308F R O M T H E S T A R T T H E E F F E C T I V E R.docx

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F R O M T H E S T A R T: T H E E F F E C T I V E R E A
D I N G T E A C H E R
The Reading Teacher Vol. 65 Issue 5 pp. 308–312
DOI:10.1002/TRTR.01047 © 2012 International Reading
AssociationR T
C L A SSRO OM
M A N AG E M E N T
F OR AC H I E V I NG
R E A DE R S
A
pproximately 8,000,000 results in 0.14
seconds: that’s what you get when you
Google classroom management (and that
was a while ago). Needless to say, there is
no dearth of information on the topic—ever present
in the teacher’s mind. Classroom management is a
gigantic “how-to” problem with new wrinkles every
school year: Kids change, schedules change, curricula
change, and you as professional teacher change. At

the same time, it is a familiar problem with some
well-worn solutions—even though we must consider
them anew each and every school year.
All said and done, the teacher of reading is a
designer, an instructor, and a manager in the learning
environment. It’s probably fair to say that much of
professional education in reading focuses on the
instructor role in assessing, planning, and teaching
reading. Yet it is the designer and manager roles
that create the foundations for reading instruction
that are effective, energizing, and enjoyable. In this
column, we talk about the manager role, so essential
in creating a smooth-functioning, productive
classroom learning environment. When you get a
chance, review Standard 5: Literate Environment
in the International Reading Association
(IRA) Standards for Reading Professionals
(www.reading.org/General/CurrentResearch/
Standards/ProfessionalStandards2010/

ProfessionalStandards2010_Standard5.aspx) to find
out more about the specific elements of the manager
role in the teaching of reading.
The Hundred-Year Markers
No teacher (except in fiction) has stepped before a
classroom of students and not dealt with issues of
management. The first few minutes, days, and weeks,
in fact, are crucial: This is a historical fact borne out
of practical experience and grounded in scientific
evidence (University of Austin Studies, 1980–1982:
Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980; Evertson &
Emmer, 1982; Sanford & Evertson, 1981).
The department editors welcome reader comments. Kathleen
Roskos
is a professor of education at John Carroll University,
University Heights,
Ohio, USA; e-mail [email protected] Susan B. Neuman is a
professor
of educational studies at University of Michigan, School of
Education,
Ann Arbor, USA; e-mail [email protected]
Kathleen Roskos ■ Susan B. Neuman
TRTR_1047.indd 308TRTR_1047.indd 308 1/9/2012

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There are other key principles of
classroom management that emerge
from a few hundred years of experience
and scientific investigation. Some you
may know and use already, some may
be new to you, and a few may surprise
you. Let’s see what a historical review
reveals.
19th Century
Life was simpler in the 1800s, and
teachers as classroom managers held to
the Victorian Age maxim that children
should be seen and not heard unless

asked (i.e., they should speak only
when spoken to). The teacher, a strict
disciplinarian, zealously pursued the
fundamentals of reading, writing, and
arithmetic (Smith, 1963). Children were
expected to follow the Golden Rule—
courtesy, fairness, and good manners—
or risk several lashes with the hickory
stick (Coleman, 1953) (FYI: telling
lies called for seven lashes; Oracle
ThinkQuest, 2000).
The fundamentals of classroom
management are rooted in these
times and still reflect the basic tenets
of respect, fairness, and courtesy
today. The golden rules posted in one
elementary classroom recently are
not unlike those of yesteryear: Listen

carefully to the teacher; always put up
your hand to speak; be polite and be
kind to others; sit in your chair nicely
(e.g., usefulwiki.com/displays/tag/
classroom-rules/).
20th Century
Classroom management came under
close scrutiny in the 1900s, culminating
in several classical studies toward the
end of the century. What Kounin (1970)
discovered is the bedrock of classroom
management in our times. Effective
classroom management depends on
effective lesson management wherein
the teacher demonstrates “withitness”
(awareness of what is going on in all
parts of the classroom at all times),
overlapping (attending to two or more
issues at the same time), effective

transitioning between activities, and
well-paced, varied, and challenging
lessons. Brophy and McCaslin (1992)
revealed the nuance in effective
classroom management, showing that
different types of strategies are needed
for different types of students. By the
end of the century, Wang and associates
(Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993),
having conducted a massive meta-
analysis on a vast body of research,
found that classroom management rated
number 1 in terms of impact on student
achievement (reading, not excepted).
21st Century
A synthesis of the long history of
professional thought, experience, and
research on classroom management

yields trustworthy practices in four
categories that every teacher of
reading needs to know and be able
to use today to support tomorrow’s
readers: (1) rules and procedures, (2)
disciplinary interventions, (3) teacher–
student relationships, and (4) mental
set (Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering,
2003). Several practical strategies
that represent these categories in the
context of reading instruction follow,
but before we go there, it is important
to highlight what’s new in these times
when student behavioral concerns are
on the rise.
One new direction gaining
momentum is the application of a
Positive Behavior Supports model in a

multitier system of intervention (Ihlo &
Nantais, 2010). Promoting a prevention-
oriented positive environment involves
universal supports found successful
in the past (e.g., setting expectations)
plus secondary/targeted interventions
for 10% to 15% of students whose
behavioral needs are not sufficiently
addressed by primary supports plus
tertiary/intensive interventions for
the 1% to 5% of students for whom
primary and secondary supports are
not working. This reflects a further
elaboration of the differentiation
principle first proposed by Brophy and
McCaslin (1992).
Another novel direction is the
concept of differential susceptibility,

which proposes that some children
“Classroom manage-
ment rated number 1
in terms of impact on
student achievement
(reading, not excepted).”
6:06:20 PM1/9/2012 6:06:20 PM
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with specific temperamental or genetic
make-up are more sensitive to both
negative and positive environments
(Blair, 2002). More susceptible children
are more dependent on quality learning
environments (including well managed

ones) than less susceptible children—
an hypothesis showing some traction in
early literacy research (Kegel, Bus, & van
IJzendoorn, 2011).
Managing Reading
Instruction Time
Centuries of scholarly thought and
research on classroom management
provide a firm foundation for managing
the time allocated to reading instruction.
Let’s consider a few tried and true stra-
tegies that at first may seem pretty sim-
ple, but are absolutely essential for man-
aging reading instruction efficiently and
effectively with every class every year.
Getting Organized
As the program or school year
approaches, each and every one of us
thinks: I need to get organized. But what’s
involved for the effort to yield a strong

beginning in classroom management?
Aside from getting the classroom
ready, there are two essentials: (1)
organizing time for working with
groups and (2) allowing time for sharing
accomplishments. The time allotted for
reading instruction needs to serve the
whole class, small groups, and students
working independently. Professional
resources “out there” on grouping are
abundant and filled with good advice.
For the good of the order, keep these few
building-block strategies in mind.
■ Whole-class instruction should focus
on literacy activities that benefit all
students and use approximately one
third of your instructional time. For
younger children who find it hard to

sit still, split whole-group time into
two sessions.
■ On average, instruct two small groups
of students per day and alternate them
over four days; reserve the fifth day
for contingencies, such as reviews and
refreshers with whole or small groups.
Keep a brisk but not a rushed pace
when working with small groups.
■ Use a management board or chart to
organize independent work, either
at centers or provide one compulsory
activity for all followed by free choice
when the activity is completed. Make
the board or chart easy to read and
attractive.
When all is said and done, toward
the end of the reading instruction

block, allow time for sharing. This is a
powerful management tool for several
reasons. It validates the literacy activities
the students have been working on,
it allows you to progress monitor and
give feedback, and it cultivates an
appreciation of others’ accomplishments
(and wonderments). Do not penny
pinch or skip time for sharing because it
supplies the social oil for a participatory
community of learners.
Getting Started
Recall the historical fact that the first few
minutes, hours, and days of classroom
life make a deep impression on students.
It’s all about getting started on the right
foot for the long run. But what does this
involve exactly, so that reading instruction
over time is systematic and well paced

yet challenging and varied? The first six
weeks are critical, and again, although
there is plenty of advice to go around
about what to do in this time period (e.g.,
don’t smile), there are a few management
guidelines that generally work.
■ Establish routines—For the first few
weeks of school, dispense with small-
group literacy activities entirely and
spend the time teaching students
about the expectations and limits,
modeling those expectations, and
monitoring students’ behavior. Once
students have mastered the routines
and demonstrate that they are able to
use their independent time effectively,
begin working with small groups for 8
to 10 minutes or so, gradually working
up to a full 15 to 20 minutes.

■ Prepare a schedule—Deliberately plan
the time for reading instruction so
that each day follows the same basic
pattern. For example, reading time
might begin with paired reading and
shift into whole-group instruction
followed by small groups. Toward the
end of the reading block, students
might enjoy self-structured time and
time to work independently—or in
pairs, if they need more support. Note
that reading instruction time doesn’t
need to occur at the same time every
day—library and gym schedules will
see to that—but that it follows the
same basic pattern, so that students
develop a sense of continuity. A
consistent schedule eliminates the

confusion of students’ worrying about
what day it is and what’s coming next.
When it is time for reading, they know
exactly what to expect.
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■ Assess (formatively)—Effective
reading instruction revolves
around flexible grouping practices
that support student learning. In
the first few weeks of school, it is
important to decide how to initially
assess the students in your class
to put them into “starter” groups

for specific instructional purposes.
This may include reviewing prior
assessment records, collecting
baseline assessment data in essential
skills areas (e.g., fluency), and using
informal observations of students in
different literacy activities. It’s helpful
to organize this information into a
student database that informs the
formation of ad hoc heterogeneous
and homogenous groups for different
literacy activities during the language
arts or reading block.
■ Formulate procedures and rules—For
smooth-running and successful daily
reading instruction that builds reading
skills for tomorrow, it is necessary to
establish rules and procedures right

from the beginning of the year. And
it is important to remain consistent
in following procedures and applying
rules. Here consistency is not foolish
(the “hobgoblin”), but rather wise in that
it stabilizes ways of working together.
There are a few time-tested manage-
ment tips. One is to help students
learn to use an activity board or chart
for organizing partner or individual
activity during small-group instruc-
tion. Used properly it can do away with
constant interruptions and provide
guidance (e.g., when finished you can
read your own book, play a board game,
browse an app on a mobile device.)
Another is to be specific when intro-
ducing activities; it helps to have a few

students demonstrate exactly what to
do and how to do it rather than pro-
vide a lengthy description. A third is to
involve students in a rule-making ses-
sion, asking why rules are necessary,
recording responses, and generating a
set of class rules from the discussion.
And students need to know the con-
sequences of breaking the rules. In
general, the Stop-Warn-Remove frame-
work works pretty well: The teacher
stops the student and tells what she
or he should be doing, warns if the
student’s misbehavior persists, and
removes the student if necessary.
Maintaining Management
Classroom management is a
multileveled part of school life,
occurring at individual, class, and

schoolwide levels. When nested in
a schoolwide system that promotes
positive behaviors, research suggests
that classroom management is easier
to implement and sustain at both
class and individual levels (Barrett,
Bradshaw, & Lewis-Palmer, 2008).
Management procedures and routines
that have been deliberately established
in the first few weeks of school stabilize
when teachers adhere to a small set
of well-defined expectations (e.g., “Be
respectful; be responsible; be a problem
solver”), provide reinforcement when
expectations are met, and swiftly apply
“When nested in a schoolwide system that
promotes positive behaviors, research suggests
that classroom management is easier to

implement and sustain at class and
individual levels.”
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stated consequences when they are not
(Lewis, Powers, Kelk, & Newcomer,
2002).
For individual students who require
more intervention than primary
supports afford, such as explicit rules
and routines, a combination of direct
instruction in adaptive strategies and
a home-based component can help to

prevent behaviors that seriously disrupt
reading instruction. Research on the
First Step to Success (Walker, 1998)
intervention for at-risk kindergarten
to third-grade students, for example,
showed decreases in rates of problem
behaviors and increases in academic
engagement time (Beard & Sugai, 2004).
In brief, to maintain that good start
in classroom management requires
immediate, consistent, and differentiated
responses to student behaviors all along
the way to achieve reading success for
everyone (including you).
Problem of Practice
When we were considering topics for
this column, classroom management
was not at the top of our list. Needless
to say, it is not a hot topic. But it is a

persistent, drill down, basic, everyday
topic that deserves our undivided
attention. Chaotic classrooms are
not conducive to thoughtful reading
and learning to read. Getting off to
a good start in managing reading
instruction time is a big deal! Let us
hear from you. Share a few of your
best management practices that help
you get started in creating a positive
learning environment for reading
everyday. Join the discussion on The
Reading Teacher’s community blog
on IRA Engage (engage.reading.org/
directory/journals/thereadingteacher/).
All management advice is welcome and
appreciated, especially by those of us
who are sometimes bunglers and need
to improve our management skills.

R E F E R E N C E S
Barrett, S., Bradshaw, C., & Lewis-Palmer, T.
(2008). Maryland statewide PBIS initiative:
Systems, evaluation and next steps. Journal of
Positive Behavior Interventions, 10(2), 105–114.
doi:10.1177/1098300707312541
Beard, K., & Sugai, G. (2004). First step to suc-
cess: An early intervention for elemen-
tary children at risk for antisocial behavior.
Behavioral Disorders, 29(4), 396–409.
Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating
cognition and emotion in a neurobiological
conceptualization of children’s functioning
at school entry. American Psychologist,
57(2), 111–127. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.2
.111
Brophy, J., & McCaslin, M. (1992). Teachers’
reports of how they perceive and cope with
problem students. The Elementary School
Journal, 93(1), 3–68. doi:10.1086/461712
Coleman, C. (1953). The hickory stick.
Bulletin of the American Association of
University Professors, 39(3), 457–473.
doi:10.2307/40220978
Emmer, E.T., Evertson, C.M., & Anderson, L.M.
(1980). Effective classroom management
at the beginning of the school year. The
Elementary School Journal, 80(5), 219–231.
doi:10.1086/461192

Everston, C.M., & Emmer, E.T. (1982). Effective
management at the beginning of the
school year in junior high classes. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 74(4), 485–498.
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.74.4.485
Ihlo, T., & Nantais, M. (2010). Evidence-based
interventions within a mutli-tier framework
for positive behavioral supports. In T.A. Glover
& S. Vaughn (Eds.), The promise of response to
intervention (pp. 239–266). New York: Guilford.
Kegel, C.A.T., Bus, A.G., & van IJzendoorn, M.H.
(2011). Differential susceptibility in early lit-
eracy instruction through computer games:
The role of the Dopamine D4 Receptor Gene
(DRD4). Mind, Brain & Education, 5(2), 71–78.
doi:10.1111/j.1751-228X.2011.01112.x
Kounin, J. (1970). Discipline and group manage-
ment in classrooms. Oxford, England: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Lewis, T.J., Powers, L.J., Kelk, M.J., & Newcomer,
L. (2002). Reducing problem behaviors on
the playground: An investigation of the
application of school-wide positive behavior
supports. Psychology in the Schools, 39(2), 181–
190. doi:10.1002/pits.10029
Marzano, R.J., Marzano, J.S., & Pickering, D.J.
(2003). Classroom management that works.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Oracle ThinkQuest. (2000). Elementary school

through the ages. Retrieved November 19,
2011, from library.thinkquest.org/
J002606.
Sanford, J.P., & Everston, C.M. (1981).
Classroom management in a low SES
junior high: three case studies. Journal
of Teacher Education, 32(1), 34–38.
doi:10.1177/002248718103200108
Smith, N.B. (1963). Reading instruction for today’s
children. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Walker, H.M. (1998). First steps to prevent anti-
social behavior. Teaching Exceptional Children,
30(4), 16–19.
Wang, M.C., Haertel, G.D., & Walberg, H.J.
(1993). Toward a knowledge base for school
learning. Review of Educational Research,
63(3), 249–294.
6:06:25 PM1/9/2012 6:06:25 PM
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Economic Growth
Submit a 5-6-page paper that addresses the following questions.
Be sure to use references within the paper to support your
answers. Show work for all calculations.
1. (a) Suppose the real GDP was $13.1 trillion in 2013 and
$13.1 in 2014, what is the growth rate?
(b) How many years would it take for GDP (gross domestic
product) to double using your answer from (a.)?
2. What are the sources of human capital? Discuss some specific
examples.
3. What is the law of diminishing returns? Give an example of
what law of diminishing returns implies.
4. What happens when the government raises taxes and uses
revenue to engage in spending?
Use the concepts from the projects background readings as well
as any good-quality resources you can find. Be sure to cite all
sources within the text and provide a reference list at the end of
the paper with website information added if applicable.
Length: 5-6-pages double spaced and typed in Times New
Roman, Font 12
The following items will be assessed in particular
· Ability to understand what factors affect economic growth.
· Some in-text references to the project’s background material
in APA format.
· The essay should address each element of the assignment.

Remember to support your answers with solid references

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