This article analyzes how Jean-Jacques Rousseau came to symbolize totalitarianism in the early 20th century. It argues that rather than originating from readings of Rousseau's political work like The Social Contract, the totalitarian interpretations of his work arose primarily from his literary and autobiographical writings. During this period, Rousseau was seen as embodying a declining political Romanticism. The article examines how Romanticism and Rousseauism were viewed at the start of the 20th century and how political commentators in the 1930s-1940s critiqued Rousseau's alleged promotion of individualism over traditional social bonds, linking this to the rise of totalitarianism. It discusses efforts to
Structuralism emerged in France in the 1950s through the work of Claude Levi-Strauss and Roland Barthes. It believes that phenomena can only be understood in the context of larger structures. Structuralism analyzes relationships between signs and seeks to locate systems of meaning within cultural structures. It was applied to fields like anthropology, sociology, and literature. Key thinkers were Levi-Strauss, who applied structural linguistics concepts to anthropology, and Barthes, who examined aspects of modern culture from a structural perspective.
One of the most influential literary critical movements of the 20th century. Speaking very generally, Russian Formalism as a critical movement was interested in identifying the specific quality of language use that separated the literary text from the non-literary text. Their approach was scientific inasmuch as they thought it was possible to establish what it is precisely that distinguishes ordinary usages of language from the poetic. Unlike the later post-structuralists, the Russian Formalists treated poetry as an autonomous form of discourse that was distinct from all other forms of discourse. They referred to this difference in qualitative terms as literaturnost (literariness) and sought to quantify (i.e. formalize) it by means of their theory of ostranenie (estrangement), which simply put is the process of making the already familiar seem unfamiliar or strange, thereby awakening in us a heightened state of perception.
Marx dobie, ann theory into practice - marxist criticismInvisible_Vision
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The document analyzes Karl Marx's theory of historical materialism and Marxist literary criticism through examining Guy de Maupassant's short story "The Diamond Necklace". It discusses how the economic system depicted in the story divides society into bourgeoisie and proletariat classes based on ownership of property and means of production. Madame Loisel, as a member of the proletariat class, has no power or opportunity for social mobility. The story reveals how the internal contradictions of capitalism cause ongoing class struggle and psychological damage by commodifying possessions. A Marxist analysis seeks to uncover these dynamics to further the proletariat revolution against the bourgeoisie.
Romantics stressed the individual creativity and the freedom to innovate. Romanticism focussed on the use of creative imagination and the importance of myth and symbolism
1. The document outlines four major literary movements: Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Naturalism.
2. It provides a brief overview of the historical context and origins of each movement, from Neoclassicism originating in 1660 to Naturalism emerging in the late 19th century.
3. The characteristics of each movement are summarized, such as Neoclassicism emphasizing order and restraint while Romanticism celebrated imagination and emotion.
Stuart Hall outlines two paradigms in cultural studies: culturalism and structuralism. Culturalism, associated with Raymond Williams and E.P. Thompson, sees culture as the lived experiences and practices of social groups. Structuralism, associated with Levi-Strauss and Althusser, sees culture and experience as the effect of underlying symbolic structures and frameworks. Hall discusses the emergence of cultural studies and how structuralism interrupted the cultural strand, creating stark contrasts around the role of experience.
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, intellectual and ideological movement that originated in Europe in the late 18th century. It emphasized emotion, individualism and glorification of nature over rationalism and classicism. Romanticism influenced literature, music, visual arts and historiography. It reacted against industrialization and rational thought of the Enlightenment. Romanticism was embodied in works using strong feelings, imagination and focusing on individual experiences and emotions over rules and rationality.
A Controversy About The Natural Frame Of Reference And A Universal ScienceRichard Hogue
Â
1) Leo Strauss and Kurt Riezler were colleagues at the New School for Social Research in the late 1930s and 1940s where they taught courses together on classical philosophy.
2) While both were interested in the human and social sciences, their concerns related more broadly to understanding the nature of things and man's relationship to the natural world and even the supernatural.
3) Strauss was skeptical of Riezler's idea of pursuing a unitary science of man, believing the human sciences needed to articulate a natural order that went beyond what positive science could grasp.
Structuralism emerged in France in the 1950s through the work of Claude Levi-Strauss and Roland Barthes. It believes that phenomena can only be understood in the context of larger structures. Structuralism analyzes relationships between signs and seeks to locate systems of meaning within cultural structures. It was applied to fields like anthropology, sociology, and literature. Key thinkers were Levi-Strauss, who applied structural linguistics concepts to anthropology, and Barthes, who examined aspects of modern culture from a structural perspective.
One of the most influential literary critical movements of the 20th century. Speaking very generally, Russian Formalism as a critical movement was interested in identifying the specific quality of language use that separated the literary text from the non-literary text. Their approach was scientific inasmuch as they thought it was possible to establish what it is precisely that distinguishes ordinary usages of language from the poetic. Unlike the later post-structuralists, the Russian Formalists treated poetry as an autonomous form of discourse that was distinct from all other forms of discourse. They referred to this difference in qualitative terms as literaturnost (literariness) and sought to quantify (i.e. formalize) it by means of their theory of ostranenie (estrangement), which simply put is the process of making the already familiar seem unfamiliar or strange, thereby awakening in us a heightened state of perception.
Marx dobie, ann theory into practice - marxist criticismInvisible_Vision
Â
The document analyzes Karl Marx's theory of historical materialism and Marxist literary criticism through examining Guy de Maupassant's short story "The Diamond Necklace". It discusses how the economic system depicted in the story divides society into bourgeoisie and proletariat classes based on ownership of property and means of production. Madame Loisel, as a member of the proletariat class, has no power or opportunity for social mobility. The story reveals how the internal contradictions of capitalism cause ongoing class struggle and psychological damage by commodifying possessions. A Marxist analysis seeks to uncover these dynamics to further the proletariat revolution against the bourgeoisie.
Romantics stressed the individual creativity and the freedom to innovate. Romanticism focussed on the use of creative imagination and the importance of myth and symbolism
1. The document outlines four major literary movements: Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Naturalism.
2. It provides a brief overview of the historical context and origins of each movement, from Neoclassicism originating in 1660 to Naturalism emerging in the late 19th century.
3. The characteristics of each movement are summarized, such as Neoclassicism emphasizing order and restraint while Romanticism celebrated imagination and emotion.
Stuart Hall outlines two paradigms in cultural studies: culturalism and structuralism. Culturalism, associated with Raymond Williams and E.P. Thompson, sees culture as the lived experiences and practices of social groups. Structuralism, associated with Levi-Strauss and Althusser, sees culture and experience as the effect of underlying symbolic structures and frameworks. Hall discusses the emergence of cultural studies and how structuralism interrupted the cultural strand, creating stark contrasts around the role of experience.
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, intellectual and ideological movement that originated in Europe in the late 18th century. It emphasized emotion, individualism and glorification of nature over rationalism and classicism. Romanticism influenced literature, music, visual arts and historiography. It reacted against industrialization and rational thought of the Enlightenment. Romanticism was embodied in works using strong feelings, imagination and focusing on individual experiences and emotions over rules and rationality.
A Controversy About The Natural Frame Of Reference And A Universal ScienceRichard Hogue
Â
1) Leo Strauss and Kurt Riezler were colleagues at the New School for Social Research in the late 1930s and 1940s where they taught courses together on classical philosophy.
2) While both were interested in the human and social sciences, their concerns related more broadly to understanding the nature of things and man's relationship to the natural world and even the supernatural.
3) Strauss was skeptical of Riezler's idea of pursuing a unitary science of man, believing the human sciences needed to articulate a natural order that went beyond what positive science could grasp.
The First Political Theory (liberalism) is short of breath and although it has achieved boundless totalitarian power, it is no longer able to ensure order. It will explode like Aesop's frog: it swelled beyond its ability to bear "
The document discusses the emergence of a new multipolar world order as liberalism declines and is no longer able to ensure order. It argues that liberalism has achieved totalitarian power but is now short of breath. The failure of unions and parties indicates that the First Political Theory of liberalism is declining. A new multipolar world order will see the defeat of American unipolar hegemony. The desirable scenario is the overthrow of unipolarity and affirmation of a multipolar order that respects cultural diversity. The Russian-Ukrainian war is accelerating changes and signs of a new multipolar world are already emerging as countries coordinate financially without the dollar.
The document discusses the emergence of a new multipolar world order as liberalism declines and is no longer able to ensure order. It argues that liberalism has achieved totalitarian power but is now short of breath. The failure of unions and parties indicates that the First Political Theory of liberalism is declining. A new multipolar world order will see the defeat of American unipolar hegemony. The desirable scenario is the overthrow of unipolarity and affirmation of a multipolar order that respects cultural diversity. The Russian-Ukrainian war is accelerating changes and signs of a new multipolar world are already emerging as countries coordinate financially without the dollar.
Raymond Williams was a Welsh author, academic and cultural theorist. He developed the concept of cultural materialism, which views culture as part of an active historical process shaped by social and economic forces. Some key aspects of his work include identifying the "structure of feeling" of an era, viewing culture as "ordinary" and democratic, and analyzing culture through the lenses of dominant, residual and emergent forces. His 1973 book The Country and The City analyzed how English literature depicted rural and urban life and their changing relationship over time. Williams made important contributions to Marxist literary and cultural theory.
This document discusses postmodernism and how it reacted against modernism. Postmodernism questions scientific theories and allows for more subjectivity compared to modernism. It emphasizes inclusion, freedom, and cooperation in society. Postmodernism lacks a clear doctrine but is evident in the distinction between eras from the 1860s to 1950s and from the 1950s to present day. It advocates for inclusivity and democracy by recognizing unjust perspectives.
Romanticism was an international artistic and philosophical movement between 1770-1870 that redefined how people viewed themselves and the world. It emphasized imagination, emotion, individualism, nature, and symbolism over reason. Romantic artists and thinkers rejected neoclassical rules and restraints in favor of experimentation and focusing on personal experiences and the inner self. Romanticism had a revolutionary spirit and transformed poetry and other arts through a greater focus on feelings and individual expression.
STANFORD ITALIAN REVIEW Editor John Freccero Associa.docxwhitneyleman54422
Â
STANFORD ITALIAN REVIEW
Editor
John Freccero
Associate Editor
Jeffrey Schnapp
Editorial Committee
Beverly Allen Judith Brown Robert Harrison Carolyn Springer
Assistant to the Editors
Editorial Board
Nino Borsellino
Antonio D'Andrea
Gianfranco Folena
Kurt Forster
Giulio Lepschy
Nicolas Perella
Luciano Rebay
Andre Rochon
Lawrence Ryan
Cesare Vasoli
Ludovico Zorzi
Louise Freeman
Advisory Board
Fredi Chiappelli
Giovanni Da Pozzo
Teresa De Lauretis
Dante Della Terza
Giuseppe Mammarella
Anthony Molho
Anthony Oldcorn
Giorgio Padoan
Eduardo Saccone
John Scott
Maria Picchio Simonelli
Founder
Alphonse J uilland
The Stanford Italian Review, published under the auspices of the Department of French
and Italian of Stanford University, is devoted to critical essays in the area of Italian
Studies. It will publish articles on literature (especially in the context of other in-
tellectual activities, or other literary traditions), culture, and politics. In addition
to monograph essays, each issue may offer interviews, original texts and documents,
reviews of several works by a single author or on a specific subject.
Contributions (in English or in Italian) should be no longer than 25 typewritten,
doublespaced pages and should follow the MLA Style Manual (1985). Articles and
proposals, which will not be returned unless accompanied by return postage and
a self-addressed envelope, should be addressed to Stanford Italian Review, Depart-
ment of French and Italian, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
The annual subscription is $27.00 for individuals, $50.00 for institutions. Orders
should be sent to Anma Libri, P.O. Box 876, Saratoga, California 95071, USA.
c 1990 by ANMA Libri & Co.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
STANFORD ITALIAN REVIEW
VOLUME VIII, NO. 1-2
FASCISM AND CULTURE
Edited by
JEFFREY SCHNAPP AND BARBARA SPACKMAN
Contents
Jiffrey Schnapp & Barbara Spackman, Introduction
Renzo De Felice, Fascism and Culture in Italy:
Outlines for Further Study
Heesok Chang, Fascism and Critical Theory
Russell A. Bennan, The Aestheticization of Politics:
Walter Benjamin on Fascism and the Avant-Garde
Jiflrey Schnapp, Forwarding Address
Barbara Spackman, The Fascist Rhetoric of Virility
Paolo Valesio, Ungaretti and the Miles Patiens:
Dannunzian Genealogies
Ruth Ben-Ghiat, The Politics of Realism: Corrente
di Vita Giovanile and the Youth Culture of the 1930s
Diane Ghirardo, .City and Theater: The Rhetoric
of Fascist Architecture
Italo Calvina, The Dictator's Hats
David Humphrey, The Dictator's Bodies
Dux Italiae
Jiffrey Schnapp & Barbara Spackman, Selections from
the Great Debate on Fascism and Culture:
Critica Fascista 1926-1927
1
5
13
35
53
81
103
139
165
195
211
221
235
52 Fascism and Culture
"refeudalization," i.e., the demise of a public of rational debate, re-
placed by a consumerist cu.
A CRITICAL FRAMEWORK FOR TEXTUAL ANALYSISBryce Nelson
Â
This document provides an overview of frameworks for analyzing myths and their political, social, and economic dimensions. It discusses several thinkers that influenced the analysis of myths, including Barthes, Marx, Levi-Strauss, and Critical Theorists. The document proposes analyzing myths using a mixed-methods approach informed by these frameworks. It will apply Barthes' concept of myth as a semiotic structure to analyze Plato's Myth of Er and several television comedy programs to reveal their depictions of social class and the natural order.
Secret Societies have a history of being considered a threat to overall society and deeply involved in all types of world corruption as well as every war. This was written by an historical writer researcher nearly 100 years ago. Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us.
This document provides an overview of various schools of literary theory and criticism that have developed over time, including approaches such as Cambridge School, Chicago School, Deconstruction, Feminist criticism, Psychoanalytic criticism, Marxist criticism, New Criticism, New Historicism, and Structuralism. It also defines and explains key literary terms and theories used in literary analysis and interpretation.
Roman Osipovich Jakobson was a highly influential 20th century Russian linguist. He helped pioneer structural analysis of language, poetry, and art. Jakobson was a founding member of the Moscow Linguistic Circle, which influenced the development of Russian Formalism in literary criticism. He later moved to Prague and helped form the Prague Linguistic Circle, contributing to the emergence of structuralism. Jakobson made enduring contributions to communication theory through his analysis of language functions.
This document provides a summary and analysis of Winston's transition from a structuralist to poststructuralist discourse in George Orwell's novel 1984. In the beginning, Winston analyzes the political situation from a structuralist perspective, believing the proles will overthrow the oppressive Party. However, after being tortured, Winston comes to accept the Party's poststructuralist discourse of doublethink and the mutability of history and language. The document analyzes this transition through the lenses of structuralism, poststructuralism, Foucault's theories of discourse and power, and postmodern architecture. It argues Winston ultimately betrays his beliefs by allowing the Party to fully control his mind.
The document discusses the emergence of the concept of totalitarianism in the 1930s to describe regimes in Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union. It explores how intellectuals and scholars initially struggled to differentiate between fascism and communism but began to see them as sharing key traits of totalitarianism, including extreme nationalism, a cult of personality around their leaders, repression of individual rights and dissent, and a single-party system. By the late 1930s, most observers viewed Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union as totalitarian states and the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939 further confirmed this perspective for many.
Anarchist Tendencies in Modern English Literature (BA thesis).pdfKatie Naple
Â
This document provides an introduction to and overview of anarchist tendencies in modern English literature. It discusses how anarchism calls for socialism in the political and economic realms while emphasizing individual freedom and rejecting state power. Key authors and works discussed that exhibit anarchist tendencies include William Morris' News from Nowhere, which depicts a libertarian socialist society, and George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia, which praised the egalitarian society created by anarchists during the Spanish Civil War in Catalonia. The document argues that anarchism has been overlooked in Britain's academic and Marxist circles due to the lack of social and political rewards for intellectuals who supported it.
Rosa Luxemburg was an expert in political economy and made several contributions to Marxist theories, especially in the field of political economy. Unlike how she is commonly perceived as a political theorist, she studied Marx's Capital extensively. She taught political economy at the German Social Democratic Party school in Berlin from 1908 onward. Luxemburg argued that Marxist theory had stagnated after Engels and that more progress was needed, especially in developing Marx's theories presented in volumes II and III of Capital. She emphasized the historical and dialectical nature of Marx's economic analysis.
Best Mba Essay Writing Service From Experts 7Dollaressay Cape May. MBAAmy Isleb
Â
This document provides instructions for students to get help writing assignments through an online service. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account, 2) Complete an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and choose one, 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions if needed. The service aims to match students with qualified writers and provide original, high-quality assignments that meet requirements.
Beautiful How To Write A Movie Review For CollegeAmy Isleb
Â
The document provides instructions for requesting assignment writing help from HelpWriting.net. It involves 5 steps: 1) Create an account with a password and email, 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and choose one, placing a deposit to start, 4) Review the paper and authorize payment if satisfied, and 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized content. The process aims to fully meet student needs for original, high-quality assignments.
How To Write An Essay With Introduction Body And ConAmy Isleb
Â
This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with the option of a refund for plagiarized work.
Which Best Describes Writing Process ChecklistAmy Isleb
Â
The document describes the five step process for getting writing help from HelpWriting.net. It involves 1) creating an account, 2) completing an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) reviewing bids from writers and choosing one, 4) reviewing the completed paper and authorizing payment, and 5) requesting revisions to ensure satisfaction. The service promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
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Similar to 4. From Literature To Politics How Rousseau Has Come To Symbolize Totalitarianism
The First Political Theory (liberalism) is short of breath and although it has achieved boundless totalitarian power, it is no longer able to ensure order. It will explode like Aesop's frog: it swelled beyond its ability to bear "
The document discusses the emergence of a new multipolar world order as liberalism declines and is no longer able to ensure order. It argues that liberalism has achieved totalitarian power but is now short of breath. The failure of unions and parties indicates that the First Political Theory of liberalism is declining. A new multipolar world order will see the defeat of American unipolar hegemony. The desirable scenario is the overthrow of unipolarity and affirmation of a multipolar order that respects cultural diversity. The Russian-Ukrainian war is accelerating changes and signs of a new multipolar world are already emerging as countries coordinate financially without the dollar.
The document discusses the emergence of a new multipolar world order as liberalism declines and is no longer able to ensure order. It argues that liberalism has achieved totalitarian power but is now short of breath. The failure of unions and parties indicates that the First Political Theory of liberalism is declining. A new multipolar world order will see the defeat of American unipolar hegemony. The desirable scenario is the overthrow of unipolarity and affirmation of a multipolar order that respects cultural diversity. The Russian-Ukrainian war is accelerating changes and signs of a new multipolar world are already emerging as countries coordinate financially without the dollar.
Raymond Williams was a Welsh author, academic and cultural theorist. He developed the concept of cultural materialism, which views culture as part of an active historical process shaped by social and economic forces. Some key aspects of his work include identifying the "structure of feeling" of an era, viewing culture as "ordinary" and democratic, and analyzing culture through the lenses of dominant, residual and emergent forces. His 1973 book The Country and The City analyzed how English literature depicted rural and urban life and their changing relationship over time. Williams made important contributions to Marxist literary and cultural theory.
This document discusses postmodernism and how it reacted against modernism. Postmodernism questions scientific theories and allows for more subjectivity compared to modernism. It emphasizes inclusion, freedom, and cooperation in society. Postmodernism lacks a clear doctrine but is evident in the distinction between eras from the 1860s to 1950s and from the 1950s to present day. It advocates for inclusivity and democracy by recognizing unjust perspectives.
Romanticism was an international artistic and philosophical movement between 1770-1870 that redefined how people viewed themselves and the world. It emphasized imagination, emotion, individualism, nature, and symbolism over reason. Romantic artists and thinkers rejected neoclassical rules and restraints in favor of experimentation and focusing on personal experiences and the inner self. Romanticism had a revolutionary spirit and transformed poetry and other arts through a greater focus on feelings and individual expression.
STANFORD ITALIAN REVIEW Editor John Freccero Associa.docxwhitneyleman54422
Â
STANFORD ITALIAN REVIEW
Editor
John Freccero
Associate Editor
Jeffrey Schnapp
Editorial Committee
Beverly Allen Judith Brown Robert Harrison Carolyn Springer
Assistant to the Editors
Editorial Board
Nino Borsellino
Antonio D'Andrea
Gianfranco Folena
Kurt Forster
Giulio Lepschy
Nicolas Perella
Luciano Rebay
Andre Rochon
Lawrence Ryan
Cesare Vasoli
Ludovico Zorzi
Louise Freeman
Advisory Board
Fredi Chiappelli
Giovanni Da Pozzo
Teresa De Lauretis
Dante Della Terza
Giuseppe Mammarella
Anthony Molho
Anthony Oldcorn
Giorgio Padoan
Eduardo Saccone
John Scott
Maria Picchio Simonelli
Founder
Alphonse J uilland
The Stanford Italian Review, published under the auspices of the Department of French
and Italian of Stanford University, is devoted to critical essays in the area of Italian
Studies. It will publish articles on literature (especially in the context of other in-
tellectual activities, or other literary traditions), culture, and politics. In addition
to monograph essays, each issue may offer interviews, original texts and documents,
reviews of several works by a single author or on a specific subject.
Contributions (in English or in Italian) should be no longer than 25 typewritten,
doublespaced pages and should follow the MLA Style Manual (1985). Articles and
proposals, which will not be returned unless accompanied by return postage and
a self-addressed envelope, should be addressed to Stanford Italian Review, Depart-
ment of French and Italian, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
The annual subscription is $27.00 for individuals, $50.00 for institutions. Orders
should be sent to Anma Libri, P.O. Box 876, Saratoga, California 95071, USA.
c 1990 by ANMA Libri & Co.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
STANFORD ITALIAN REVIEW
VOLUME VIII, NO. 1-2
FASCISM AND CULTURE
Edited by
JEFFREY SCHNAPP AND BARBARA SPACKMAN
Contents
Jiffrey Schnapp & Barbara Spackman, Introduction
Renzo De Felice, Fascism and Culture in Italy:
Outlines for Further Study
Heesok Chang, Fascism and Critical Theory
Russell A. Bennan, The Aestheticization of Politics:
Walter Benjamin on Fascism and the Avant-Garde
Jiflrey Schnapp, Forwarding Address
Barbara Spackman, The Fascist Rhetoric of Virility
Paolo Valesio, Ungaretti and the Miles Patiens:
Dannunzian Genealogies
Ruth Ben-Ghiat, The Politics of Realism: Corrente
di Vita Giovanile and the Youth Culture of the 1930s
Diane Ghirardo, .City and Theater: The Rhetoric
of Fascist Architecture
Italo Calvina, The Dictator's Hats
David Humphrey, The Dictator's Bodies
Dux Italiae
Jiffrey Schnapp & Barbara Spackman, Selections from
the Great Debate on Fascism and Culture:
Critica Fascista 1926-1927
1
5
13
35
53
81
103
139
165
195
211
221
235
52 Fascism and Culture
"refeudalization," i.e., the demise of a public of rational debate, re-
placed by a consumerist cu.
A CRITICAL FRAMEWORK FOR TEXTUAL ANALYSISBryce Nelson
Â
This document provides an overview of frameworks for analyzing myths and their political, social, and economic dimensions. It discusses several thinkers that influenced the analysis of myths, including Barthes, Marx, Levi-Strauss, and Critical Theorists. The document proposes analyzing myths using a mixed-methods approach informed by these frameworks. It will apply Barthes' concept of myth as a semiotic structure to analyze Plato's Myth of Er and several television comedy programs to reveal their depictions of social class and the natural order.
Secret Societies have a history of being considered a threat to overall society and deeply involved in all types of world corruption as well as every war. This was written by an historical writer researcher nearly 100 years ago. Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us.
This document provides an overview of various schools of literary theory and criticism that have developed over time, including approaches such as Cambridge School, Chicago School, Deconstruction, Feminist criticism, Psychoanalytic criticism, Marxist criticism, New Criticism, New Historicism, and Structuralism. It also defines and explains key literary terms and theories used in literary analysis and interpretation.
Roman Osipovich Jakobson was a highly influential 20th century Russian linguist. He helped pioneer structural analysis of language, poetry, and art. Jakobson was a founding member of the Moscow Linguistic Circle, which influenced the development of Russian Formalism in literary criticism. He later moved to Prague and helped form the Prague Linguistic Circle, contributing to the emergence of structuralism. Jakobson made enduring contributions to communication theory through his analysis of language functions.
This document provides a summary and analysis of Winston's transition from a structuralist to poststructuralist discourse in George Orwell's novel 1984. In the beginning, Winston analyzes the political situation from a structuralist perspective, believing the proles will overthrow the oppressive Party. However, after being tortured, Winston comes to accept the Party's poststructuralist discourse of doublethink and the mutability of history and language. The document analyzes this transition through the lenses of structuralism, poststructuralism, Foucault's theories of discourse and power, and postmodern architecture. It argues Winston ultimately betrays his beliefs by allowing the Party to fully control his mind.
The document discusses the emergence of the concept of totalitarianism in the 1930s to describe regimes in Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union. It explores how intellectuals and scholars initially struggled to differentiate between fascism and communism but began to see them as sharing key traits of totalitarianism, including extreme nationalism, a cult of personality around their leaders, repression of individual rights and dissent, and a single-party system. By the late 1930s, most observers viewed Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union as totalitarian states and the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939 further confirmed this perspective for many.
Anarchist Tendencies in Modern English Literature (BA thesis).pdfKatie Naple
Â
This document provides an introduction to and overview of anarchist tendencies in modern English literature. It discusses how anarchism calls for socialism in the political and economic realms while emphasizing individual freedom and rejecting state power. Key authors and works discussed that exhibit anarchist tendencies include William Morris' News from Nowhere, which depicts a libertarian socialist society, and George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia, which praised the egalitarian society created by anarchists during the Spanish Civil War in Catalonia. The document argues that anarchism has been overlooked in Britain's academic and Marxist circles due to the lack of social and political rewards for intellectuals who supported it.
Rosa Luxemburg was an expert in political economy and made several contributions to Marxist theories, especially in the field of political economy. Unlike how she is commonly perceived as a political theorist, she studied Marx's Capital extensively. She taught political economy at the German Social Democratic Party school in Berlin from 1908 onward. Luxemburg argued that Marxist theory had stagnated after Engels and that more progress was needed, especially in developing Marx's theories presented in volumes II and III of Capital. She emphasized the historical and dialectical nature of Marx's economic analysis.
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This document provides instructions for students to get help writing assignments through an online service. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account, 2) Complete an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and choose one, 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions if needed. The service aims to match students with qualified writers and provide original, high-quality assignments that meet requirements.
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The document provides instructions for requesting assignment writing help from HelpWriting.net. It involves 5 steps: 1) Create an account with a password and email, 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and choose one, placing a deposit to start, 4) Review the paper and authorize payment if satisfied, and 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized content. The process aims to fully meet student needs for original, high-quality assignments.
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This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications.
4. Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied.
5. Request revisions until fully satisfied, with the option of a refund for plagiarized work.
Which Best Describes Writing Process ChecklistAmy Isleb
Â
The document describes the five step process for getting writing help from HelpWriting.net. It involves 1) creating an account, 2) completing an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) reviewing bids from writers and choosing one, 4) reviewing the completed paper and authorizing payment, and 5) requesting revisions to ensure satisfaction. The service promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
The document discusses EBSCO Discovery Service, which provides a single search box allowing users to search an institution's entire collection. EBSCO describes itself as the leading discovery service provider worldwide. The review will examine EBSCO Host's advantages and disadvantages, how it compares to other databases, and how easy it is to use. A sample search demonstrated the large number of results provided, but customization options could allow institutions to better fit searches to their collections.
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
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4. From Literature To Politics How Rousseau Has Come To Symbolize Totalitarianism
1. JOURNAL OF
INTERDISCIPLINARY
HISTORY OF IDEAS
2017
Volume 6 Issue 11
Item 4
â Section 2: Articles â
From Literature to Politics
How Rousseau Has Come to Symbolize Totalitarianism
by
Christophe Salvat
c b a
4. period. I shall argue, on the contrary, that Rousseau had often been a pretext
to take a stand on totalitarianism because he then embodied a declining polit-
ical Romanticism. Unlike Hayek, Berlin or Popper, who notoriously identified
totalitarianism with rationalism, the great majority of political commentators
interwar indeed considered Romanticismâand its âpassiveâ individualismâas
the main threat to freedom.
Before endeavouring to unravel the intricate relations between Rousseauâs
historiography and interwar politics, I present Romanticism (or âRousseauismâ,
as they called it) as it was regarded at the beginning of the century (section
2). The following section specifically deals with the political arguments raised
against Rousseauâs Romanticism in the 1930s and 1940s (section 3). A politi-
cally and morally conservative audience then accuses Rousseau of destroying
societyâs traditional bonds in favour of a democratic and liberal individualism
thatâthey believeâis but the other face of the new phenomenon called totalitar-
ianism (section 4). While a group of commentators strive to reassess Rousseauâs
political thought around the Social Contract, a new generation of liberal thinkers
(including Hayek, Popper and Berlin) move away from Rousseau and his âsocial-
isticâ politics they believe will lead to a new kind of totalitarianism (section 5).
2. Romanticism and Rousseauism
The notion of Romanticism is very difficult to define. It can either refer to
a literary movement, a political doctrine, or an ideology. It can be âsimultane-
ously (or alternately) revolutionary and counterrevolutionary, individualistic
and communitarian, cosmopolitan and nationalistic, realist and fantastic, ret-
rograde and utopian, rebellious and melancholic, democratic and aristocratic,
activist and contemplative, republican and monarchist, red and white, mystical
and sensualâ (Löwy and Sayre 2001, 1). Etymologically speaking, the adjective
4 : 2 Christophe Salvat
7. tivism pushed imagination into the background and hence prompted a fierce
and overpowering reaction of (neo)-Romanticism. Romanticism, in its turn, to-
tally dismissed reason in favour of emotions, and therefore lost touch with re-
ality. This has had terrible political consequences:
Rousseau says that he founded âan indomitable spirit of libertyâ on an âindolence that is
beyond beliefâ. True liberty, it is hardly necessary to say, cannot be founded on indolence;
it is something that must be won by high-handed struggle, a struggle that takes place
primarily in oneself and not in the outer world. Possibly the ultimate distinction between
the true and the false liberal, as I have suggested elsewhere, is that between the spiritual
athlete and the cosmic loafer. If true liberty is to survive, it is important that ethical
idling should not usurp the credit due only to ethical effort. This usurpation takes place
if we accept the programme of those who would substitute expansive emotion for the
activity of the higher will. In the real world, as I have tried to show, the results of an
expansion of this kind are not fraternal but imperialistic. (Babbitt 1924, 222-23)
Neither positivism nor Romanticism, for Babbitt, adequately dealt with the
role of imagination, which when rightly used, considerably improves our in-
sight on the world. Neo-romanticism is, according to the New Humanists, the
principal factor in the moral and political decline of modern societies. Because
they trusted entirely human nature (see, for instance, Rousseauâs idea of the
good savage), Romanticists have sanctified instinct and spontaneity to the detri-
ment of morality. Men, say the humanists, need moral rules to exercise a control
over themselves, and those rules are not to be invented or discovered through
reason alone. Romanticists were right to reassess the status of reason and expe-
rience in ethics, butâand this is arguably the reason for which the New Human-
ists are so openly critical against themâthey misled people by suggesting that
they would incarnate a sound alternative to positivism. Instead of this, argue
Lasserre, SeilliĂšre and Babbitt, they merely took the place of it.
The stark opposition introduced by the New Humanists between Romanti-
cism and rationalism is, however, somewhat overestimated. Romanticism can-
not be entirely appraised on the basis of the Sturm and Drang movement. Carl
Schmitt already pointed out in his 1919 Politische Romantik (translated in 1928
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Babbitt 1919, SeilliĂšre 1921, Babbitt 1924, More 1913, Babbitt 1910, Lasserre
1907)
From Literature to Politics 4 : 5
8. into French) that the Romantics do not exclude reason and rationalism from
their discourse. On the contrary, the discourse of reason often has the purpose
of concealing the Romantic essence of their thought. The didactic style and the
rational method of the Social Contract, in particular, are a good illustration of
this. The less a system is founded in rationality, the more it tends to claim to fol-
low reason, in order to ground its legitimacy. Isaiah Berlin says little else when,
in 1952, he criticizes Rousseau for the rationalist tricks he uses to deceive and
to cast a spell over his readers:
In theory Rousseau speaks like any other eighteenth-century philosophe, and says: âWe
must employ our reasonâ. He uses deductive reasoning, sometimes very cogent, very
lucid and extremely well-expressed, for reaching his conclusions. But in reality what
happens is that this deductive reasoning is like a strait-jacket of logic which he claps
upon the inner, burning, almost lunatic vision within; it is this extraordinary combina-
tion of the insane inner vision with the cold rigorous strait-jacket of a kind of Calvinist
logic which really gives his prose its powerful enchantment and its hypnotic effect. You
appear to be reading logical argument which distinguishes between concepts and draws
conclusions in a valid manner from premises, when all the time something violent is be-
ing said to you. A vision is being imposed on you; somebody is trying to dominate you
by means of a very coherent, although a very deranged, vision of life, to bind a spell, not
to argue, despite the cool and collected way in which he appears to be talking. (Berlin
2003a, 43).
3. Political Romanticism
Romanticism is not per se a political movement. It is essentially an aesthetic
movement. Most of the Romanticists came to Romanticism by aesthetic rather
than ideological choice. As noticed by Cassirer âin this field [politics] the Ro-
mantic writers never developed a clear and coherent theory; nor were they
consistent in their practiceâ (Cassirer 1946, 180). The movement is composed
of a variety of intellectual and artists coming from different backgrounds and
of different political persuasions (if they have any), from fascism to liberalism
4 : 6 Christophe Salvat
9. and conservatismÂč. âThey never meant to politicizeâ continues Cassirer, âbut to
âpoeticizeâ the worldâ (Cassirer 1946, 184).
Not being politically committed does not, however, necessarily lessen the
political significance of the movement. Despite its aesthetic perspective of the
world, Romanticism never ceased to be political. Firstly, Romanticism is not po-
litical in the sense that it is a politically identifiable doctrine but, in the sense
that it profoundly affects the political structure of the society. For Russell, be-
hind the apparent aloofness of the Romantics looms a genuine and most dan-
gerous thirst for power:
The irrationalists of our time aim, not at salvation, but at power. They thus develop an
ethic which is opposed to that of Christianity and of Buddhism; and through their lust
of dominion they are of necessity involved in politics. Their geneaology among writ-
ers is Fichte, Carlyle, Mazzini, Nietzscheâwith supporters such as Treitschke, Rudyard
Kipling, Houston Chamberlain, and Bergson. [âŠ] The founders of the school of thought
out of which Fascism has grown all have certain common characteristics. They seek
the good in will rather in feeling or cognition; they value power more than happiness;
they prefer force to argument, war to peace, aristocracy to democracy, propaganda to
scientific impartiality. (Russell 2004, 59)
Secondly, political indifference is not paramount to political neutrality. When
totalitarianism is looming, indifference is often conflated with passive consent
to it (Orwell 2002, 415). The Romantic attitude is widely seen as dismissing the
present, giving up hope for the future and sinking into pessimism (Lowy and
Sayre 2001). Although difficult to define, or even to set as a homogenous group,
Âč Löwy and Sayre count six types of romanticism: the restitutionist, the conservative, the fascistic,
the resigned, the reformist and the revolutionary/utopian which can be subdivided into five ten-
dencies (the Jacobin/democratic, the populist, the utopian/humanist/socialist, the libertarian and
the Marxist). The authors admit, however, that this typology is not exhaustive. Maistre and Bonald,
for instance, âseem to be located in a transitional zoneâ (Lowy and Sayre 2001, 64).
From Literature to Politics 4 : 7
10. the Romanticists seem to convergeâor at least are considered to convergeâon
one particular point: their negative attitude towards modernity and progress.
They [Orwell mentions Joyce, Eliot, Pound, Huxley, Lawrence, Wyndham Lewis] donât
any longer believe that progress happens or that it ought to happen, they donât any
longer believe that men are getting better by having lower mortality rates, more effective
birth control, better plumbing, more aeroplanes and faster motorcars. Nearly of all them
are homesick for the remote past, or some period of the past, from D.H. Lawrenceâs
ancient Etruscans onwards. (Orwell 2002, 415)
Although often resented for jeopardizing the classical and Cartesian cul-
ture of Europe (and especially France), the philosophical or aesthetic stance of
Romanticism is rather secondary in its popular rejection. Romanticism essen-
tially represents, for its detractors, an intellectual and moral decline of modern
societies. Romanticism is âoriginally a diseaseâ, asserts Lasserre as if echoing
Goethe (Lasserre 1907, 18). For the Baron SeilliĂšre, supported by the scientific
publications of Dr. Pierre Janet, then Professor at the illustrious CollĂšge de
France, Romanticism is the symptom of a âmorbid psychological depressionâ
which itself expresses the frustration of the will to power, to which he also
refers to as âthe essential and primordial imperialism of beingâ (SeilliĂšre 1921,
152).
The populist campaign against Romanticism essentially relies on attacks against
the character of Rousseau, rather than against his theoretical work. It is easy in-
deed to criticise Rousseau. In the Confessions, he âreviewed his life with infinite
detail and infinite care, starting it anew with the keenest pleasureâ (Charpentier
1931, 273). Even those who most admire him as a writer cannot but condemn his
immorality: âThe personality of Rousseauâ, writes, for instance, his biographer
Count Morley, âhas most equivocal and repulsive sides. It has deservedly fared
ill in the esteem of the saner and more rational of those who have judged him,
and there is none in the history of famous men and our spiritual fathers that
begat us, who makes more constant demands on the patience or pity of those
who study his lifeâ (Morley 1923, 4). Wyndham Lewis even compares Hitlerâs
character favourably to Rousseauâs:
Hitler is the same class of man as Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Mein Kampf even has some
points of resemblance to Rousseauâs Confessions: in tone here and there, in the loneliness
4 : 8 Christophe Salvat
12. Europe had now to pay the price for. Romantic writings, novels and poems in
particular, are considered to primarily address women and young adults. âRealâ
men are not supposed to enjoy love stories or reveries of solitary walkers, they
prefer international politics and, as it happens, war.
4. Rousseau and Totalitarianism
The campaign led by Babbitt, Lasserre, Mauriac and SeilliĂšre immediately
before and after WWI against Romanticism essentially relies, as demonstrated
above, on Rousseauâs personal disrepute. Rousseau then symbolizes the moral
corruption they believed they were witnessing in modern societies: extreme in-
dividualism, immorality, and shallow sentimentalism. These constitute the first
wave of criticisms against neo-Romanticism. At the end of the 1920s, the eco-
nomic and political situations of many countries dramatically deteriorate. The
welfare policies that had been implemented during and after the war are con-
tested by a new generation of liberals opposed to State intervention. Democracy
is increasingly contested in Europe. Italy, Germany and Spain turn to dictator-
ships, whilst England and France are tempted by it. It is on those last two coun-
tries that I would like now to focus my analysis. I shall argue that, in addition to
its morally corruptive effects, Romanticism is then accused of being politically
hazardous, in view of the international situation. Its âsocialisticâ individualism,
in particular, is viewed by the conservatives (as well as the new generation of
liberals), as a major cause of totalitarianism.
In spite of the critical attitude adopted by many Romantic intellectualsâ
including nationals such as Thomas Mann or Stefan Zweigâtowards the Ger-
man and Italian totalitarian regimes, Romanticism has often been accused of
promoting totalitarian movements. It is true that, either out of political naivety
or personal belief, some Romantics ventured too far in their support for fascism
4 : 10 Christophe Salvat
19. Because Rousseauâs moral philosophy is ultimately an ethics of freedom and
choice, Cassirer reckons that it is absolutely incompatible with totalitarian-
ism. Few other intellectuals chooseâalong with Cassirerâto defend Rousseauâs
moral and political within the Romantic paradigm. The English historian Alfred
Cobban is one of them. In Rousseau and the Modern State (published in 1934, re-
published in 1964), Cobban is one the very few to defend Rousseauâs political
thought from a Romantic point of view. Comparing him to Burke (to whom
he also devotes a monograph), Cobban contends that âRousseau carries into
politics the fundamental ideas of the Romantic movementâ (Cobban 1934, 239).
Unlike many, however, Cobban does not link Rousseau to totalitarianism. If
anything, Romanticism exculpates him. In his 1941 study on totalitarianism, The
Crisis of Civilisation, Cobban argues that, because he was Romantic, Rousseau
could not be read as a political reformer, and certainly not as a totalitarian
thinker. According to him, the Social Contract cannot have any practical appli-
cations since âby itself it is no more than an abstract idealâ (Cobban 1941, 64).
The French liberal thinker, Bertrand de Jouvenel, adopts a similar approach in
his Essai sur la politique de Rousseau published in the 1947 edition of the Social
Contract (Jouvenel 1947). For Jouvenel, Rousseau is not a political reformer:
he is too pessimistic about the present perspectives to even consider a political reform.
It is only as an individual that man can be rescued from his social predicament. And
for this, there is no need to reform institutions. It is rather manâs relationship to the
institutions that need to be changed. Everything, in politics like in ethics, comes down
to human feelings. (Jouvenel 1947, 101)
This includes the Social Contract that Jouvenel characterizes as a âromanticâ
arrangement. Jouvenel is probably the only founding member of the Mont PĂš-
lerin SocietyÂč to still consider Rousseau as a Romantic and one of the vey few, if
not the only one, to dismiss his totalitarianism. Jouvenel, however, is somewhat
at odds amongst the new liberals, first because he embodies a welfare liberalism
that is no more fashionable after WWII, and secondly because he himself had
to face accusation of sympathy towards the Nazi regime. With him, I believe,
Âč New foundations to liberalism were set, first in 1938 at the occasion of the Lippmann Conference,
and then in 1947 with the inauguration of Hayekâs Mont PĂšlerin Society. Liberalism, it was thought,
should return to its basics in order not to convert into socialism.
From Literature to Politics 4 : 17