the standard. Let us fi rst
consider the manner in
which the lexicon of the standard language is increased and
renewed. Words originating in
slang, dialects, or foreign languages, are, as we know from our
own experience, oft en taken
over because of their novelty and uncommonness, that is, for
purposes of foregrounding
in which esthetic valuation always plays a signifi cant part.
Words of the poetic language,
poetic neologisms, can also enter the standard by this route,
although in these cases we
can also be dealing with acceptance for reasons of
communication (need for a new shade
of meaning). Th e infl uence of poetic language on the standard
is, however, not limited
to the vocabulary: intonational and syntactic patterns (clichés)
can, for instance, also be
20. taken over — the latter only for esthetic reasons since there is
hardly any communicative
necessity for a change of the sentence and intonation structure
current until then. Very
interesting in this respect is the observation by the poet J.
Cocteau in his book Le secret
professionnel (Paris, 1922, p. 36) that “Stéphane Mallarmé
even now infl uences the style
of the daily press without the journalists’ being aware of it.” By
way of explanation it must
be pointed out that Mallarmé has very violently distorted French
syntax and word order
which is incomparably more bound in French than in Czech,
being a grammatical factor.
In spite of this intensive distortion, or perhaps because of it,
Mallarmé infl uenced the de-
velopment of the structure of the sentence in the standard
language.
Th e eff ect of esthetic valuation on the development of the
norm of the standard is un-
deniable; this is why the problem deserves the attention of the
theorists. So far, we have,
for instance, hardly even any lexical studies of the acceptance
of poetic neologisms in
Czech and of the reasons for this acceptance; [Antonin] Frinta’s
article Rukopisné podvrhy
a naše spisovná řeč [Th e Fake Manuscripts (Václav Hanka’s
forgeries of purportedly Old
Czech poetry, 1813, 1817) and our Standard Language] (Naše
řeč, vol. II has remained an
isolated attempt. It is also necessary to investigate the nature
and range of esthetic valu-
ation in the standard language. Esthetic valuation is based here,
as always when it is not
based on an artistic structure, on certain generally valid norms.
21. In art, including poetry,
each component is evaluated in relation to the structure. Th e
problem in evaluating is to
determine how and to what extent a given component fulfi ls the
function proper to it in
the total structure; the yardstick is given by the context of
a given structure and does not
apply to any other context. Th e proof lies in the fact that
a certain component may by itself
be perceived as a negative value in terms of the pertinent
esthetic norm, if its distortional
character is very prominent, but may be evaluated positively in
terms of a particular struc-
ture and as its essential component precisely because of this
distortional character. Th ere
is no esthetic structure outside of poetry, none in the standard
language (nor in language
in general). Th ere is, however, a certain set of esthetic norms,
each of which applies in-
dependently to a certain component of language. Th is set, or
canon, is constant only for
a certain linguistic milieu; thus, the esthetic canon of the
standard is diff erent from that
50
CHAPTERS FROM THE HISTORY OF CZECH FUNCTIONAL
LINGUISTICS
of slang. We therefore need a description and characterization
of the esthetic canon of
the standard language of today and of the development of this
canon in the past. It is, of
course, clear to begin with that this development is not
22. independent of the changing struc-
tures in the art of poetry. Th e discovery and investigation of
the esthetic canon accepted
for a certain standard language would not only have theoretical
signifi cance as a part of
its history, but also, as has already been said, be of practical
importance in its cultivation.
Let us now return to the main topic of our study and attempt to
draw some conclusions
from what was said above of the relationship between the
standard and poetic language.
Poetic language is a diff erent form of language with a diff
erent function from that
of the standard. It is therefore equally unjustifi ed to call all
poets, without exception,
creators of the standard language as it is to make them
responsible for its present state.
Th is is not to deny the possibility of utilizing poetry as data for
the scientifi c description
of the norm of the standard (cf. p. 165), nor the fact that the
development of the norm
of the standard does not occur uninfl uenced by poetry. Th e
distortion of the norm of
the standard is, however, of the very essence of poetry, and it is
therefore improper to
ask poetic language to abide by this norm. Th is was clearly
formulated as early as 1913
by Ferdinand Brunot (L’autorité en matière de langage, Die
neueren Sprachen, vol. XX):
“Modern art, individualistic in essence, cannot always and
everywhere be satisfi ed with
the standard language alone. Th e laws governing the usual
communication of thought
must not, lest it be unbearable tyranny, be categorically
23. imposed upon the poet who,
beyond the bounds of the accepted forms of language, may fi nd
personalized forms of
intuitive expression. It is up to him to use them in accord with
his creative intuition and
without other limits than those imposed by his own inspiration.
Public opinion will give
the fi nal verdict.” It is interesting to compare Brunot’s
statement to one of Haller’s of 1931
(Problem jazykové správnosti, op. cit. 3): “Our writers and
poets in their creative eff ort
attempt to replace the thorough knowledge of the material of the
language by some sort
of imaginary ability of which they themselves are not too
sincerely convinced. Th ey lay
claim to a right which can but be an unjust privilege. Such an
ability, instinct, inspiration,
or what have you, cannot exist in and of itself; just as the
famous feel for the language,
it can only be the fi nal result of previous cognition, and
without consciously leaning on
the fi nished material of the language, it is no more certain than
any other arbitrary act.”
If we compare Brunot’s statement to Haller’s, the basic diff
erence is clear without further
comment. Let us also mention Jungmann’s critique of Polák’s
Vznešenost přírody [Th e
Sublimity of Nature] cited elsewhere in this study (see above);
Jungmann has there quite
accurately pointed out as a characteristic feature of poetic
language its “uncommonness,”
that is, its distortedness. – In spite of all that has been said
here, the condition of the
norm of the standard language is not without its signifi cance to
poetry, since the norm
of the standard is precisely the background against which the
24. structure of the work of
poetry is projected, and in regard to which it is perceived as
a distortion; the structure
of a work of poetry can change completely from its origin if it
is, aft er a certain time,
projected against the background of a norm of the standard
which has since changed.
51
Standard language and poetic language
In addition to the relationship of the norm of the standard to
poetry, there is also
the opposite relationship, that of poetry to the norm of the
standard. We have already
spoken of the infl uence of poetic language on the development
of the standard; some
remarks remain to be added. First of all, it is worth mentioning
that the poetic fore-
grounding of linguistic phenomena, since it is its own purpose,
cannot have the purpose
of creating new means of communication (as Vossler and his
school think). If anything
passes from poetic language into the standard, it becomes a loan
in the same way as any-
thing taken over by the standard from any other linguistic
milieu; even the motivation of
the borrowing may be the same: a loan from poetic language
may likewise be taken over
for extra-esthetic, that is, communicative reasons, and
conversely the motivation for
borrowings from other functional dialects, such as slang, may
be esthetic. Borrowings
25. from poetic language are beyond the scope of the poet’s intent.
Th us, poetic neologisms
arise as intentionally esthetic new formations, and their basic
features are unexpected-
ness, unusualness, and uniqueness. Neologisms created for
communicative purposes,
on the other hand, tend towards common derivation patterns and
easy classifi ability in
a certain lexical category; these are the properties allowing for
their general usability. If,
however, poetic neologisms were formed in view of their
general usability, their esthetic
function would be endangered thereby; they are, therefore,
formed in an unusual man-
ner, with considerable violence to the language, as regards both
form and meaning.
[…]
Th e relationship between poetic language and the standard,
their mutual approxi-
mation or increasing distance, changes from period to period.
But even within the same
period, and with the same norm of the standard, this
relationship need not be the same
for all poets. Th ere are, generally speaking, three possibilities:
the writer, say a novelist,
may either not distort the linguistic components of his work at
all (but this nondistortion
is, as was shown above, in itself a fact of the total structure of
his work), or he may distort
it, but subordinate the linguistic distortion to the subject matter
by giving substandard
colour to his lexicon in order to characterize personages and
situations, for instance; or
fi nally, he may distort the linguistic components in and of
26. themselves by either subor-
dinating the subject matter to the linguistic deformation, or
emphasizing the contrast
between the subject matter and tits linguistic expression. An
example of the fi rst possi-
bility might be [Jakub Arbes [1840–1914, an early naturalist],
of the second, some real-
istic novelists such as T. Nováková [1853–1912] or Z. Winter
[1846–1912], of the third,
[Vladislav] Vančura. It is obvious that as one goes from the fi
rst possibility to the third
the divergence between poetic language and the standard
increases. Th is classifi cation
has of course been highly schematized for purposes of
simplicity; the real situation is
much more complex.
Th e problem of the relationship between the standard and
poetic language does not,
however, exhaust the signifi cance of poetry as the art form
which uses language as its ma-
terial, for the standard language, or for the language of a nation
in general. Th e very exis-
tence of poetry in a certain language has fundamental
importance for this language. […]
52
CHAPTERS FROM THE HISTORY OF CZECH FUNCTIONAL
LINGUISTICS
By the very fact of foregrounding, poetry increases and refi nes
the ability to handle lan-
guage in general; it gives the language the ability to adjust more
27. fl exibly to new require-
ments and it gives it a richer diff erentiation of its means of
expression. Foregrounding
brings to the surface and before the eyes of the observer even
such linguistic phenomena
as remain quite covert in communicative speech, although they
are important factors in
language. Th us, for instance, Czech symbolism, especially O.
Březina’s [1868–1929] po-
etry, has brought to the fore of linguistic consciousness the
essence of sentence meaning
and the dynamic nature of sentence construction. From the
standpoint of communica-
tive speech, the meaning of a sentence appears as the total of
the gradually accumulated
meanings of the individual words, that is, without having
independent existence. Th e
real nature of the phenomenon is covered up by the
automatization of the semantic
design of the sentence. Words and sentences appear to follow
each other with obvious
necessity, as determined only by the nature of the message. Th
en there appears a work of
poetry in which the relationship between the meanings of the
individual words and the
subject matter of the sentence has been foregrounded. Th e
words here do not succeed
each other naturally and inconspicuously, but within the
sentence there occur semantic
jumps, breaks, which are not conditioned by the requirements of
communication, but
given in the language itself. Th e device for achieving these
sudden breaks is the constant
intersection of the plane of basic meaning with the plane of fi
gurative and metaphorical
meaning; some words are for a certain part of the context to be
28. understood in their fi g-
urative meaning, in other parts in their basic meaning, and such
words, carrying a dual
meaning, are precisely the points at which there are semantic
breaks. Th ere is also fore-
grounding of the relationship between the subject matter of the
sentence and the words
as well as of the semantic interrelationships of the words in the
sentence. Th e subject
matter of the sentence then appears as the centre of attraction
given from the beginning
of the sentence, the eff ect of the subject matter on the words
and of the words on the
subject matter is revealed, and the determining force can be felt
with which every word
aff ects every other. Th e sentence comes alive before the eyes
of the speech community:
the structure is revealed as a concert of fores. (What was here
formulated discursively,
must of course be imagined as an unformulated intuitive
cognition stored away for the
future in the consciousness of the speech community.) Examples
can be multiplied at
will, but we shall cite no more. We wanted to give evidence for
the statement that the
main importance of poetry for language lies in the fact that it is
an art. […]
53
Standard language and poetic language
Notes
29. Originally published in Czech under the title “Jazyk spisovný a
jazyk básnický” in B.
Havránek – M. Weingart (Eds.): Spisovná čeština a jazyková
kultura (Standard Czech
and the Cultivation of Language), Prague: Melantrich 1932,
123–149. In part translated
by P. L. Garvin in his Prague School Reader in Esthetics,
Literary Structure, and Style,
Washington, D.C., 1964, Georgetown University Press, 17–30.
Reprinted in Josef Va-
chek (ed.) (1983) Praguiana: Some Basic and Less Known
Aspects of the Prague Linguistic
School, An Anthology of Prague School Papers. Praha:
Academia, 165–185.
1 It is important to note that Polák himself in lexical notes to
his poem clearly distin-
guishes little known words (including obvious neologisms and
new loans) from those
which he used “for better poetic expression”, that is, as is
shown by the evidence, from
poetic neologisms.
2 M. Dessoir: Ästhetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft ,
Stuttgart, 1906, p. 112.
Comprehension questions
1. What is the relationship between the standard and poetic
language?
2. What is the relationship between the degree of stabilization
of the norm and the po-
tential for its violation?
3. In what sense does Mukařovský use the concept of
“structure”?
30. 4. What is the diff erential status of subject matter in poetry
and in communicative
speech?
Precis Scoring Rubric
Each precis can earn between 0 and 8 points, as explained in the
following table:
2 Points - Excellent 1 Point -
Satisfactory
0 Points - Needs
Improvement
Goal Clear, concise
statement of goal
Clear attempt to
articulate a goal
Confusing statement
of goal
Strategy Clear and concise
statement of
strategy; stated
strategy is readily
apparent in text
Clear attempt to
articulate a strategy;
31. stated strategy is not
foreign to text itself
Confusing attempt
to articulate a
strategy; strategy is
foreign to text
Table of
Information
Clear and concise
table of information;
insightful comments
about specific
entries; all entries
clearly correlate; all
entries clearly
evident in text
Clear attempt to
articulate a table of
information; some
insightful comments
about specific
entries; most entries
clearly correlate;
most entries clearly
evident in text
Confusing attempt
to articulate a table
of information; few
insightful comments
about specific
entires; few entries
32. correlate; few
entries clearly
evident in text
Implications Clear and concise
statement of
implications;
numerous insightful
comments about
specific points; no
extraneous
discussion
Clear attempt to
state implications;
some insightful
comments about
specific points;
some extraneous
discussion
Confusing attempt
to state implications;
few insightful
comments about
specific points;
extraneous
discussion
Precis Instructions
***thanks to Katherine Arens for this model!***
A precis (pronounced “PREE-say”) is a model for
33. understanding the internal structure of a text.
It begins with a GOAL statement, which is a one-sentence
explanation of what the text under
consideration is trying to do. It next has a statement about the
text's STRATEGY for achieving that
goal, or how it tries to get us to believe what it wants us to
believe. Under the strategy statement, it has
TWO COLUMN HEADINGS, which are titles for the types of
information the text correlates
together to make its argument. Several (at least 3) examples
follow, with the item in the 1st column
correlating to the item in the 2nd column. Finally, it has a
section about the IMPLICATIONS of the
text under consideration. Up to this point, you have been trying
to faithfully recreate what the text
itself is trying to do. Now is your chance to say what you think
about all this – literally, what does it all
imply?
The format should be 1 full page long and look something like
the following:
Precis for World Health Organization Article #2127
GOAL: To convince people not to eat old shoes.
STRATEGY: Show how specific parts of old shoes give you
specific diseases.
IMPLICATIONS: [a substantial paragraph discussing the
implications of this text]
Part of Old Shoe Disease
1) Laces 1) Dutch Elm Disease
2) Soles 2) Mad Cow Disease