10. constructivism "Only by wrestling with the conditions of the problem at hand, seeking and finding his own solution (not in isolation but in correspondence with the teacher and other pupils) does one learn." ~ John Dewey, How We Think , 1910 ~
19. REFERENCES: Sadker, M. P. and D. M. Sadker (2005). Teachers, Schools, and Society. 7th edition. Boston : McGraw-Hill. Lefrancois, G. R. (1994). Psychology for Teaching . 8th edition. California : Wadsworth Publishing Company. "Lev Vygotsky - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia . N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky>. "IDKB - Models/Theories." George Mason University Classweb . N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. <http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm>. Moore, Julie. "Learning Theory Fundamentals." Encyclopedia of Educational Technology . N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. www.etc.edu.cn/eet/eet/ . "Jerome Bruner and the Process of Education". T he Encyclopaedia of Informal Education . N.p., n.d. Web. 23 July 2010. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm . "IDKB - Models/Theories." George Mason University Classweb . N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm . "Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology." Projects Server Introduction . University of Georgia, Association for Educational Communications and Technology, n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page . Thanasoulas, Dimitrios "Constructivist Learning." SEAsite - SE Asian Languages and Cultures . N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. <http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Teachers_Page/Language_Learning_Articles/constructivist_learning.htm>. Ismat , Abdal-Haqq. "Constructivism in Teacher Education: Considerations for Those Who Would Link Practice to Theory. ERIC Digest. ." ERICDigests.Org - Providing full-text access to ERIC Digests . N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. <http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/theory.htm>. "Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning." THIRTEEN - New York Public Media. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Aug. 2010. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html>. Jones, M. Gail , and L. Brader-Araje. "The Impact of Constructivism on Education: Language, Discourse, and Meaning." American Communication Journal 5.3 (2002): n. pag. American Communication Journal . Web. 2 Aug. 2010. Grow, Gerald. "Cognitive Model of Learning." Longleaf Publications home page. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Aug. 2010. <http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/StrategicReader/StratModel.html>. Archives Jean Piaget . Web. 2 Aug. 2010. <www.archivespiaget.ch >.
21. Short Intro Etymology (meriam-webster online) cog·ni·tion Pronunciation: äg-ni-shənEtymology: from Latin word “cognoscere” meaning – to come to know, investigate cog·ni·tive 1 : of, relating to, being, or involving conscious intellectual activity 2 : based on or capable of being reduced to empirical factual knowledge
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27. A diagram that describes how a person's schema of "egg" might include the components shown:
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32. Example: The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle: 1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles 2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" 3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles 4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle 5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral 6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different examples 7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect 8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation 9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals
61. REFERENCES Sadker, M. P. and D. M. Sadker (2005). Teachers, schools, and sSociety. Seventh edition. Boston : McGraw-Hill. Lefrancois, G. R. (1994). Psychology for teaching . 8th edition. California : Wadsworth Publishing Company. Mergel, B. (1998). Instructional design & learning theory . Retrieved 12 July 2010 from http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm Steele, M.M. (2005, April 30). Teaching students with learning disabilities: Constructivism or behaviorism? Current Issues in Education [On-line], 8 (10). Available:http://cie.ed.asu.edu/ volume8/number10/ "IDKB - models/theories." George Mason University Classweb . N.p., n.d. Web. 24 July 2010. <http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/models_theories.htm>. Instructional design approaches. (n.d.). UW Departments Web Server . Retrieved July 24, 2010, from http://depts.washington.edu/eproject/Instructional%20Design%20Approaches.htm Definitions and perspectives of learning:. (n.d.). TeachNet. Retrieved July 24, 2010, from http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/behaviorism.html
Editor's Notes
Piaget understanding of the development of learning in children From his observation of children, Piaget understood that children were creating ideas. They were not limited to receiving knowledge from parents or teachers; they actively constructed their own knowledge. Piaget's work provides the foundation on which constructionist theories are based.
Bruner developed a theory of cognitive growth his approach (in contrast to Piaget) looked to environmental and experiential factors. Bruner suggested that intellectual ability developed in stages through step-by-step changes in how the mind is used.
If some learning theories focus on what’s happening inside the human mind or the emotion, the behaviorists find interest in how people behave/act when prompted by outside forces. That’s why this theory is also known as SR (stimulus-response) theory. Man, when stirred by a stimulus, will respond on the given stimulus. Some behaviorists point out that a child is born like a blank slate. Each time one writes in a slate, the messages get recorded, which is similar to how a child develop. It is environmental factors rather than genetic or biological differences that make us behave differently. Behaviorism very much represents the nurture aspect of the nature-nurture debate. But what happens inside the mind is not known, that is why our minds are liken to a black box. STIMULUS >> >> RESPONSE For behaviorists, a learned behavior is something that can be unlearned, again by exposing them to another repeated stimuli. Because…(prompt for next bullet) repeated behavior becomes an automatic response For them, memory is associated with events. Take for instance a child who likes to play near an electric fan despite being reminded not to. If the child accidentally places her finger inside and bleeds, the event will be a reminder to her of what to do and what not to do.
key variables STIMULUS - any change in the physical environment capable of rousing the organism RESPONSE - any organic, muscular, glandular, or psychic process resulting from stimulation REINFORCEMENT - the effect of reinforcer; specifically to increase the probability that a response will occur PUNISHMENT - involves either the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or withdrawal of pleasant stimulus as a consequence of behavior; not to be confused with negative reinforcement. BEHAVIORAL MODIFICATION - refers to the changes in the behavior of an individual; also to psychological studies and testing in attempt to modify a behavior.
These are some of the concepts we will be encountering during the report: CLASSICAL: Continuous pairing of two stimuli so that a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response previously elicited by the first. WATSON’S BEHAVIORISM: All other behavior is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning . CONNECTIONISM: learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response. SR connections were formed through random trial and error . OPERANT: a type of learning that will increase the probability that a response will occur as a function of reinforcement SOCIAL LEARNING: learning happens through observation and modeling. Each of these 5, represents the 5 key people who were known for their studies about behaviorism. We will be tackling more of these concepts, when we discuss the key people.
These are the 5 key people who have made behaviorism an important learning theory. Let’s get to know them one by one…
In his experiment, Pavlov has three scenario: Pre-Conditioning ringing of bell caused no response from the dog and placing food in front of the dog made it salivate. Conditioning Pavlov rung the bell a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. The dog salivates after seeing the food. The ringing of the bell and feeding was repeated. The dog’s salivating response always follows. Post conditioning The bell is rung again, without food but the dog salivated. His theory is known as Classical Conditioning. For this experiment, the food was the unconditioned stimulus, the salivation was the unconditioned response, the bell was the condition stimulus and salivation was the conditioned response to the bell.
Stimulus Generalization: Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds. Extinction: If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell. Spontaneous Recovery: Extinguished responses can be &quot;recovered&quot; after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food. Discrimination: The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not. Higher-Order Conditioning: Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.
He said that psychology should be the science of observable behavior. According to Watson “humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behaviors are established through stimulus-response associated through conditioning” As such, the environment plays an important role in human development in as much as learning is needed in it.
Albert was a boy who was not scared of rats. In order to demonstrate classical conditioning, Watson created a sudden loud noise played whenever Albert touches the rat. Albert was frightened by the sound, became conditioned and avoided the rat, and other white objects The event was seen as cruelty to humans but some accounts say that Watson reversed the trauma by presenting white, furry objects accompanied by something pleasant, while some others claimed that it was never deconditioned. 12 infants: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select–doctor, lawyer, artist–regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors&quot; This quote routinely appears in introductory texts in education and psychology and is used to illustrate the radical environmental views of behaviorists. This denies the existence of any human instincts, inherited capacities or talents, and temperaments
cat experiment (a cat is placed inside a cage with a lock. the only way for the cat to open the cage was too strike a latch/button. the cat was wild at first and opens the cage by accident only. the experiment was repeated several times and the cat behaves the same way exceptthat it opens the cage faster than the usual.)
law of exercise/repetition - the more time a stimulus induced response was repeated, the longer it's retained. conversely, the bond weakens when not practiced or exercised. Ex: classroom drills in math b. law of effect - (pleasure and pain principle) response is repeated if followed by pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure Ex. Ray gave a funny answers when the teacher asked a question. He gets scolded for it. When he gave the correct answer teacher praised him. Ray will most likely give correct answers whenever he recites. c. law of readiness - due to the structure of the nervous system, some connections are more predisposed to happen than others. People learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn. This includes adequate rest, proper health, and avoiding distractions. Ex. A good example of the law of readiness is ensuring students from out of town have proper housing facilities (Maslow’s first hierarchy). A student that is worrying about where their household goods are, or if their family is safe will not be ready to learn.
If Watson and Pavlov are contiguity (believes in simultaneity of stimulus and response) theorists, skinner is a reinforcement theorist – learning is based on the effects of behavior (reinforcement and punishment) Skinner's work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).
In #1, Peter was presented with a pleasant stimulus In #2, Peter was presented with an unpleasant stimulus In #3, Peter’s pleasant stimulus was taken back In #4, the unpleasant stimulus presented to Peter was taken away. He was relieved from the unpleasant stimulus. children can be conditioned to acquire desirable skills and behaviors. breaking learning into smaller steps and rewarding them will enable them to achieve mastery
This is an example of the Skinner Box, used by BF Skinner to point out these 4 scenarios. When the lever was pressed by the rat a small pellet of food was dropped onto a tray. The rat soon learned that when he pressed the lever he would receive some food. In this experiment the lever pressing behavior is reinforced by food. If pressing the lever generates electricity on the floor grid, the rat will no longer press the lever. This shows how His quote about “engineering the environment” shows his belief that a constructive environment can push &quot;human achievement to its limits.&quot;
His famous experiment was the BoBo Doll Study in 1961. Since he was studying adolescent aggression, he purposively filmed one of his students (girl) beating up a bobo doll while yelling “sockeroo!”. This film was later on shown to a group of kindergarten students who obviously found it hilarious. After watching the film, the kids went inside a playroom and saw another Bobo Doll. How they reacted to the doll was similar to how they saw it on the film. He called the phenomenon observational learning or modeling, and his theory is usually called social learning theory. The study was significant because it departed from behaviorism’s insistence that all behavior is directed by reinforcement or rewards. The kids were not given any incentive but rather they were just imitating what they saw. Also, Bandura has shown that when a model is exposed to stimuli intended to have a conditioning effect, a person who simply observes this process, even without participating in it directly, will tend to become conditioned by the stimuli as well. Many studies categorized Bandura under Behaviorism but he prefers to group his idea as social cognitivism
Simply put, we learned because of what we see or observe. Bandura extablished that there were certain steps involved in the modeling process: 1. Attention . If you are going to learn anything, you have to be paying attention. Likewise, anything that puts a damper on attention is going to decrease learning, including observational learning. If, for example, you are sleepy, groggy, drugged, sick, nervous, or “hyper,” you will learn less well. Likewise, if you are being distracted by competing stimuli. Some of the things that influence attention involve characteristics of the model. If the model is colorful and dramatic, for example, we pay more attention. If the model is attractive, or prestigious, or appears to be particularly competent, you will pay more attention. And if the model seems more like yourself, you pay more attention. 2. Retention . Second, you must be able to remember what you have paid attention to. This is where imagery and language come in: we store what we have seen the model doing in the form of mental images or verbal descriptions. When so stored, you can later “bring up” the image or description, so that you can reproduce it with your own behavior. 3. Reproduction . You have to translate the images or descriptions into actual behavior. So you have to have the ability to reproduce the behavior in the first place. I can watch Olympic ice skaters all day long, yet not be able to reproduce their jumps, because I can’t ice skate at all! On the other hand, if I could skate, my performance would in fact improve if I watch skaters who are better than I am. 4. Motivation . And yet, with all this, you’re still not going to do anything unless you are motivated to imitate, i.e. until you have some reason for doing it.
As behaviorism is very evident in traditional classrooms, the main role of the teacher is the expert authority. Classroom rules, lesson plans, and assessments are all evidences of behaviorism being utilized in the classroom – and these are all prepared by the teachers. teacher should create an environment in which appropriate behavior is being reinforced. Teacher should be prompting students to give out the correct answers. It is the teacher’s responsibility to correct student mistakes. To continue conditioning a student until the app response is given The teacher should serve as a model at all times.
A student should be a learner and a follower He must be able to take in the stimuli presented by the teacher for him to attain development.
As mentioned above, a traditional classroom employs a behaviorist approach. An understanding of the reward-punishment theory will definitely help a lot in observing proper classroom management – which one will work best for naughty students, which will motivate students to study more. example: For beginning students, Math is a neutral stimulus, but if it is paired with a fear-producing stimulus , say an impatient teacher, the student learns to hate math after several exposure to the teacher. this belief leads to the principle that teachers and schools need to provide ample opportunity for students to give variety of responses and the correct response be given a reward. Rewards and punishment must be tailored to the situation and to the child. Some situation calls for punishment, some requires just a penalty. Punishment must also be chosen because it doesn’t translate to learning. Rather it gives emphasis on the undesirable response. And it doesn’t eliminate it but just suppresses it. Ex. Teacher gave you a detention for cheating in class for 1st quarter. Student will behave in 2nd or 3rd and when he thinks he’s already clear, might repeat the act again.
Shaping in classroom: In classroom, a classclown repeats his act because his peers laugh at him but if his classmates do not respond to his acts he’ll probably stop doing it. This will also hold true for class disrupters. Teacher can just ignore a student who disrupts class, a non-responded act will soon stop anything observed can be learned. A lesson modeled/demonstrated in class will be acquired easily than if it was read from a book The reward and punishment can be translated to monitoring. If teacher realizes that a child is failing in class, the teacher can give feedback and student will most likely work more next time.
