288 The Sport Psychologist, 2005, 19, 288-302© 2005 Huma.docx

288
The Sport Psychologist, 2005, 19, 288-302
© 2005 Human Kinetics, Inc.
The author is with the Department of Educational Leadership
and Human Development
Counseling, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625. E-mail:
[email protected]
Team Consultation Following
an Athleteʼs Suicide: A Crisis
Intervention Model
Kathleen J. Buchko
Bradley University
This article presents a three-phase model that can guide sport
psychologists
assisting in crisis intervention with athletes in the weeks
following a major
trauma. The model employs a systems theory framework within
which
therapeutic tasks that facilitate recovery from trauma are
offered. The unique
role of the sport psychologist in post-traumatic care of athletes
is discussed. The
modelʼs utility is illustrated via retrospective application to the
authorʼs work
with a team that experienced the suicide of one of its veteran
members.1

Practitioners of sport psychology may very suddenly find
themselves
consultants to a team that has suffered tragedy such as the
sudden death of a
teammate (Vernacchia, Reardon, & Templin, 1997), or, as in
this authorʼs case, an
athleteʼs suicide. Such events may be of relatively low
incidence in sport (Brown
& Blanton, 2002; Ferron, Narring, Cauderay, & Michaud, 1999;
Tester, Watkins,
& Rouse, 1999), but they have great impact upon athletes and
coaches when they
do occur. Research suggests that with effective intervention,
many people can
recover from acute traumatic stress within 6 to 8 weeks (Foa &
Riggs, 1995;
Tierney & Baisden, 1979). This paper presents a model for
time-limited (6-12
week) crisis intervention that can be used with sport teams in
the aftermath of a
traumatic event.
The article arose from the authorʼs retrospective evaluation of
her own
interventions with a womenʼs basketball team which, just prior
to the start of its
season, experienced the suicide of one of their veteran players.
At the time of
the tragedy, the author found herself being guided mainly by
clinical intuition in
helping traumatized athletes. It is hoped that the model
presented will aid sport
psychologists in times of trauma by providing a template for
specifi c and systematic
crisis intervention. Further, the article builds upon a foundation
laid by Vernacchia

and colleagues (1997), who introduced Critical Incident Stress
Debriefi ng (CISD)
Professional Practice
05-Buchko(288) 288 8/15/05, 1:59:09 PM
A Model for Crisis Intervention • 289
to sport psychology. CISD is a method for managing acute crisis
reactions that
these authors applied in their work with a grieving team
following a teammateʼs
sudden death. In the conclusion to their article, the authors
emphasized a need for
services beyond the acute phase of trauma, and what follows is
an attempt to extend
sport-specifi c crisis intervention beyond the immediate post-
event period.
After outlining the assumptions inherent in systemic crisis
intervention,
the author presents a model that delineates some 16 therapeutic
tasks. This list
of interventions is given sequentially, but because post-
traumatic crises are rarely
linear in presentation, the tasks are most useful as a “menu”
from which the sport
psychologist and care team can select according to need. The
author uses case
material from her own crisis work to illustrate application of the
helping tasks in
a sport-specifi c setting.

Systemic Crisis Intervention:
Theoretical Components
Current Model
The Systemic Crisis Intervention model presented herein was
developed by Brown
and Rainer (2002). Originating from work with distressed
families, the model has
been developed for use in communities hit by disaster and in
organizations where
trauma has occurred. As such, the model can be adapted for use
with sport teams that
have suffered a catastrophic event. To fully utilize the model,
sport psychologists
need an understanding of its theoretical components.
Systems Theory
The model presented herein is based in systems theory
(Bertalanffy, 1966), which
views human groups such as families, communities, or sport
teams as interacting
such that “the behavior of one member inevitably infl uences all
the others” (Berg-
Cross, 2000, p. 41). To illustrate the operation of a system in a
sport context,
imagine a point guard on a college basketball team who
becomes depressed after
receiving bad news from home. She is irritable and “has words”
with a forward on
the team. Angered, the wing tells several of her teammates, who
begin to give the
depressed guard “the silent treatment.” The guard retaliates by
not passing to the
forward as often in play. Teamwork suffers, losses result, and
these create diffi culty
between coaches and between the head coach and the athletic

director. Thus, even
under normal conditions, distress for one individual can impact
the entire system
of relationships that make up the team. Under post-traumatic
conditions, relations
within a system may serve to amplify distress, when, for
example, the reaction of
one witness to a catastrophe “infects” others (Miller, 1998).
On the other hand, systems can also become powerful sources of
restoration
following crises (Hillman 2002; Miller, 1998). A clinician who
utilizes a systems
approach seeks to understand interactions between individuals
and the system as a
whole and between subgroups and the system. The systemic
interventionist “‘fl oats ̓
between individual psychological and social levels of
investigation” (Atwood, 2001,
p. 2). A sport psychologist utilizing a systems approach with the
basketball team
described above would identify the confl ict between the guard
and the forward that
was disrupting teamwork. The sport psychologist would also
evaluate the guardʼs
depression and refer for treatment, if necessary. A team meeting
to air issues and
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290 • Buchko
build cohesion would address the team s̓ snubbing the guard.
The sport psychologist

might also attempt to work with other confl icts (e.g., coach-
coach, coach-Athletic
Director) within the larger team-athletic department system.
Three additional assumptions of systems theory need to be
elucidated. First,
systems theorists posit that relationships within a system
function according to rules,
roles, and rituals (Brown & Rainer, 2002). Rules (often
unspoken) govern what
system members “should” or “should not” do or say (Satir,
1988). Roles defi ne how
each individual fi ts into and contributes to the system. Rituals
are sets of actions
that symbolize shared connections between system members.
A second systems theory assumption is that balance is sought
between all
members and subgroups in a system so as to create a smooth-
running equilibrium
or homeostasis (Bertalanffy, 1966). Human systems draw upon
rules, roles, and
rituals to achieve and maintain homeostasis. In the basketball
example cited above,
when the depressed guard becomes quiet, the “rule” among
teammates may be to
“give her space.” The guardʼs demeanor, however, upsets the
teamʼs homeostatic
balance, and another player, sensitive to emotional changes in
her team, may enact
her role as a “cut-up” to bring laughter and relieve tension.
Thirdly, systems theorists assume that contained within any
system are
the potential resources to establish homeostasis. In working
with the distressed

basketball team, the sport psychologist would draw upon
resources such as caring
about performance and the desire to learn from mistakes to help
the team restore
homeostatic balance. The crisis intervention model presented
herein is based upon a
systemic understanding of post-crisis dynamics and upon
systemic interventions.
Crisis Intervention Theory
Crisis intervention theory operates upon two basic assumptions
that are similar
to those of systems theory. These are (a) that individuals and
groups in crisis
experience a loss of equilibrium that will return with assistance
and (b) that
the return to equilibrium can be accomplished by identifying
and mobilizing
resources already contained within the crisis-stricken individual
or group. Problems
displayed by a person or group in crisis are thus viewed as
evidence of temporary
immobilization of resources, not as psychopathology. This view
gives rise to a
second assumption: it is the job of the crisis clinician to
augment the resources of
the distressed person or system and then to gradually assist a
return to self-reliance.
The methods crisis clinicians utilize span the gamut of
therapeutic tools, ranging
from solution-focused strategies to trauma reprocessing
methods. The main skills
that guide crisis clinicians, however, are fl exibility, therapeutic
creativity, and a
strong conviction that while crises may include chaos, they also
contain seeds of

potential for new growth.
The Systemic Crisis Intervention Model: Therapeutic Tasks
and Their Application In a Sports –Related Crisis
Overview of Model
The model is comprised of three action phases, each containing
several therapeutic
tasks. The fi rst phase, Remembering, focuses on helping
victims to process the
crisis together. Such processing helps surmount the human
tendency to withdraw
from painful stimuli and to avoid reminders of the event that
trigger fear. Such
05-Buchko(288) 290 8/15/05, 1:59:12 PM
reactions, if they become entrenched, can lead to intense,
intrusive recollections of
the event, which are a hallmark of Post-Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD; American
Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Victims of trauma may avoid openly discussing their
experiences because
they feel isolated and the experience seems too painful to recall
alone, or because
they wish to protect teammates or others from their feelings
(Janoff-Bulman, 1992;
Henschen & Heil, 1992). Recalling the event with others who
also experienced
it, however, creates mutual support, corrects initial distortion,

and allows for
clarifi cation of common reactions such as survivor guilt
(Hillman, 2002; Janoff-
Bulman, 1992; Miller, 1998). As the initial shock wears off, a
second action
phase, Reorganization, becomes paramount. The main objectives
of this phase of
healing are to help the traumatized system and its members to
access their own
strengths and to shore these up with outside resources where
needed. The aims of
the reorganization phase are that individuals can begin to feel
safe and in healthy
control again and that the system itself begins to regain a sense
of balance.
The fi nal phase of recovery in systemic crisis intervention is
Restoration.
In this phase, the crisis clinician helps system members review
strengths and
accomplishments vis-à-vis the crisis, assists in addressing any
ongoing needs,
and arranges for his or her own exit from the interventionist
role. The model
presented here by Brown and Rainer (2002) gives an overview
of the systemic crisis
intervention model (Table 1), showing the three action phases
described above and
identifying the therapeutic tasks that facilitate each phase.
The therapeutic tasks that are to be described constitute a menu
from which
to select according to the needs of the team, rather than a
sequence which must be
worked through in linear fashion. Each of the action phases and
their accompanying

Table 1 Overview of Systemic Crisis Intervention Model,
Phases,
and Therapeutic Tasks
Phase I: Remember 1. Share the story.
2. Validate the emotional impact.
3. Evaluate the context of the crisis.
4. Protect vulnerable family member(s).
5. Negotiate a solvable problem.
6. Network with relevant resources.
Phase II: Reorganize 1. Formulate a plan for change.
2. Identify developmental issues.
3. Engage therapeutic tools.
4. Assign homework.
5. Support systemic rules, roles, and rituals.
Phase III: Restore 1. Track progress toward goals.
2. Acknowledge indicators of the time to terminate.
3. Address future sources of stress.
4. Refer for continuing treatment.
5. Exit the system.
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292 • Buchko
therapeutic tasks will now be described and application will be
made showing how
selected tasks were used in a sport crisis.
Phase 1: Remembering
A brief description of the therapeutic tasks involved in

facilitating Phase 1 is
provided in Table 2.
Case Illustration of Phase 1. The author, a faculty member and
doctoral-
level counselor with sport psychology and crisis intervention
training, had been
about to begin consultations to a womenʼs basketball team
during fall practice. One
week before practice was to begin, a veteran player committed
suicide. Her body
was discovered by her roommate who was also a member of the
team. Within a few
hours, the author was asked by the athletic director to be the
primary consultant for
the team during the crisis. Thus, what had begun as a
performance enhancement
consultation, suddenly turned to a role as liaison between the
athletic department and
coaches and the network of campus counselors, the student
health center physician,
and community-based psychologists, psychiatrists, and
counselors who treated the
distressed athletes.
Table 2 Description of Therapeutic Tasks and Helping Roles in
the Remembering
Phase of Systemic Crisis Intervention
Therapeutic Tasks Helping Roles
1. Share the story. Helpers guide survivors to tell, retell events
in increasing
detail to facilitate gradual incorporation of the experience
into consciousness.

2. Validate emotional Survivors are helped to acknowledge,
express feelings in
impact. ways that fi t for them; less dominant/ vocal members
are
drawn out by helpers.
3. Evaluate the context of Helpers investigate precrisis
relationships within the
the crisis. system; gauge precrisis strengths, weaknesses of
system;
help survivors work through any preexisting problems that
have been exacerbated by trauma.
4. Protect vulnerable Assess nature and extent of risks (e.g.,
loss-related
member(s). depression, harm to self/ others) to each member
of the
system; intervene to reduce risk.
5. Negotiate a solvable Helpers assess degree of shock-related
disorganization,
problem. then facilitate move toward self-reliance by
identifying
appropriate concrete goal(s) for individuals and the system
to accomplish.
6. Network with relevant Identify and mobilize natural leaders
within system; link to
resources. outside resources (e.g., psychological, medical,
legal) as
needed.
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The author began her preparations for post-traumatic care with
the team by
fi rst refl ecting upon the relational context in which this crisis
had occurred (see Table
2, Task 3). First, the coaches were all new to the team. Several
of the coaches had
worked together at another university. The team itself was
small. It was comprised
of six returning veterans, two players who had transferred from
junior colleges,
and one freshman. In considering relational context, the author
realized that the
assistant athletic director and an athletic trainer actually were
more familiar with
the team than were the coaches. These staff members would be
important sources
of information about the team, especially which athletes had
traditionally played
what roles on the team (e.g., “spokesperson,”
“sparkplug/motivator,” “comedienne/
tension-breaker”). The author also reasoned that potential
sources of strength in
team relations might come from mutual support among the
veteran players, who,
as recognized leaders, might help stabilize the team, given
appropriate support.
The coaches could also support each other, having coached
together elsewhere.
Potential liabilities lay in relations between coaches and
veterans and between
veterans and transfer starters.
The second crisis intervention task undertaken by the author
was to assist in

“protecting the vulnerable” (Table 2, Task 4). The morning after
the suicide, the
author met with the assistant athletic director, the coaches, the
trainer, and several
therapists from the student counseling center. The major
purpose of the meeting was
to “triage” each member of the team by identifying her degree
of risk, according
to criteria developed by the author in conjunction with student
counselors. These
were relational closeness to the deceased, her proximity to the
discovery of the
suicide, and the degree of social support she had at present.
Relational closeness was selected as a primary risk factor
because of research
that persons closest to an individual who commits suicide are at
greatest risk of
experiencing extreme guilt and severe depression (Hipple,
Cimbolic, & Peterson,
1980; Stillion, 1996). Proximity to discovery of the deceased
was chosen due to
concern with a contagion effect in which the extreme distress of
those closest to the
event amplifi es the reactions of others, and vice versa
(Chemtob, Tomas, Law, &
Cremniter, 1997; Tierney & Baisden, 1979). Degree of social
support was decided
upon because of previous fi ndings that emphasize its
importance in recovery from
trauma (e.g., Solomon, 1986).
Each athlete was identifi ed as being at serious, moderate, or
lesser risk based
on the three factors. Those with the highest risk rating were
referred for assessment

to a clinical psychologist or a psychiatrist in the community. A
plan for coaches to
support each athlete was also developed. The deceased athleteʼs
roommate, who
had discovered her body, was of particular concern. It was
decided that this young
woman would be advised that she could go home if she wished
or could stay on
and meet with a psychotherapist in the community (she chose
the latter).
By the end of the triage meeting, all athletes had been assigned
to follow-up
by coaches and care by either student counseling center
personnel or community
therapists. Unfortunately, the triage meeting was the only time
the author and other
caregivers met face to face. After that, the author obtained
releases of information
and kept in touch by telephone with the various caregivers each
week. This was very
time-consuming. In retrospect, a team approach in which
caregivers met weekly
to discuss progress would have been much better than the
network approach
developed by the author. A team approach to care is, thus,
highly recommended
in sport crises.
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294 • Buchko
In many sport-related crises, the athletes will not be the only

members of
the system who are vulnerable and need support. Coaches, too,
may be at risk,
particularly due to the “double hit” of dealing with their own
grief while trying to
help their athletes (Miller, 1998; Vernacchia et al., 1997). In
this context, coaches
may be subject to both vicarious traumatization (Saakvitne &
Pearlman, 1996), from
their interactions with distressed athletes, and compassion
fatigue (Figley, 1995)
from over-identifi cation with athletes in their care. In the case
presented herein, the
coaches ̓newness to the team actually seemed to insulate them
somewhat, enabling
them to be supportive of the traumatized athletes.
Another aspect of protecting the vulnerable in a sport crisis may
be that of
screening from the media. In the authorʼs crisis involvement,
the media did not
pursue athletes for interviews. Sport psychologists who work
with teams in other
crises may fi nd the media to be intrusive, and it may be
essential to brief both athletes
and coaches on how to handle media attention in a crisis. A very
thorough, brief
primer for handling media attention in a crisis has been
developed at the University
of Central Oklahoma (Clark, 2003) and is available on the
universityʼs website.
Much of the work of remembering in the initial period after a
crisis may
be addressed through one or more Critical Incident Stress
Debriefi ngs (CISDs).

Application of the CISD model in a sport related crisis has been
addressed very
effectively by Vernacchia and colleagues (1997). In the authorʼs
crisis experience,
the therapeutic tasks inherent in remembering, such as sharing
the story and
validating emotional impact, were done initially in sessions
with the team and
student counseling center staff. The author initially helped with
these recovery tasks
on a one-to-one basis with a number of the athletes and several
of the coaches, but
did not get directly involved with CISD. In retrospect, this was
a fortunate turn of
events, because within a few days of the suicide, the team
“closed ranks” (Vernacchia
et al., 1997). They thanked the counseling center crisis staff for
their work, but
determined that they would carry on from here. While
individual athletes continued
to be seen by counselors during and after the season, no outside
interventionists
met with the team concerning the suicide after those fi rst few
days.
The phenomenon of a team “closing ranks” necessitates the
sport psychologist s̓
thought early-on, about “exiting the system,” a therapeutic task
that usually comes
near the end of crisis intervention (refer to Table 1). Since
presumably, the sport
psychologist wishes to continue to be of service to the team, she
or he must execute
a “partial exit” from the system of relationships that forms
early-on between CISD
interventionists and the sport team. In the immediate aftermath

of crisis, an intense
but (in the authorʼs experience) brief relationship may develop
between the CISD
team and the sport team. The best role for the sport psychologist
may be “behind
the scenes” assistance on a one-to-one basis, as needed. The
phenomenon of groups
distancing themselves from outside help that they had embraced
during an initial
period of chaos has been noted in the literature (Kennedy, 1981;
Schulman, 1990).
In the author s̓ observation, the team became increasingly less
willing to discuss the
trauma per se, and this was especially the case with persons
outside team life.
Systemic Crisis Interventionists assert that negotiating solvable,
concrete
problems helps trauma survivors move from initial helplessness
toward self-
reliance (Brown & Rainer, 2002; see Table 2, Task 5). Athletes
soon encounter
a ready-made problem: what to do about playing (or continuing)
the season. The
decision to play their season appeared, in the authorʼs view, to
reconnect athletes
with something of the familiar (pre-crisis) world (Janoff-
Bulman, 1992). They
05-Buchko(288) 294 8/15/05, 1:59:18 PM
displayed determination and visible relief when this decision

was made. This
initial “performance resolve” (Vernacchia et al., 1997) seemed
to make players
more eager to talk about their game than about the larger-than-
life events that had
just occurred. Here the author seemed to play a crucial role in
the care network,
that of bridging the gap between the “old” familiar world of
sport and the “new”
post-crisis world, where emotional reactions needed to be
processed. This was the
case in the authorʼs experience, because when players actually
took to the court,
they found the initial performance resolve disrupted due to
acute post-traumatic
symptoms, such as inability to concentrate, loss of attention,
and sudden paralysis
in decision making. When these occurred, athletes were initially
hit hard, because,
as several of them stated, it now seemed that even the familiar
world was out of
control. Athletes accepted input from the author about the
normalcy and potential
transitory nature of the acute symptoms. They asked, however,
to focus on how
to overcome the symptoms in order to play their game. To the
casual observer, it
may seem inappropriate to work on sport performance with
people who have only
recently experienced catastrophe, but from the athletes ̓and
coaches ̓requests, the
author speculated that they may have preferred to focus
primarily on their game
for two reasons. First, team play and sport focus may have
provided athletes with
needed senses of attachment and belonging that have been

shown to be important
for recovery from trauma (Garbarino, Kostelny, & Dubrow,
1991; Nader, 1997).
Second, the sport setting may have provided a means for
alternately facing and
defocusing team acute stress symptoms, a combination known to
aid in trauma
processing (Janoff-Bulman, 1992).
Phase II: Reorganizing
In the Reorganizing phase of crisis intervention, clinicians help
traumatized
individuals and the community as a whole to recover basic
psychic survival skills
and competencies. Table 3 describes the therapeutic tasks and
goals that can help
a team reorganize in the wake of trauma.
Case Illustration of Phase II Tasks. In the authorʼs post-trauma
consultation, a signifi cant degree of overlap was observed
between therapeutic
tasks described in Phase I and those of Phase II. For example,
as noted earlier, an
initial consolidation occurred around the resolve to play the
season. As the team
moved into preseason practice, however, a number of athletes
displayed or described
a loss of focus and energy. During brief consultations before
practice, the author
discussed grief reactions with the team. The team was
encouraged to discuss both
the trauma and their beliefs and feelings about its impact on
their play. The author
purposely linked trauma processing with sport performance
because it was observed

that the athletes stayed with discussion of their collective grief
longer when it was
set in the context of effects on play. The author speculated that
connecting trauma
reactions with sport performance gave athletes a familiar
framework from which to
reconstruct “an assumptive world in which events are
meaningful and make sense”
(Janoff-Bulman, 1992, p. 117). Indeed, the author received
feedback from other
caregivers that athletes had voiced both greater understanding
of the normalcy of
post-traumatic reactions and an increased sense that they could
work through these
reactions as a result of team meetings.
An early Phase II therapeutic task undertaken by the author was
that of
identifying developmental issues (see Table 3, Task 2). Early-
on, the “developmental
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296 • Buchko
age” of the team as a whole was assessed as “young” by the
author. This was
primarily because there were not any seniors, and the three
veterans and two junior
college transfers who would start had little experience playing
together. In terms
of prior individual time on the court, however, both the veterans
and the transfers
would be described as “seasoned.” An early challenge inherent

in reorganization,
then, was how to help this traumatized team mature together
relationally.
The author observed that two of the veterans and one of the
transfers emerged
in roles as unoffi cial leaders who were spokespersons for the
team. One of these
leaders actually voiced anger at the deceased in one of only a
handful of references
that were made to her all season. The author also noted that one
of the transfers had
a great sense of humor and used it to break tension during
practice sessions.
Familiar team roles and rituals were supported in several ways
during team
meetings (Table 2, task 5). First, natural leaders were called
upon for insights on a
regular basis. Second, an unspoken rule, that anger feelings
would be visited upon
persons outside the team but not upon teammates, was left
unchallenged. Third, the
author sought to align team members by pointing out when the
feelings expressed
by a veteran were similar to those voiced by a transfer, or vice
versa. Finally, the
author “borrowed” the comic phrase of the team comedienne on
several occasions
to emphasize a point in discussion. Gradually, the team
appeared to relax together.
This was refl ected in their pace and patterns of play as well.
Table 3 Therapeutic Tasks and Helping Roles in the
Reorganizing Phase of
Systemic Crisis Intervention

Therapeutic Tasks Helping Roles
1. Formulate a plan for Helpers assist system in working
through
change. expectable feelings of demoralization; reorient system
to
its own strengths by identifying concrete, attainable steps
toward recovery.
2. Identify developmental Identifi cation of developmental life
stages of individuals
issues. and overall maturity of system (e.g., how long have they
worked together?); helpers utilize inherent system strengths
to promote growth.
3. Engage therapeutic tools. Helpers employ theoretically sound
methods with which
they have experience creatively and fl exibly to promote
individual/systemic growth and recovery.
4. Assign homework. Individuals and the system are assisted in
regaining self-
monitoring/self-effi cacy skills that facilitate relearning of
safety and adaptive coping; specifi c tasks to do on their
own are given; expectations and fears are discussed;
outcomes are monitored.
5. Support systemic rules, Precrisis behaviors/ catch-phrases
that symbolized stability
roles, and rituals. and togetherness are identifi ed; systemʼs
return to
homeostasis is enhanced by drawing out/applying positive
and familiar modes of interaction.
05-Buchko(288) 296 8/15/05, 1:59:21 PM

The necessity of using therapeutic tools (Table 3, Task 3) with
individual
players became apparent as the team prepared to open their
season. In practices
leading up to the fi rst game, angry, anxious reactions that
seemed in excess of
the seriousness of the error were observed. It was likely that
one mistake would
prompt a series of them. If players were taken out and
“benched” to allow them
to “regroup,” most hung their heads in what appeared to be
responses of shame.
Players often ignored the encouraging remarks of teammates.
Again, notably, no
anger was expressed toward each other when mistakes were
made.
In discussions with the athletes, the author again interpreted
these strong
individual reactions in terms of acute traumatic stress.
Survivors of trauma can
have both exaggerated startle responses and strong reactions to
stimuli that prompt
feelings of anxiety or isolation, similar to those engendered by
the trauma (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). The author saw the
athletes ̓reactions to mistakes
as responses to being startled out of the “illusion” of early
performance resolve.
Now, as the time for their public debut approached, the stakes
for playing well

appeared to rise by several orders of magnitude, and mistakes
prompted anxiety,
shame, and for some, dissociative phenomena, such as sudden
feelings of the
unreality of self or surroundings.
The author applied various individually-tailored therapeutic
tools (Table 3,
Task 3) to help athletes to reduce anxiety and refocus after a
mistake. To reduce
feelings of isolation and shame (“I seem to be the only one
making these stupid
mistakes” was a common statement) the author gave the team
“homework” (Table
3, Task 4) by having players “catch each other doing well” and
offer encouragement
before errors were made, rather than only afterward. During
“chalk talks” with the
team, players were encouraged to consider errors as signals of
“the start of a brand
new ball game.” Errors decreased in the weeks that followed,
and the “shamed”
behavior seen earlier stopped. The relatively rapid
disappearance of reactive
behavior led the author to speculate that these responses had,
indeed, been signs
of acute traumatic stress that were now remitting for most of the
players. This
observation was signifi cant, because prior research (Harvey &
Bryant, 1998) has
suggested that externalized reactions of hyper-reactivity and
irritability, if displayed
during the acute post-traumatic period, are indicative of a non-
pathological stress
response. Such acute responses signal a normative reaction that
may not develop

further into Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD; Harvey &
Bryant, 1998).
Based on this data, the author was able to alert the caregivers of
those athletes
who continued to display more internalized, dissociative
reactions and who might
have been at greater risk of developing PTSD.
At the outset of their season, the team won fi ve straight games.
Just as it
seemed that they were “coming together” as a team, however, a
string of six losses
occurred. The athletes then asked the author for help in
functioning better as a unit.
They believed that the losses had not been due to individual
errors but to a lack of
team focus at crucial points in the game. The author viewed this
request for help
as being signifi cant on two points. First, from a developmental
point of view, this
request signaled relational maturation as a team. Readiness to
work more closely
together also seemed to herald the teamʼs renewed performance
resolve (Buchko,
2004; Vernacchia et al., 1997). Whereas the team s̓ initial
resolve to play their season
seemed to have been based on an attempt to cling to something
of the familiar
precrisis world, this revitalized determination was based upon
playing experience
and, as such, seemed to be more reality-based.
05-Buchko(288) 297 8/15/05, 1:59:23 PM

298 • Buchko
The author responded to the athletes ̓ request for team-building
by fi rst
helping them formulate a plan for change (see Table 3, Task 1).
Within this plan
the players devised a verbal cue (“beef it out”) as a signal to
refocus as a team. Of
note in the present discussion is that by working their plan for
team-building, this
team, which had sustained a devastating pre-season blow,
secured a spot in their
conference tournament.
Phase III: Restoring
In this last facet of the systemic crisis intervention model, the
interventionist
completes the process of restoring autonomy to those she or he
has been helping.
Restoration has two connotations in this setting. First, it means
returning to
individual survivors of the crisis the full responsibility for
carrying on with life.
Continued treatment is available for those who would benefi t
from it. Potential
stress-points in the near-term and the larger future are identifi
ed and are considered
in the light of newly acquired coping skills. The second aspect
of restoration refl ects
the clinicianʼs attention to leaving the system strengthened and
aware of both its
inherent strengths and its newfound homeostasis. Table 4 offers
descriptions of the
fi nal therapeutic tasks that facilitate restoration.

Table 4 Tasks and Helping Behaviors in the Restoring Phase of
Systemic Crisis
Intervention
Therapeutic Tasks Helping Behaviors
1. Track progress toward Helpers evaluate headway toward
identifi ed goals;
goals. anticipate resistance to change and interpret this as a
signal
to adjust rate of change or modify types of change that
support continued recovery.
2. Acknowledge signs of Recognize attainment of “new
normal” by the system;
time to terminate review gains with system members and
prepare system to
services. move on autonomously; acknowledge any needs that
remain.
3. Address future Identify and predict potential future stressors
(e.g.,
stress-points. anniversary of crisis); help individuals anticipate/
apply
coping skills if these arise; teach system to expect
challenges to recovery and empower to meet these via
references to current coping successes.
4. Refer for continuous Helpers set clear boundaries about what
they can/cannot do
treatment. long-term; appropriate referrals for long-term care
are
made as needed.
5. Exit the system. Helpers celebrate system successes,
underscoring

autonomous growth, then terminate or redefi ne helping
roles.
05-Buchko(288) 298 8/15/05, 1:59:24 PM
Case Illustration of Phase III Tasks. The first therapeutic task in
restoration, that of tracking progress toward goals for growth
(Table 4, Task 1),
centers on anticipating and spotting resistance to change and
then helping both
individual athletes and the team overcome resistance and
achieve their goals. In
the authorʼs experience, resistance was encountered at two
levels. First, individual
athletes had trouble applying the stress reduction skills offered.
They believed that
if they just “hit it harder,” they could eliminate the stress
responses. Second, the
team was initially resistive to devising a verbal cue to refocus
as a unit during play.
They too believed that if they each would just “bear down,”
their collective second
effort would “carry the day.”
These individual and team resistances illustrate that a system
that has been
disrupted by trauma often is reluctant to leave the security of
tried and true beliefs.
If the sport psychologist sees resistance as being a naturally-
occurring part of
growth rather than a negative sign, then it can be effectively
managed in a sport-

related crisis. In the case of the athletes who had trouble
applying cognitive stress
management skills and who “just (wanted to) hit it harder,” the
authorʼs agreement
with their statement about hitting it harder with the addition of
“and smarter”
helped them overcome and accept the new skills. Athletes were
empowered to work
from what they knew (i.e., how to hustle in competition) to
incorporate skills for
handling intrusive traumatic phenomena. Similarly, when the
team initially resisted
devising a verbal cue to refocus, the author was able to help
them surmount this
resistance. This was accomplished by “letting them speak their
language rather
than her language.” Thus, rather than clinical-sounding cue
words like “focus” or
“energize,” the team chose the phrase “beef it out.” The cue was
established and
the resistance was overcome.
In the authorʼs experience, acknowledgment of time for
termination (Table
3, Task 2) was, to some extent, already dictated by the end of
the season. The last
team meetings were aimed at reviewing the teamʼs remarkable
achievements in
surmounting the emotional aftermath of the suicide over the
course of the season
and at addressing future stress points. The author noted that in
reviewing their
accomplishments, the women did not mention the deceased.
Instead, they focused
on their attachment to each other, with only oblique references
to their trauma.

Typical of these comments were the words of one player who
said, “I learned
that, with great teammates, you can overcome some very tough
things and still
have a good season.” The author chose not to probe for more
direct discussion
of the trauma based on feedback from the athletes ̓individual
caregivers. Nearly
all caregivers had reported that few or no symptoms of acute
stress remained in
their clients. Thus, the teamʼs emphasis on attachment to each
other appeared to
be a genuine acknowledgement of systemic strength rather than
collusion to avoid
distressing topics.
In individual sessions, the author probed more specifi cally for
the athleteʼs
feelings and thoughts regarding the suicide. Two related themes
that emerged from
these interactions were continued anger at the deceased for not
reaching out and
sadness that the athlete had not had the chance to do something
that could have
helped her teammate. The author gently asked athletes what the
suicide had taught
them about life and/or about themselves. As with the fi ndings
of other investigators,
a common theme was that the suicide had made athletes more
aware of the fragility
of life (Henschen & Heil, 1992).
05-Buchko(288) 299 8/15/05, 1:59:26 PM

300
Future stress points (Table 3, Task 3) were discussed with the
team in terms
of anniversary reactions. The idea was presented that certain
times of year (e.g.,
just prior to the season) and certain dates might trigger feelings
such as sadness,
irritation, fearfulness, or numbness. These reactions were
normalized, and
encouragement was given to use deep breathing and healthy
self-talk (e.g., “this
is a normal reaction, I can work through it”) to manage them.
Athletes were also
encouraged to talk the feelings through with a coach, past or
present, or other safe
and trusted older adults.
The recurrence of dissociative phenomena, such as feelings of
the unreality
of self or surroundings or of intrusive traumatic imagery, was
described as a signal
of the need to see a counselor. This recommendation was given
because recurrent
dissociation has been identifi ed as a sign of impeded recovery
from trauma (Foa &
Hearst-Ikeda, 1996) and of the development of Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder in
traumatic bereavement (Raphael & Martinek, 1997). The author
made sure that each
athlete had her offi ce and home telephone numbers and her
university e-mail address.
The offer was made that if desired, athletes could contact the
author at any time to
assess whether they might benefi t from further care by either
university counselors

or community-based psychologists or psychiatrists (See Table 4,
Task 4).
With this partial exit from her role as consultant, the authorʼs
work with the
team ended until the following season (Table 4, Task 5). It was
very rewarding to
attend the post-season athletic banquet. Several of the athletes
acknowledged the
authorʼs interventions as having been helpful to them personally
and to the team
as a whole. Most rewarding of all was to hear and observe the
expressions of
accomplishment described by each speaker. These athletes were
truly members of
a tight-knit system, brought closer by trauma.
Conclusion
This paper has offered a crisis intervention model that sport
psychologists can
employ to manage acute traumatic stress reactions following
major emergencies
that a sport team might experience. Use of the model has been
illustrated in a
retrospective discussion of the authorʼs interventions with a
basketball team in the
wake of a veteran member s̓ suicide. It is important to reiterate
that a team approach
utilizing other qualifi ed health professionals is an imperative in
managing crises in
sport. Further, if a sport psychologist has not been clinically
trained and/or has not
received additional training in Critical Incident Stress
Management (CISM), he or
she should enlist help from a colleague who has had such

training.
Regarding research, the author s̓ observation of
athletes ̓determination to play
their sport in the aftermath of a tragedy involving their team
needs to be replicated.
The case presented herein is now the second report of such
performance resolve,
the fi rst having been reported by Vernacchia and colleagues
(1997). If the resolve
to play continues to be observed in a variety of settings, it could
be considered part
of a sport-specifi c model of bereavement (Vernacchia et al.,
1997). Moreover, the
authorʼs speculations about the roles sport performance and
teamwork may play
in helping athletes manage acute traumatic responses await
empirical verifi cation.
Additional research needs to be done with male athletic teams
in the acute period
following traumatic loss in order to determine how their
reactions compare with
those of women. Finally, the Systemic Crisis Intervention
Model itself needs further
study, both as to its general utility with athletes and as to the
relative contributions
05-Buchko(288) 300 8/15/05, 1:59:27 PM
of its component therapeutic tasks to recovery from traumatic
events in sport.
Nonetheless, the model appears, at this point, to be useful for

care of teams during
periods of acute traumatic stress.
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Author Note
1Informed consent was provided by the athletes in this article.
Personal information and
the team make-up was altered to preserve anonymity of the
individual players.
Manuscript submitted: January 23, 2004
Revision received: April 29, 2005
05-Buchko(288) 302 8/15/05, 1:59:30 PM

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288 The Sport Psychologist, 2005, 19, 288-302© 2005 Huma.docx

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288 The Sport Psychologist, 2005, 19, 288-302© 2005 Huma.docx