Smear preparation:
A drop of water is placed in the centre of a slide
One loopfuls of organisms is transferred to the centre of slide
Spread the organisms over the slide
The smear is allowed to dry
Slide is passed through flame several times to heat-kill and fix organisms
A bacterial stain is stained with crystal violet (fuchsin, methylene blue) 1 min
Observe under microscope
Basic Dyes
Methylene Blue
Crystal Violet
Carbol Fuchsin
Safranin
Malachite Green
Acidic Dyes
Picric Acid
Nigrosin
India Ink
Eosin
differrential statining
Two or more reagents Distinguish
Bacterial groups
Specific Structures
Example
Gram stain
Acid Fast Stain
Smear preparation:
A drop of water is placed in the centre of a slide
One loopfuls of organisms is transferred to the centre of slide
Spread the organisms over the slide
The smear is allowed to dry
Slide is passed through flame several times to heat-kill and fix organisms
A bacterial stain is stained with crystal violet (fuchsin, methylene blue) 1 min
Observe under microscope
Basic Dyes
Methylene Blue
Crystal Violet
Carbol Fuchsin
Safranin
Malachite Green
Acidic Dyes
Picric Acid
Nigrosin
India Ink
Eosin
differrential statining
Two or more reagents Distinguish
Bacterial groups
Specific Structures
Example
Gram stain
Acid Fast Stain
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
Global launch of the Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index 2nd wave – alongside...ILC- UK
The Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index is an online tool created by ILC that ranks countries on six metrics including, life span, health span, work span, income, environmental performance, and happiness. The Index helps us understand how well countries have adapted to longevity and inform decision makers on what must be done to maximise the economic benefits that comes with living well for longer.
Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
Medical Technology Tackles New Health Care Demand - Research Report - March 2...pchutichetpong
M Capital Group (“MCG”) predicts that with, against, despite, and even without the global pandemic, the medical technology (MedTech) industry shows signs of continuous healthy growth, driven by smaller, faster, and cheaper devices, growing demand for home-based applications, technological innovation, strategic acquisitions, investments, and SPAC listings. MCG predicts that this should reflects itself in annual growth of over 6%, well beyond 2028.
According to Chris Mouchabhani, Managing Partner at M Capital Group, “Despite all economic scenarios that one may consider, beyond overall economic shocks, medical technology should remain one of the most promising and robust sectors over the short to medium term and well beyond 2028.”
There is a movement towards home-based care for the elderly, next generation scanning and MRI devices, wearable technology, artificial intelligence incorporation, and online connectivity. Experts also see a focus on predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory, and precision medicine, with rising levels of integration of home care and technological innovation.
The average cost of treatment has been rising across the board, creating additional financial burdens to governments, healthcare providers and insurance companies. According to MCG, cost-per-inpatient-stay in the United States alone rose on average annually by over 13% between 2014 to 2021, leading MedTech to focus research efforts on optimized medical equipment at lower price points, whilst emphasizing portability and ease of use. Namely, 46% of the 1,008 medical technology companies in the 2021 MedTech Innovator (“MTI”) database are focusing on prevention, wellness, detection, or diagnosis, signaling a clear push for preventive care to also tackle costs.
In addition, there has also been a lasting impact on consumer and medical demand for home care, supported by the pandemic. Lockdowns, closure of care facilities, and healthcare systems subjected to capacity pressure, accelerated demand away from traditional inpatient care. Now, outpatient care solutions are driving industry production, with nearly 70% of recent diagnostics start-up companies producing products in areas such as ambulatory clinics, at-home care, and self-administered diagnostics.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
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Navigating the Health Insurance Market_ Understanding Trends and Options.pdfEnterprise Wired
From navigating policy options to staying informed about industry trends, this comprehensive guide explores everything you need to know about the health insurance market.
2. MICROSCOPE
Micro organisms are small living structures of microscopic size.
So, the study of bacteria requires the use of microscopes.
A microscope is an instrument that uses one or more lenses to
produce a magnified image of an object that is invisible to the
unaided eye.
3. Mechanical part Magnifying part Illuminating part
Adjustment and
support
Enlarge the
specimen
Provide the light
PARTSOF
MICROSCOPE:-
4. MECHANICAL PART :-
Base – supports the microscope
Arm – connects ocular lens to objective lens
Stage – to hold slide
5. MAGNIFYING PART:-
Ocular lens – 10X magnification
Objective lens – revolving nose piece bearing lenses of different
magnifying power
low power – 10x
high power – 40x
oil immersion – 100x
6. ILLUMINATING PART :-
Condenser – mounted beneath the stage, focuses a cone of light
on a slide
Iris diaphragm – control light that passes through the condenser
Light source – mirror or electric bulb
Fine & Coarse adjustment knob – sharpens the image
8. Study Of Bacteria
Unstained Preparations Stained Preparations
Hanging Drop Methods Simple Staining
Negative Staining
Impregnation Methods
Differential Staining
9. STAINING
TECHNIQUE
Staining is a technique used to improve the contrast of samples at
microscopic level.
Stains & dyes are commonly used to study the tissues or cells
under the microscope.
12. GRAMSTAIN
It is the principle stain used for microscopic examination of
bacteria.
It provides rapid presumptive identification of pathogens.
It was first developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.
Nearly all clinically important bacteria can be detected using
this method.
13. Permeability of bacterial cell wall and the cytoplasmic
membrane
The Gram Positive Cells Have A More Acidic Protoplasm,Which
Accounts For RetainingThe Basic Dye More StronglyThanThat Of
The Gram Negative Bacteria
Iodine makes the protoplasm more acidic and serves as mordant, i.e
iodine combines with dye to form a dye-iodine complex and fixes
the dye in the bacterial cell
The gram positive cell wall being less permeable, the dye-iodine
complex gets trapped within the cell
Gram negative cell wall has increased permeability to alcohol or
acetone, permitting the outflow of complex during the
decolorisation.
Integrity of cell wall - Gram positive bacteria become gram
negative when the cell wall is damaged
MECHANISM :-
14. PROCEDURE :-
Cover the smear with crystal violet (2 Minutes).
Slide is rinsed with water.
Cover the smear with Gram’s Iodine (1 Minute).
Rinse the smear gently under tap water.
Decolorize with 95% alcohol.
Rinse the smear gently under tap water.
Cover the smear with safranine (30 seconds).
Rinse the smear gently under tap water and air
dry.
17. USES:-
To differentiate bacteria into Gram –positive and Gram –
negative
Useful for staining certain fungi such as Candida and
Cryptococcus ( appear gram positive).
Gram stain gives a preliminary clue to put anaerobic culture.
e.g.: Clostridium.
For fastidious organisms which take time to grow in culture ,
Gram stain helps in early presumptive identification.
e.g.: Haemophilus.
Gram stain from Specimen gives a preliminary clue about
the bacteria present so that the empirical treatment with
broad spectrum antibiotics can be started early .
18. DISADVANTAGES:
Smear might be too thick and hold dye creating a false
positive
Old culture can create a false negative
Decolorization can cause false negative
19. ACID – FAST
STAINING
• It was discovered by Paul Ehrlich and modified by Ziehl and
Neelsen .
• Used to identify acid – fast organisms.
• Acid- fastness is due to the presence of Mycolic acid in the
cell wall.
20. PRINCIPLE :-
Heating helps the dye to penetrate into the acid fast cell wall.
Once stained, the stain cannot be easily removed.
It resist the decolorizing action of acid – alcohol which make
the bacteria acid fast and appear red.
Non Acid- fast organisms are easily decolourized by acid –
alcohol, thus they readily absorb the counter stain and
appear blue.
21. PROCEDURE:-
• Heat fix the smear
• Cover the smear with Carbol Fuchsin ( 5 minutes)
Note : Heat the slide intermittently , do not allow the stain to dry , if
necessary add more carbol fuchsin.
• Rinse the smear under tap water.
• Cover the smear with 25% sulphuric acid ( 2- 4 minutes).
• Wash the slide thoroughly to remove excess of acid .
• Cover the smear with Methylene Blue ( 1 minutes).
• Rinse again under tap water and air dry .
• Observe under Oil Immersion .
23. ADVANTAGES
used to identify Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of
tuberculosis.
DISADVANTAGES:
Kinyoun's, it quickly deposits a considerable quantity of excess dye, so
that within 2 or 3 days the effectiveness of the stain is lost.
28. CELLWALL
CellWall IsTough And Rigid Structure SurroundingThe Bacterium
LikeA Shell
Gram Positive Gram Negative
Thick Thinner
Lipids Is Absent Or Small Present
TeichoicAcid Is Present Absent
29. CellWall Accounts ForThe Shape OfThe Cell
Gives Protection
Confers Rigidity
It IsTarget Site For Antibiotics, Lysozymes And
Bacteriophage
The Rigid Part OfThe Cell Wall Is A Peptidoglycan
30. It Consists OfThicker Peptidoglycan
Layer
It Also Consists OfTeichoicAcid
GRAM POSITIVE CELLWALL
31. GRAM NEGATIVE CELLWALL
Gram negative cell wall is a complex
structure.
it consists of thin peptidoglycan layer
which is surrounded by outer
membrane.
The outer membrane is connected to
peptidoglycan by lipoprotein
32. FLAGELLA
Thread like appendages, protruding from cell
wall, that confers motility to bacteria.
It is composed of protein called flagellin.
3 parts :-
Filament
Basal body
Hook
They are the organ of locomotion
35. DEMONSTRATION
Dark field microscope
Special staining methods which increases the thickness of
flagella
Electron microscopy
Hanging drop method
Semisolid medium
Spreading type of growth on blood agar
36. FIMBRIAE
Short, fine, hair-like appendages.
Organ of adhesion.
Transfer of genetic material.
Made up of protein called pilin.
37. SPORE
Spores are highly resistance resting stage formed in unfavorable
conditions presumed to be related to the depletion of exogenous
nutrients
formed within the parent cell.,these are called endospores.
Sporulation is not a method of reproduction
SPORULATION is the formation of spores from vegetative stage.
it takes about 10 hrs.
38. MECHANISM:-
DNA replicates and extends into an axial filament
Septum forms near one pole separating forespore from mother
cell. Each gets a chromosome
Mother cell engulfs the forespore surrounding it with a second
membrane
Chromosomes of mother cell disintegrate
Forespore develops a cortex layer of peptidoglycan between
original forespore membrane and the membrane from the mother
cell
Dipicolinic acid is synthesized and calcium is incorporated into the
spore coat
Mother cell releases spore
42. CAPSULE
It is a bacterial secretion
Surrounds some bacteria as their outermost layer
It enhances bacterial virulence
It acts as protective covering against anti bacterial substances
such as bacteriophages, enzymes, phagocytes
Capsulated Organisms are Streptococcus Pneumoniae..,
Klebsiella..,Cryptococcus
The Capsule Can Be Demonstrated ByThe India Ink Staining
