This document discusses several theories and approaches related to educational technology and teaching and learning. It describes behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism as the three main theoretical frameworks that have been present in educational technology literature. It provides details on behaviorist learning theory and theorists like BF Skinner. It also discusses cognitive learning theories and constructivist teaching methods that emphasize problem-solving and social learning. Specific technologies like tutorials, simulations, and cooperative/collaborative software are described in terms of how they can support behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist approaches to instruction.

2. Technology of education is most simply and comfortably
defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing
student learning and may be measured in how and why
individuals behave
In order to succeed in schools must graduate students who are
prepared to be lifelong learners. . This challenge necessitates a
pedagogical shift from transmitting a body of expected
knowledge that is largely memorized to one that is largely
process oriented. . For example, instead of having students
memorize the names of the battles of the Civil War, a teacher
might have teams of students each focus on one battle and
prepare a presentation on it using first-hand letters, testimonies,
and photos.
. The concept of multiple intelligence comes into play here as
well.. Our traditional concept of intelligence include an
overemphasis on verbally-loaded skills. . Expanded views of
intelligence are especially important because people's beliefs
about the nature of intelligence can affect their assessment of
their own capabilities and their actual performance. Howard
Gardner lists the following seven areas of intelligence: linguistic,
logical/mathematical, musical, artistic, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. . Giving
students a chance to share a wide variety of kinds of
intelligence adds to their confidence and belief in themselves as
intelligent and competent learners, that no matter what the task
they will be able to learn to do it.
Prior to 1970 Behavioral Psychology formed the basis of how
many teachers behaved in the classroom.. Coupled with the
traditional body of knowledge that made up a 'good' education
this approach made sense.. Now a basis in Cognitive Psychology
seems to be a better method for preparing students to become
lifelong learners. . Advances in educational technology have
contributed and supported this swing toward the Cognitive
approach

3. Three main theoretical schools or philosophical
frameworks have been present in the educational
. Many educational psychologists
technology literature. .
found the behavioral approach
These are Behaviorism , Cognitivism and Constructivism
unsatisfying. . In the areas of
problem solving and learning
. Each of these schools of thought are still present in today's
strategies they became more literature but have evolved as the Psychology
concerned with what was literature has evolved
unobservable - what was going on
inside the . These theories are
based on the work of educational
philosopher John Dewey, and
educational psychologists Lev
Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Jerome
Bruner among others.. They
propose that children actively
construct knowledge and this
construction of knowledge
happens in a social context.".
Vygotsky proposed that all
learning takes place in the 'zone BF Skinner is considered the "grandfather of behaviorism".
of proximal development'. . This . He generated much of the experimental data that is the basis of
'zone' is the difference between behavioral learning theory. . He and other behavioral theorists were
concerned mainly with observable indications of learning and what
what a child can do alone and
those observations could imply for teaching.. They concentrated on
what he/she can do with observable 'cause and effect' relationships. . Skinner and others
assistance. . By building on the viewed the teacher's job as modifying the behavior of students by
child's experiences and providing setting up situations to reinforce students when they exhibit desired
moderately challenging tasks responses. Behaviorists viewed learning as a sequence of stimulus
teachers can provide the and response actions in the learner. . They reasoned that teachers
'intellectual scaffolding' to help could link together responses involving lower-level skills and create
children learn and progress a learning "chain" to teach higher-level skills.. The teacher would
through the different stages of determine all of the skills needed to lead up to the desired behavior
development and make sure students learned them all in a step-by-step manner

4. The methods of constructivism emphasize students'
ability to solve real-life, practical problems.. Students
typically work in cooperative groups rather than
individually; they tend to focus on projects that require
solutions to problems rather than on instructional
sequences that require learning of certain content skills.
". The job of the teacher in constructivist models is to
arrange for required resources and act as a guide to
students while they set their own goals and 'teach
themselves'

5. . Direct Instruction, also known as Explicit
Teaching "is a systematic method for presenting In the following sections I will detail some of
material in small steps, pausing to check for the ways that educational technology is
student understanding and eliciting active and supporting specific techniques of teaching and
successful participation from all learning.. Because of this support, educators
students."(Rosenshine, 1986, p. 60) This model of are able to accomplish behavioral and cognitive
instruction is well grounded in Behaviorist Theory. goals in ways they never could before
"). It has also been classified as a 'transmission'
model (as opposed to an 'information-processing'
model). details six teaching functions as an
important sequence in the method of Explicit
teaching. They are: daily review, presenting new
material, guided practice, corrections and
feedback, independent practice and weekly and
monthly reviews. . " This method has been shown
to be particularly effective in the "teaching of
mathematical procedures and computations,
reading decoding, explicit reading procedures
such as distinguishing fact from opinion, science
facts and concepts, social science facts and
concepts, map skills, foreign language vocabulary.
They are less relevant for teaching in areas that
are less well-structured, for example, teaching
composition, reading comprehension, analyzing
literature or historical trends." (Rosenshine 1986
P.60)
. There are two in the form of points scored at the
end of the game. . These practice programs can
free the teacher to help other students.. If used in
a group setting they can provide the opportunity
for students to collaborate, a more constructivist
approach.

6. Another type of software that supports this model is the tutorial
type of program . In a tutorial program instruction is usually
expected to stand alone; the student should be able to learn the
topic without any help or other materials from outside the
courseware. Tutorials should address all instructional events all
six teaching functions that Rosenshine defines. . Tutorials can be
categorized as linear or branching tutorials. . A linear tutorial
gives the same instructional sequence and feedback to all
learners A branching tutorial directs learners along alternate
paths depending on how they respond to questions and whether
or not they show mastery of certain parts of the material
Emulating a good teacher is difficult for a person

7. , let alone a computer, but there are some very good tutorials
available. . A good example is the tutorials that come with new
computers or software, ie the Introduction to Microsoft Works
, or the Tour of Windows 3.1 . Some other examples of tutorial
software are DaisyQuest and Daisy's Castle by Great Wave
software. . They are "magical" auditory programs created
especially for young children and for older children who may
experience difficulty learning to read due to deficits in the
ability to isolate and compare sounds in words. A good example
of a tutorial for older students is Broderbund's Welcome to
Physics . It can be used as a stand-alone tutorial, or by the
teacher to introduce an idea, provide a demonstration, as a
device to initiate discussion or as a review

8. Cooperative/Collaborative Learning
Cooperative (sometime known as Collaborative) Learning is a model of
teaching with a set of common attributes and features.. It is cognitive
in nature. . It also has several variations. The following are its essential
features: students work in teams to master academic materials, teams
are made up of high, average, and low achievers, and are racially and
sexually mixed, reward systems are group-oriented rather than
individually oriented. (Arends, 1994, p. 344) Some of the variations
are
Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD) where team members
use work sheets or other study devices to master the academic
materials and then help each other learn the material Individually
students take weekly quizzes and are given an "improvement score"..
This score is based on the degree to which the score exceeds a
student's past average. . Teams strive to get a good team improvement
score
Jigsaw where each student on the team would be responsible to
become 'an expert' in one aspect of the academic task and are
responsible for teaching that aspect to the others.. Members from
different teams who are to be experts on the same topic meet to help
each other learn their aspect of the task. They then return to their
group to share what they learned and plan their presentation to the
class
Group Investigation where students are involved in planning both the
topics for study and the ways to proceed with their investigation..
Students will choose a topic for study, proceed with an in-depth
investigation of that topic and prepare and present a report to the
whole class

9. There are two types of technology that support Cooperative Learning. The
first category includes those types of programs that will provide the
Poduim). Included here are environment for collaboration.3D Hyperstudio
the types of software that we usually think of as tools: word processors (
Word , WordPerfect ), spreadsheets( Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 ), data bases(
Access, FoxPro ), drawing programs( Corel Draw, Paintbrush ), desk top
publishing programs ( Microsoft Publisher, Print Shop ) script writing tools (
Hollywood High, 3D Movie Maker ) Multimedia Presentations( Power
Point, Hyperstudio, Poduim ) . Each of these tools provide the environment
for students to produce a product that they can share with the class or
publish in a newsletter to parents or publish on the World Wide Web to the
world. . No matter which program students use they must make important
decisions together on what information to convey and how to convey it. .
Learning content material, learning to work together, and valuing each other
for their multiple intelligence are all goals of cooperative learning that
teachers can focus on in this environment
There are many programs that will provide the resources that students need
to complete the research that is needed for class presentations. Grolier
ENCARTA 97 ). There are several very good multimedia encyclopedias (
World Book , Grolier's Interactive , Compton's Interactive , Encarta 97 , and
Britannica CD 97 ). Mindscapes. There are many informative CD's on a wide
variety of subject areas, Medio's JFK Investigation , DK Multimedia's The Way
Things Work , Mindscapes's How Your Body Works , Research Publications'
American Journey to name just a few. These programs can collect an
enormous amount of information that is easily searched and copied into
word processors for use as notes to share with fellow teammates

10. The Internet is a resource of hundreds of thousands of
documents on any subject imaginable. . By using the search
engines, Alta Vista or Yahoo, for example, a student can find
much information on virtually any topic. . Some instruction
and class discussion on techniques for searching and
evaluation of sources is needed to get the most of working in
this environment. . When we view our task of encouraging
students to be lifelong learners, these become indispensable
tools. . The WWW is also a great resource for the pictures
and sounds that go into making a great classroom
presentation. The Lycos search engine has the capability to
search the web for these resources

12. Conclusion
.
The Cognitive approach to teaching
is gaining momentum. . Educators
have realized that for students to be
successful they need to be lifelong
learners. Helping them to develop
the skills necessary to become
lifelong learners requires a different
approach to teaching and learning..
The direct instruction method that
was used almost exclusively in the
earlier part of this century, though
still effective for some skills, is
giving way to a more cooperative
approach. One that involves students
working together toward common
goals, teachers serving as 'experts',
and coaches, and facilitators, and
sometimes just plain getting out of
the way and letting students
discover things for themselves. What
is technology's role in this
movement?. It is supporting the
choices that teachers make every
step of the way by providing the
environment, the content, the
experiment, and the place for
students to 'put it all together' to
share with other students, parents,
and the world