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The document discusses various teaching theories and models, focusing on cognitive learning and constructivism. It examines the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, and different instructional methods like teacher-centered and learner-centered approaches. Additionally, it highlights the characteristics, functions, and applications of teaching models in shaping curricula and fostering effective learning environments.

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Module- 3 Teaching in Present Day context
SESSION 1
Basic Concepts of Cognitive Learning Theory Social Cognitive Theory includes several basic concepts that can manifest not only in adults but also in infants, children and adolescents. 1. Observational Learning- from other people by means of observing them is an effective way of gaining knowledge and altering behavior. 2. Reproduction-- process wherein there is an aim to effectively increase the repeating of a behavior by means of putting the individual in a comfortable environment with readily accessible materials to motivate him to retain the new knowledge and behavior learned and practice them.
3. Self-efficacy the course wherein the learner improves his newly learned knowledge or behavior by putting it into practice 4.Emotional Coping good coping mechanisms against stressful environment and negative personal characteristics can lead to effective learning, especially in adults. 5. Self-regulatory capability ability to control behavior even within an unfavorable environment.
Concepts of Cognitive Behavioral Theory •Cognitive Behavioral Theory describes the role of cognition (knowing) to determining and predicting the behavioral pattern of an individual. This theory was developed by Aaron Beck. •The Cognitive Behavioral Theory says that individuals tend to form self-concepts that affect the behavior they display. These concepts can be positive or negative and can be affected by a person’s environment
•The Cognitive Triad •Cognitive Behavioral Theory further explains human behavior and learning using the cognitive triad. This triad includes negative thoughts about: •The self (i.e., I am rubbish) •The world/environment (i.e., the world is irrational) •The future (i.e., my future is doomed)
Cognitive Perspectives to Teaching Teacher Centred Instruction Methods
Teacher Centred Instructions Teacher centred instructions are based on the philosophies of essentialism and perennialism. According to essentialism, teachers should pass on essential knowledge or in other words, knowledge of core curriculum rigorously and perennialism , gives central place to ideas and themes that have spanned ages. Both these philosophies establish teacher’s authority in the classroom (The Foundations of Education Web) and prescribe what should be taught and who should play the main role in instructional processes. The age old practice of teachers directing the learning process dominates the teaching- learning scenarios even today. Teachers transmit information verbally or through various media and students receive the information thus passed on. There is thus a linear transmission of information. As pointed out by Laurilard (2002), teaching methods have not evolved sufficiently and transmission with lectures, books and marked assignments dominate and digital technologies are used also for supporting this model. For example, a power point used by a teacher only supports his/ her lecture and replaces a blackboard.
Methods of Teacher-Controlled Instruction Lecture Method Teacher is active and directs learning process Students receive information transmitted from teachers/other sources of information and memorise them Didactic in nature whereby instructions are based on text books, lectures, etc. Less autonomy and less engagement of learners, it puts students in a passive role. Teaching and learning activities are not contextualized Important concerns are learning outcomes Standard responses/solutions to a problem are expected of learners
Advantages of the Lecture • Lectures are especially useful for teaching large groups. • It can be specifically organised to meet the needs of particular audiences. • Effective lecturers can communicate the intrinsic interest of a subject through their enthusiasm. • This age old and widely used method of teaching helps teachers to present logically organized facts and is a direct source of information. Disadvantages of the Lecture • The learners are passive as there is usually one way communication and it is difficult to assess whether learners have actually learnt. • Student’s attention wanes quickly. • It presumes that all students learn at the same pace and are at the same level of understanding. • Lecture are not suited for teaching complex, abstract material. • Less scope for pupils activity. • Is against the principle of ‘Learning by Doing’
Demonstration Method • Demonstrations involve doing/performing something to facilitate understanding and enable learning by observation. It requires verbal elaboration but not as much as a lecture. It adds to the value of a lecture/discussion as it makes an abstraction concrete and provides empirical evidence. • During a demonstration, learning is not just by listening but also by watching and hence learners use more than one sense. For example, you may demonstrate that oxygen is essential for combustion by covering a lighted candle, which gets extinguished. • Apart from live demonstrations, you may also use media like videos with recorded demonstrations, especially if there are complex operations that are difficult to carry out in classrooms or you do not have the necessary resources.
• This method is recommended for teaching a skill because it covers all the necessary steps in an effective learning order. The demonstration step gives trainees the opportunity to see ad hear the details related to the skill being taught. • For convenience, the techniques for imparting skills are presented in steps, rather than activities. Some portions will require lectures, narrations, explanations, etc. The more the participation of learners, greater is the learner centeredness and lectures may include interactive sessions. Learner centred methods also requires time, a lower teacher-student ratio and a curriculum which is flexible and not loaded with a vast syllabus. You may, therefore, try out a blended approach.
The Learning Pyramid • The leaning pyramid is very clear: passive and one way transmission, as in the lecture, is the least successful strategy. Its important to note that the lecture method essentially involves one sensory input. We notice that he more sensory inputs are used, the greater is the retention. • So, where the pyramid shows audio-visual learning( two sensory input channels: listening and seeing), retention improves. • When leaning becomes less teacher-directed, and involves and involves a range of sensory inputs(listening, seeing, speaking) the retention rate jumps in the case of discussion groups. • When leaning involves application and doing, rather than receiving, the rate jumps even more TO 75%. • When learning involves teaching others, the rate of retention is very large indeed.
SESSION 2
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO TEACHING
MEANING OF CONSTRUCTIVISM • The meaning making theory of learning is called constructivism. In this, knowledge is constructed by the learners through an active mental process of development. • In constructivism, children invent their own idea and concept linked to what they already know. • According to constructivism , prior knowledge impacts the learning process. The students should actively construct new information by connecting and using the previous or existing knowledge. • In constructivism the teacher shifts from sage on a stage to guide on the side; more of a child- centered learning.
• Constructivism is a theory which regards learning as an active process in which learners construct and internalize new concepts , ideas, and knowledge based on past experiences , knowledge. • Knowledge is constructed rather than received. The word constructivism has come to serve as an umbrella term for diversified views. • Constructivism is an epistemology of learning developed on the premise that reflection on experiences while constructing their own understanding of the world, allow learners to formulate a more concrete meaning of subject matter.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM • Developing understanding of concepts in ways that make sense to the learners. Learning new things depends on how they are interpreted or understood in that context. • Learning taking place more with the help of social interaction. • Meaningful learning takes place when there are learning activities that require to be understood. • Engaging in meaningful discussion and conversation. • Understanding and making connections beyond what is taught .
• Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant; • Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems; • The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems; • Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content; • Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed; • Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool; • Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of the world; • Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner.
Constructivist Teaching Strategies • Use teaching strategies that require students to make a construct. Students must apply , use or process the information. • Ensure that all students are participating in making constructs. • Ensure the tasks require students to process the information at a high level. • Require students to make a product that is used to diagnose learning. • Require students to check for their own, and each other’s learning errors and omissions and to correct these omissions.
Constructivist Activities • Role playing : By simply letting the students take on the role of various book characters, famous historical and current affairs figures, body organs, plant parts, sports materials, the students shall be able to deeply comprehend the depth of these important personalities and entities. • Hands-on, creative activities : Here the teacher can pose an open ended question on how to a solve a particular problem. The key is to make discussions refreshingly engaging. And after exchange of ideas, let the students work on the presentation of solutions by way of various creative activities. • Real life Simulations : By simulating real life situations and immersing the students in these setups, the teacher successfully gives a practical and useful venue for the students to do their critical thinking and exploring.
Other Constructivist Classroom Activities • Experimentation : Students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class to discuss the results. • Research projects : Students research a topic and can present their findings to the class. • Field trips : This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real world context . • Films : These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience . • Class discussions : This technique is used in all methods mentioned before . It is one of the most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods . • Campus wikis : These help learners with a platform for curating helpful learning resources.
SESSION 3
What is Teaching Model A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curriculums (long-term courses of studies), to design instructional materials, and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings based on Joyce and Weil (1980).
The term model is used to mean a teaching episode done by an experienced teacher in which a highly focussed teaching behaviour is demonstrated, in it an individual demonstrating particular patterns which the trainee learns through imitation. It is a way to talk and think about instruction in which certain facts may be organized, classified and interpreted. Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil describe a Model of Teaching as a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curricula, to design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings.
Thus teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process and producing particular environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behaviour. “A model of teaching is a set of inter-related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. It helps in designing instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization of the stipulated objectives.” Models of Teaching are designed for specific purposes-the teaching of information concepts, ways of thinking, the study of social values and so on-by asking students to engage in particular cognitive and social tasks. Some models centre on delivery by the instructor while others develop as the learners respond to tasks and the student is regarded as a partner in the educational enterprise.
Aim of TM: To produce effective teaching Glaser’s Teaching Model
Function of T eaching Model Formulate a complete & perfect teaching scheme. Enable teachers to analyse & evaluate its strengths & weaknesses so as to plan & implement appropriate follow- up actions As basic guidance for teachers for reflection during feedback session. Provide guidance to planners & teachers to enable them to plan & carry out the teaching process effectively.
These are based on the following specifications: a-Specification of Environment- It specifies in definite terms the environmental conditions under which a student’s response should be observed. b- Specification of operation- It specifies the mechanism that provides for the reaction of students and interaction with the environment. c- Specification of criterion of Performance-It specify the criterion of Performance which is accepted by the students The behavioural outcome which the learner would demonstrate after completing specific instructional sequences are delineated in the teaching models d- Specification of learning outcome- It specifies what the student will perform after completing an instructional sequence.
Effects of teaching by modelling Models of Teaching are really models of learning. As we helps students acquire information ideas skills, values, ways of thinking, and means of expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn . ln fact the most important long term outcome of instruction may be the students ‘increased capabilities to learn more easily and effectively in the future ,both because of the knowledge and skills they have acquired and because they have mastered learning processes. According to Joyce and Weil, Each model results in two types of effects Instructional and Nurturant. A- Instructional effects are the direct effects of the model which result from the content and skills on which the activities are based. B- Nurturant effects are those which are implicit in the learning environment. They are the indirect effects of the model.
Bandura and Walters have formulated three kind of effect in teaching by modelling: 1. Modelling effect- The learner acquires new kind of response pattern. 2. Inhibitory and disinhibitory effect- The learner increases or decreases the frequent, latency or intensity or previously required responses. 3. Eliciting effect- The learner receives from a model merely a cue for realising a response. Modelling effect can be seen when a teacher demonstrates to a student how to hold a pencil or write capital A and thus shows a new behaviour. Through modelling the teacher lets the student know that it is not permissible of obscene nature in art book. The eliciting effect takes place when through modelling; a teacher tries to teach students to get up when he enters the room. Thus it provide a cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited. Gagne feels that learning through imitation seems to be more appropriate for tasks which are a little cognitive in nature.
Utility of Teaching Models in Teaching •Teaching models are useful in developing social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities and behavioural aspects of the students. It helps in selecting and stimulating situations which causes the desirable changes in students •Teaching models help to establish teaching and learning relationship empirically. It helps in making the teaching more effective. •Teaching models helps in providing a theoretical rationale to the teaching, which will provide changes and rectifications in teaching.
•Teaching models stimulates the development of new educational innovations in teaching strategies and tactics, which may replace the existing ones in schools of today. •Teaching models assist makers of materials to create more interesting and effective instructional materials and learning sources. •Teaching models assist teachers to develop their capacities to create conductive environment for teaching, as its nature is practical. •Teaching models help curriculum planners to plan learning activities and content material which provide a variety of educational experiences to learners. •Teaching model evaluates the behaviour of the students. For this important task, it presents such a criterion with the help of which the changes in the students behaviours can be easily evaluated.
Characteristics of a Teaching model 1- Encourage Art of Teaching- Teaching is considered as an art.. Teaching models encourages this art by providing learning environment. 2- Development of Inherent Abilities -Teaching models bring about the qualitative development of personality as it helps in developing human abilities. It also increases the teacher’s social competency. 3- Based on Individual Differences- Teaching model uses the student’s interest, as it is constructed on the basis of individual differences. 4- Influenced by Philosophy- Every teaching model is influenced by the philosophy of education. Hence, teachers formulate different models of teaching under the influence of the philosophy they believe.
5- Answers Fundamental Questions- In every teaching model answers to all the fundamental questions pertaining to the behaviour of students and teachers are included. 6- Providing Appropriate Experiences- Teaching models provides proper experiences to both teacher and student. Selecting the content and presenting it for learning before the students is the main essentiality of teaching. This difficulty is solved when a teacher presents appropriate experience before the students. 7- Maxims of Teaching- The basis of teaching model is the maxims of teaching. They are the foundation of each teaching model. 8- Practice and Concentration- The development of a teaching model is based on regular and continuous practice and concentration. The proper development of a teaching model is only possible when the assumptions are made clear by related thinking.
SESSION 4
Fundamental Elements of a Teaching Model: Normally majority of teaching models are based on the following six elements: Focus Focus is the central aspects of a teaching model. Objectives of teaching and aspects of environment generally constitute the focus of the model. Every teaching model is based on one or the other objective as its focal point. Any teaching model is developed by keeping this focal point in mind. Every teaching model differs from another in terms of its objectives. It is the nucleus of a teaching model. Every model is developed by keeping in view its focal point or objective . Every model has various phases, some particular types of competencies are developed by it.
Syntax Syntax of the model describes the model in action. Syntax includes the sequences of steps involved in the organization of the complete programmed of teaching. It is the systematic sequence of the activities in the model. Each model has a distinct flow of phases. It means the detailed description of the model in action. In it, the teaching activities and interactions between a pupil and the teacher are determined .The syntax of any teaching model means those points which produce activities focused on educational objectives at various phases. Under syntax, the teaching tactics, teaching activities and interaction between a student and the teacher are determined in such a pattern of sequence that the teaching objectives are achieved conveniently by providing desirable environmental situations.
Principles of Reaction Principles of Reaction tell the teacher how to regard the learner and to respond to what the learner does. This element is concerned with the way a teacher should regard and aspects respond to the activities of the students. These responses should be appropriate and selective. They provide the teacher with rules of thumb by which to select model, appropriate responses to what the student does. This element is concerned with the teacher’s reaction to the students responses. In it, he comes to know that how he has to react to the responses of the students and has to see whether the learners have been actively involved in the process, or not.
The Social System This element is concerned with the activities of pupil and the teacher and their mutual relationships. Every teaching model has separate objectives and will have therefore separate social systems. It is related with the interactive roles and relationship between the teacher and the student, and the kinds of norms that are observed and student behaviour which is rewarded. The Social System describes the role of and relationships between the teacher and the pupils. In some models the teacher has a dominant role to play. In some the activity is centred around the pupils, and in some other models the activity is equally distributed. This element is based on the assumption that every class is a miniature society. In it also discussed the selection of motivating strategies and tactics for the students. Naturally social system occupies a central position in making the teaching impressive and successful in relation to the previously selected objectives.
Support system Support System describes the supporting conditions required to implement the model. ‘Support’ refers to additional requirements beyond the usual human skills, capacities and technical facilities. The support system relates to the additional requirements other than the usual human skills or capacities of the teacher and the facilities usually available in the ordinary classroom. Teacher requirements refer to special skills, special knowledge of the teacher and special audio-visual material like films, elf-instructional material, visit to special place etc. This includes books, films, laboratory kits, reference materials etc. It means the additional requirements beyond the usual human skill, capacities and technical facilities. In it, the evaluation is done by oral or written examination, whether the teaching objectives have been achieved or not. On the basis of this success or failure, clear idea is achieved regarding the effectiveness of strategies, tactics and techniques used during teaching.
Application It is an important element of a teaching model. It means the utility or usage of the learnt material in other situations. Several types of teaching modes are available. Each model attempts to desirable the feasibility of its use in varying contexts related with goal achievements in terms of cognitive, and affective behaviour modification.
Types of Teaching Models: Every teaching model has its specific objective. In order to achieve the objective of a teaching model, the teacher has to choose right type of model for achieving the particular objective. The teaching models have been classified into three main types: 1. Philosophical teaching models: Israel Saffer had mentioned such types of models. These include A- The Insight model (Plato).-The insight model discard the assumption that the meaning of a teaching model is merely deliver the knowledge or ideas through teaching to the mental domain of the students. According to this model the knowledge can not be provided merely through the expression of sense organs, but the knowledge of principles of language are most important. The knowledge can not be provided merely by speaking the words or listening them. Mental processes and language both work together.
B- The Impression model of teaching (John Locke).-It is based on a general assumption the child’s brain is like a clean slate at the time of birth. Whatever experiences are provided through teaching, creates impression on child’s brain. These impressions are termed as learning. In the learning process the sense organs . C- The Rule model ( Kant)-In this model much importance is given to the logic. Kant gives importance to logic, because in it following certain rules is essential. The objective of rule model is to devlop the logical reasoning capacities of the student. Some particular rules are followed. Planning, organisation and interaction of teaching is performed under specific rules.
SESSION 5
2- Psychological model of teaching: John P. Dececco had mentioned such types of models. It includes A- Basic Teaching model (Robert Glaser)- Robert Glaser (1962) has developed a stripped- down teaching model which, with modifications, is the basic teaching model. The basic teaching model divides the teaching process into four components or parts. It will be useful in several ways.. The four parts of the model represent the basic divisions. Instructional objectives, Entering behaviour, instructional procedure, and finally performance assessment. B- An Interaction model of teaching (N.A. Flander).- Flander considered teaching process as an interaction process. He divided class-room behaviour in ten categories known as Flander’s ten category system. In this model the behaviour of student and teacher is analysed. An interaction between a teacher and the student is more emphasised in this model. C-Computer based teaching model ( Daniel Davis )-It is the most complicated model having , entering behaviour, determination of objectives and teaching aspect as fundamental elements. In this element computer teaching plan is selected according to the entering behaviour and instructional objectives. The performances of the student are evaluated. Accordingly alternative teaching plan is presented. In this model, the diagnosis and teaching go side by side. Remedial teaching is provided on the basis of diagnosis .Individual differences are also given importance.
3- Modern teaching models (Joyce and Weil) Eggen, Kauchar and Harder (1979) have discussed six Information Processing Models – 1.General Inductive Model, 2.Concept Attainment Model, 3.Taba Model, 4.General Deductive Model, 5.Ausubel’s Model and 6.Such man’s Inquiry Model. Modern teaching models The most comprehensive review of teaching models is that of Joyce and Weil (1980). Bruce R.Joyce has divided all the teaching models under the title “Modern teaching models”. They identified 23 models which are classified into four basic families based on the nature, distinctive characteristics and effects of the models. These four families are : 1. information Processing Models 2. Personal Models 3. Social Interaction Models and 4. Behaviour Modification Models. Within the families, there are specific models which are designed to serve particular purposes.
INFORMATION PROCESSING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR PERSONAL MODELS OF TEACHING
I n formation Processing Model
The models of this type are concerned with the intellectual development of the individual and help to develop the method of processing information from the environment. These models focus on intellectual capacity. They are concerned with the ability of the learner to observe, organise data, understand information, form concepts, employ verbal and nonverbal symbols and solve problems. The primary purposes are : 1. The mastery of methods of inquiry 2. The mastery of academic concepts and facts 3. The development of general intellectual skills such as the ability to reason and think more logically The models which belong to this family are : a. The Concept Attainment Model b. Inquiry Training Model c. The Advance Organiser Model d. Cognitive Growth Development Model e. Biological Science Inquiry Model
SOURCE TEACHING MODEL INNOVATOR AIMS AND APPLICATION The Information Processing Source 1-Concept Attainment Model 2-Inductive Model Bruner, Hilda Taba To develop inductive reasoning, mental inductive process, and understanding of concepts and principles. Inquiry Training Model Richard Suchman To develop individual competencies to achieve the social objective. Biological Science Inquiry Model Joseph J. Schwab To develop understanding of research methodology, to think logically on social problems. Advance Organizational Model David Asubel To understand concepts and facts and to make the content purposeful and interesting. Cognitive Growth Developmental Model Jean Piaget To develop general intelligence and logic, social and moral development.
Types of Information Processing Model Information- Processing Model of Memory Gagne’s Information Processing Model The Expository T eaching Model Inquiry T eaching Model Scientific Inquiry Model Social Inquiry Model Juris-Prudential Inquiry Model Suchman’s Inquiry Model
What does OUR MEMORY HAVE? Sensory Memory Compartment Hold a large amount of information in a duration just enough for a small portion to be selected for longer storage. Short-term Memory Capacity is limited. Storage duration is brief (unless assisted with rehearsal) Long-term Memory A very large storage capacity (unlimited). Stored longer.
Information-Processing Model of Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Memory Storage (1971)
Information-Processing Modelof Memory Incoming information (sensory input) pass through: Sensor y Short-term memory Long-term memory Sensory memory Retains information for only a fraction of a second but enough to select the portion of information that arrests one’s attention. (The information that caughtone’s attention is selected for longer storage) Short- term Can hold unrehearsed information for about 20–30 seconds. Information can be stored longer if it is engaged under rehearsal. (Repetition of memorizing). Long- term Information encoded may last for weeks, months or even years.
Gagne’s Information Processing Model Gagne’s Theory of Learning Process
Gagne’s 8 stages of Learning Process PHASE ACTION RELATED Motivation Phase Expectancy Apprehension Phase Observation – Perception Selection Acquisition Phase Encoding – Prestoring Retention Phase Memory Retention Recall Phase Recall – searching Generalisation Phase Transfer Performance Phase Response Feedback Phase Reinforcement
ImportantAspectsinGagne’s8Phases • Learning readiness • Motivation • Perception • Conceptualization • Memorizing • Forgetting • Learning transfer
How it works? • Process begins from extrinsic @ intrinsic motivation to perceive stimuli from environment. • New information recorded in short-term memory. • Information will be processed by relating stored information in long-term memory. • New information is reinforced, retained & applied when required.
Expository Teaching Model • Referred as explicit explanation in details of certain facts. • A way of presentation of information @ learning contents to pupils directly. • Presenting learning materials by explanation, narration or demonstration. • Suitably use to teach certain concept and skill during the beginning of the lesson.
• Principle and concept are explained verbally, as all the facts are written on the board, showed on the screen. • Time saving: Enables teacher to finish all related concepts in a shorter period & pupils merely listen quietly. • More to a lecturing method. (Less effective for primary schools).
Inquiry Teaching Model • Scientific Inquiry Model: • –Used to study principles, phenomena & characteristics of scientific knowledge. • –Research process based on 5 stages: • Identify the problem. • Ascertain relevant information. • Determine hypothesis. • Testing hypothesis. • Evaluate, interpret, infer & conclude.
Social Inquiry Model: • Used to study topics related to social & humanity aspects. • Based on activities such as observation, interview, @ questionnaire. • Emphasizes on social interaction process. • 6 steps: • Formulation of problem by teacher. • Formulation of hypothesis by pupils. • Define hypothesis. • Discuss & confirm validity of the hypothesis. • Collect & analyse evidences for the hypothesis. • Interpret & derive inference @ conclusion.
Juris-prudential Inquiry Model: • Used to look for reality & accuracy in current issues (learning science is more useful than learning arts). • Concerns with science & philosophy of human law. • Based on activities, discussions and debates. • Two types: • Guided inquiry: Teacher guides pupils to carry out the whole discussion process. • Open Inquiry: No guidelines given. Students have to do the discussion themselves.
Suchman’s Inquiry Model: • Based on assumption that strategies used by scientists can be used as a teaching model especially in the study of science. • Procedures: • Teacher determines & indicates the problem. • Teacher explains the inquiry process to solve the previous problem. • Students are guided to form hypothesis, follows by the collection of relevant data. • Students use collected data to test hypothesis, aim to formulate theorem, law, principle or theory. • Discussion & making inferences. • Teacher & students discuss together and analyse.
TheImportanceofInformation ProcessingModel • Students are prepared with better equipments and information for learning. • Students are enforced with good mental exercises through different methods and approaches. • Students are informed of the objectives and learning outcomes that should be achieved. • Help students to remember the information for a longer period of time.
SESSION 6
Behaviour al Model
All the models in this family share a common theoretical base, a body of knowledge which referred to as behaviour theory. The common thrust of these models is the emphasis on changing the visible behaviour of the learner. The models which belong to this family is Operant Conditioning Model
SOURCE TEACHING MODEL INNOVATORS AIMS AND APPLICATION Behaviour Modification Source Operant Conditioning Model B.F. Skinner To achieve the objectives of lower level of cognitive domain on the basis of individual differences
Direct Instruction Model • Demonstration: • A teaching technique involves the use of a teacher’s skill to demonstrate @ perform a certain activity in the class. • Teacher has a strong control over what is learnt in the classroom, provides feedback, monitoring students, grading work and strict classroom rules & regulations. (Teacher- centred).
Mastery learning • Refers to a theory & practice of using remedial teaching based on feedback of pupil’s performance to assist them to achieve the learning objectives. Procedures: • Determine learning outcomes by planning explicit learning objective (based on students’ performance). • Teach pupils with effective teaching method & technique (use of suitable learning materials to suit different learning styles) • Evaluate learning result by diagnostic test & summative test (level of mastering & achievement) • Carry out remedial activities for pupils who have not fully mastered certain skills & provide enrichment activities for pupils who have mastered the lesson.
Programmed Instruction Model • Computer Assisted Instruction (CIA) • The application of technology & computer system in teaching. • Pupils follow designed learning materials in software without teacher’s help. • Teacher has to facilitate the pupils to have interest in manipulating computer.
SESSION 7
Per sonal Model
Personal development models assist the individual in the development of selfhood, they focus on the emotional life an individual,. The emphasis of these models is on developing an individual into an integrated, confident and competent personality. They attempt to help students understand themselves and their goals, and to develop the means for educating themselves. Many of the personal models of teaching have been developed by counsellors, therapists and other persons interested in stimulating individual’s creativity and self expression. The primary goals are : •To increase the student’s self worth, •To help students understand themselves more fully. •To help students recognise their emotions and become more aware of the way emotions effect other aspects of their behaviour, •To help them develop goals for learning, •To help students develop plans for increasing their competence, •To increase the students’ creativity and playfulness, •To increase the students’ openness to new experience. The models which belong to this family are : a. Non-Directive Teaching Model, b. Synectics Teaching Model, c. Awareness Training Model, d. Classroom Meeting Model. e-Conceptual System Model
SOURCE TEACHING MODEL INNOVATORS AIMS AND APPLICATION The Personal Source Non-Directive Teaching Model, Carl Rogers To develop self learning by auto instructions, self research and self understanding Synectics Teaching Model, William Gordon To develop creative competencies for problem solving. Awareness Training Model, W.S. Fietz To develop individual competencies and mutual relations. Classroom Meeting Model. William Glasser To develop skills of self –understanding and capacities of dutifulness. Conceptual System Model David. F. Hunt To adjust with the environment with flexibility in the personality.
Personal Model • Non-directive T eaching Model • Developing Positive Self-concepts • Project Model –Research Project –Handicraft Project –Educational Visit
Non-directive Teaching Model • Basedon Carl Rogers’work, he believes thatpositive human relationships enable people to grow. • Therefore instruction should be based on concepts of human relations.
Action Outside the Interview Student initiates positive actions. Phase 5: Integration Student gains further insight and develops more positive actions. Teacher is supportive. Phase 4: Planning and Decision Making Student plans initial decision making. Teacher clarifies possible decision. Phase 3: Developing Insight Student discusses problem. Teacher supports student. Phase 2: Exploring the Problem Student is encouraged to define problem. Teacher accepts and clarifies feelings. Phase 1 : Defining the Helping Situation Teacher encourages free expression of feelings. Phases in Non- directive Model
The Importance of Non-directive Teaching Model • Teacher helps students to explore new ideas. • Students have freedom to making decisions and choices. • Teacher and students are partners in learning. • Nurtures and moulds students to be the way they are. • Encourages students to think and reflect their uncertain feelings and become better and be positive.
Developing Positive Self- concepts • Appreciate the abilities and talents one possesses. • Positive self-concepts evolves with the moral values that should be emphasised among students. • Activities that help: Group/Individual Presentation, musical performances, stage performances.
The Importance of Positive Self- concepts • Gain knowledge and experiences by enhancing their interests in learning through self-concepts. • Teacher shows positive approaches and optimistic reinforcements. • Boost their confidence. • Provide opportunities for students to express their ideas and listen to other’s opinions.
Project Model • Based on the belief that learning would be effective if pupils are interested and ready to carry out learning activities. • Examples of Project Model: • Research Project. • Handicraft Project. • Educational Visit.
1. Research Project (Principles) • Teacher determines suitable research topic in accordance to the pupils’ experience, ability and interest. • Aims and procedures must be determined first and pupils are informed about this. • Teacher prepares relevant materials (check list, questions to be answered, etc.) to facilitate pupils.
• Research should be carried out safely & every pupil should actively involve in group activities. • Teacher supervises and provides guidance to pupils. • Teacher discusses the outcomes of research & evaluation should be conducted after research is completed.
2. Handicraft Project (Principles) • Planning of the project is based on pupils’ interest and ability. • Prepare sufficient materials. • Explain procedure precisely. • Show examples of correct ways to do the project. • Time period is required! • Discussion is carried out to assess the work when it is done. • Display good quality work to the other students.
3. Educational Visit (Principles) • Before the Visit: • Identify the place of visit. • Obtain permission. • Arrange for transport. • Conduct briefing session regarding safety, precautions, behaviours, aims of visit and regulations. • Prepare sufficient equipment.
• During the Visit: • Divide pupils into several small groups. • Every pupil should actively involve. • Watch out for pupils’ safety. • Give appropriate response to pupils’ inquiry. • After the Visit: • Hold discussion session with pupils regarding their observations. • Plan follow-up activity (making model, draw plan or model, display things)
The Importance of Project Model • Students able to relate their previous experiences to what they are studying. • Able to understand objectives of the projects before and after lesson. • Fun activities that attract students’ interests in learning more & apply what they have learnt. • Moral values are applied. • Theories, facts & hypotheses are brought into practices (I do, I remember & understand). • Co-operations among students. • Direct experiences & additional knowledge.
SESSION 8
Social Model
The models in this family emphasise the relationships of the individual to the society or other persons. The core objective is to help students learn to work together. to identify and solve problems, either academic or social in nature. The primary goals are : To help students work together to identify and solve problems •To develop skills to human relations, and •To become aware of personal and social values. The models which belong to this family are : a. Group Investigation Model, b. Role Playing Model, c. Jurisprudential Inquiry Model, d. Laboratory Training Model, e. Social Simulation Model, f. Social Inquiry Model.
SOURCE TEACHING MODEL INNOVATOR AIMS AND APPLICATION The Social Interaction Source Group Investigation Model John Dewey, Herbert To develop democratic abilities, use of knowledge and skills in life of individual and society. Jurisprudential Model Donald Oliver, James P. Shaver To solve problems on the basis of information and reasoning power. Social Inquiry Model Social Simulation Model, Role Playing Model. Benjamin Cox, Byron To develop competencies of problem solving and adjustment Laboratory Method Model Bethal, Maine To develop group skills individual capacities and adjustment.
Social Model • Model of Group Teaching & Co- operative Learning • Simulation Model • –Sociodrama • –Role play
SOCIAL MODEL Encourages assimilation and understanding of the learners Relies on thestudents’ personal and social values Uses group inquiry and problem-solving strategies
Ways of Teaching GROUP TEACHING AND CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING INFORMAL LEARNING GROUP FORMAL LEARNING GROUP STUDY TEAMS SIMULATION ROLE- PLAY SOCIO- DRAMA
ROLE- PLAY  Improves interpersonal skills and  enhances communication Emphasize the social nature of learning stimulate students both socially and intellectually Role-playing is a teaching strategy that fits within the social family models
ROLE- PLAY FOUR STAGES 1.Preparation and explanation of the activity by the teacher 2.Student preparation of the activity 3.The role-playing 4.The discussion after the role-playing activities
SOCIODRAM A More like an acting activity Based on a story which reflects a certain situation involving conflicting issue Script should be prepared earlier Next
ADV ANT AGES Promote acceptance, cooperation in classroom Back Helps them to become aware of the typical ways they solve problems Increases both social and personal awareness
Informal learning group Basically temporary within a single class session
Formal learning group Being formed to complete a specific tasks, such as to carry a project, performing a lab experiment, etc
Study T eams Long-term groups with a stable membership
ELEMEN TS Positive Interdependence Face-to-face Interaction Individual & Group Accountability Interpersonal & Small- group Skills Group Processing
The Importance of Social Model Emphasize the worth of cooperative learning Incorporate the collective energy of the group Promote social skills including self- discipline, negotiation, democracy, etc.
SESSION 9
Teaching Approaches
Inductive Approach Collecting Making generalisation Analysing Interpreting Conclusion Concept
Example of Inductive Approach
Deductive Approach General Rule Specific Example Practice
Examples of Deductive Approach

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Practice of Changes around us MODULE 3.pptx

  • 1.
    Module- 3 Teaching inPresent Day context
  • 2.
  • 3.
    Basic Concepts ofCognitive Learning Theory Social Cognitive Theory includes several basic concepts that can manifest not only in adults but also in infants, children and adolescents. 1. Observational Learning- from other people by means of observing them is an effective way of gaining knowledge and altering behavior. 2. Reproduction-- process wherein there is an aim to effectively increase the repeating of a behavior by means of putting the individual in a comfortable environment with readily accessible materials to motivate him to retain the new knowledge and behavior learned and practice them.
  • 4.
    3. Self-efficacy the coursewherein the learner improves his newly learned knowledge or behavior by putting it into practice 4.Emotional Coping good coping mechanisms against stressful environment and negative personal characteristics can lead to effective learning, especially in adults. 5. Self-regulatory capability ability to control behavior even within an unfavorable environment.
  • 5.
    Concepts of CognitiveBehavioral Theory •Cognitive Behavioral Theory describes the role of cognition (knowing) to determining and predicting the behavioral pattern of an individual. This theory was developed by Aaron Beck. •The Cognitive Behavioral Theory says that individuals tend to form self-concepts that affect the behavior they display. These concepts can be positive or negative and can be affected by a person’s environment
  • 6.
    •The Cognitive Triad •CognitiveBehavioral Theory further explains human behavior and learning using the cognitive triad. This triad includes negative thoughts about: •The self (i.e., I am rubbish) •The world/environment (i.e., the world is irrational) •The future (i.e., my future is doomed)
  • 7.
    Cognitive Perspectives toTeaching Teacher Centred Instruction Methods
  • 8.
    Teacher Centred Instructions Teachercentred instructions are based on the philosophies of essentialism and perennialism. According to essentialism, teachers should pass on essential knowledge or in other words, knowledge of core curriculum rigorously and perennialism , gives central place to ideas and themes that have spanned ages. Both these philosophies establish teacher’s authority in the classroom (The Foundations of Education Web) and prescribe what should be taught and who should play the main role in instructional processes. The age old practice of teachers directing the learning process dominates the teaching- learning scenarios even today. Teachers transmit information verbally or through various media and students receive the information thus passed on. There is thus a linear transmission of information. As pointed out by Laurilard (2002), teaching methods have not evolved sufficiently and transmission with lectures, books and marked assignments dominate and digital technologies are used also for supporting this model. For example, a power point used by a teacher only supports his/ her lecture and replaces a blackboard.
  • 9.
    Methods of Teacher-ControlledInstruction Lecture Method Teacher is active and directs learning process Students receive information transmitted from teachers/other sources of information and memorise them Didactic in nature whereby instructions are based on text books, lectures, etc. Less autonomy and less engagement of learners, it puts students in a passive role. Teaching and learning activities are not contextualized Important concerns are learning outcomes Standard responses/solutions to a problem are expected of learners
  • 10.
    Advantages of theLecture • Lectures are especially useful for teaching large groups. • It can be specifically organised to meet the needs of particular audiences. • Effective lecturers can communicate the intrinsic interest of a subject through their enthusiasm. • This age old and widely used method of teaching helps teachers to present logically organized facts and is a direct source of information. Disadvantages of the Lecture • The learners are passive as there is usually one way communication and it is difficult to assess whether learners have actually learnt. • Student’s attention wanes quickly. • It presumes that all students learn at the same pace and are at the same level of understanding. • Lecture are not suited for teaching complex, abstract material. • Less scope for pupils activity. • Is against the principle of ‘Learning by Doing’
  • 11.
    Demonstration Method • Demonstrationsinvolve doing/performing something to facilitate understanding and enable learning by observation. It requires verbal elaboration but not as much as a lecture. It adds to the value of a lecture/discussion as it makes an abstraction concrete and provides empirical evidence. • During a demonstration, learning is not just by listening but also by watching and hence learners use more than one sense. For example, you may demonstrate that oxygen is essential for combustion by covering a lighted candle, which gets extinguished. • Apart from live demonstrations, you may also use media like videos with recorded demonstrations, especially if there are complex operations that are difficult to carry out in classrooms or you do not have the necessary resources.
  • 12.
    • This methodis recommended for teaching a skill because it covers all the necessary steps in an effective learning order. The demonstration step gives trainees the opportunity to see ad hear the details related to the skill being taught. • For convenience, the techniques for imparting skills are presented in steps, rather than activities. Some portions will require lectures, narrations, explanations, etc. The more the participation of learners, greater is the learner centeredness and lectures may include interactive sessions. Learner centred methods also requires time, a lower teacher-student ratio and a curriculum which is flexible and not loaded with a vast syllabus. You may, therefore, try out a blended approach.
  • 14.
    The Learning Pyramid •The leaning pyramid is very clear: passive and one way transmission, as in the lecture, is the least successful strategy. Its important to note that the lecture method essentially involves one sensory input. We notice that he more sensory inputs are used, the greater is the retention. • So, where the pyramid shows audio-visual learning( two sensory input channels: listening and seeing), retention improves. • When leaning becomes less teacher-directed, and involves and involves a range of sensory inputs(listening, seeing, speaking) the retention rate jumps in the case of discussion groups. • When leaning involves application and doing, rather than receiving, the rate jumps even more TO 75%. • When learning involves teaching others, the rate of retention is very large indeed.
  • 15.
  • 16.
  • 17.
    MEANING OF CONSTRUCTIVISM •The meaning making theory of learning is called constructivism. In this, knowledge is constructed by the learners through an active mental process of development. • In constructivism, children invent their own idea and concept linked to what they already know. • According to constructivism , prior knowledge impacts the learning process. The students should actively construct new information by connecting and using the previous or existing knowledge. • In constructivism the teacher shifts from sage on a stage to guide on the side; more of a child- centered learning.
  • 18.
    • Constructivism isa theory which regards learning as an active process in which learners construct and internalize new concepts , ideas, and knowledge based on past experiences , knowledge. • Knowledge is constructed rather than received. The word constructivism has come to serve as an umbrella term for diversified views. • Constructivism is an epistemology of learning developed on the premise that reflection on experiences while constructing their own understanding of the world, allow learners to formulate a more concrete meaning of subject matter.
  • 19.
    CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM •Developing understanding of concepts in ways that make sense to the learners. Learning new things depends on how they are interpreted or understood in that context. • Learning taking place more with the help of social interaction. • Meaningful learning takes place when there are learning activities that require to be understood. • Engaging in meaningful discussion and conversation. • Understanding and making connections beyond what is taught .
  • 20.
    • Create real-worldenvironments that employ the context in which learning is relevant; • Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems; • The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems; • Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content; • Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed; • Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool; • Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of the world; • Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner.
  • 21.
    Constructivist Teaching Strategies •Use teaching strategies that require students to make a construct. Students must apply , use or process the information. • Ensure that all students are participating in making constructs. • Ensure the tasks require students to process the information at a high level. • Require students to make a product that is used to diagnose learning. • Require students to check for their own, and each other’s learning errors and omissions and to correct these omissions.
  • 22.
    Constructivist Activities • Roleplaying : By simply letting the students take on the role of various book characters, famous historical and current affairs figures, body organs, plant parts, sports materials, the students shall be able to deeply comprehend the depth of these important personalities and entities. • Hands-on, creative activities : Here the teacher can pose an open ended question on how to a solve a particular problem. The key is to make discussions refreshingly engaging. And after exchange of ideas, let the students work on the presentation of solutions by way of various creative activities. • Real life Simulations : By simulating real life situations and immersing the students in these setups, the teacher successfully gives a practical and useful venue for the students to do their critical thinking and exploring.
  • 23.
    Other Constructivist ClassroomActivities • Experimentation : Students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class to discuss the results. • Research projects : Students research a topic and can present their findings to the class. • Field trips : This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real world context . • Films : These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience . • Class discussions : This technique is used in all methods mentioned before . It is one of the most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods . • Campus wikis : These help learners with a platform for curating helpful learning resources.
  • 26.
  • 28.
    What is TeachingModel A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curriculums (long-term courses of studies), to design instructional materials, and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings based on Joyce and Weil (1980).
  • 29.
    The term modelis used to mean a teaching episode done by an experienced teacher in which a highly focussed teaching behaviour is demonstrated, in it an individual demonstrating particular patterns which the trainee learns through imitation. It is a way to talk and think about instruction in which certain facts may be organized, classified and interpreted. Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil describe a Model of Teaching as a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curricula, to design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings.
  • 30.
    Thus teaching modelsare just instructional designs. They describe the process and producing particular environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behaviour. “A model of teaching is a set of inter-related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. It helps in designing instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization of the stipulated objectives.” Models of Teaching are designed for specific purposes-the teaching of information concepts, ways of thinking, the study of social values and so on-by asking students to engage in particular cognitive and social tasks. Some models centre on delivery by the instructor while others develop as the learners respond to tasks and the student is regarded as a partner in the educational enterprise.
  • 31.
    Aim of TM:To produce effective teaching Glaser’s Teaching Model
  • 32.
    Function of T eaching Model Formulate a complete & perfect teaching scheme. Enable teachersto analyse & evaluate its strengths & weaknesses so as to plan & implement appropriate follow- up actions As basic guidance for teachers for reflection during feedback session. Provide guidance to planners & teachers to enable them to plan & carry out the teaching process effectively.
  • 33.
    These are basedon the following specifications: a-Specification of Environment- It specifies in definite terms the environmental conditions under which a student’s response should be observed. b- Specification of operation- It specifies the mechanism that provides for the reaction of students and interaction with the environment. c- Specification of criterion of Performance-It specify the criterion of Performance which is accepted by the students The behavioural outcome which the learner would demonstrate after completing specific instructional sequences are delineated in the teaching models d- Specification of learning outcome- It specifies what the student will perform after completing an instructional sequence.
  • 34.
    Effects of teachingby modelling Models of Teaching are really models of learning. As we helps students acquire information ideas skills, values, ways of thinking, and means of expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn . ln fact the most important long term outcome of instruction may be the students ‘increased capabilities to learn more easily and effectively in the future ,both because of the knowledge and skills they have acquired and because they have mastered learning processes. According to Joyce and Weil, Each model results in two types of effects Instructional and Nurturant. A- Instructional effects are the direct effects of the model which result from the content and skills on which the activities are based. B- Nurturant effects are those which are implicit in the learning environment. They are the indirect effects of the model.
  • 35.
    Bandura and Waltershave formulated three kind of effect in teaching by modelling: 1. Modelling effect- The learner acquires new kind of response pattern. 2. Inhibitory and disinhibitory effect- The learner increases or decreases the frequent, latency or intensity or previously required responses. 3. Eliciting effect- The learner receives from a model merely a cue for realising a response. Modelling effect can be seen when a teacher demonstrates to a student how to hold a pencil or write capital A and thus shows a new behaviour. Through modelling the teacher lets the student know that it is not permissible of obscene nature in art book. The eliciting effect takes place when through modelling; a teacher tries to teach students to get up when he enters the room. Thus it provide a cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited. Gagne feels that learning through imitation seems to be more appropriate for tasks which are a little cognitive in nature.
  • 36.
    Utility of TeachingModels in Teaching •Teaching models are useful in developing social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities and behavioural aspects of the students. It helps in selecting and stimulating situations which causes the desirable changes in students •Teaching models help to establish teaching and learning relationship empirically. It helps in making the teaching more effective. •Teaching models helps in providing a theoretical rationale to the teaching, which will provide changes and rectifications in teaching.
  • 37.
    •Teaching models stimulatesthe development of new educational innovations in teaching strategies and tactics, which may replace the existing ones in schools of today. •Teaching models assist makers of materials to create more interesting and effective instructional materials and learning sources. •Teaching models assist teachers to develop their capacities to create conductive environment for teaching, as its nature is practical. •Teaching models help curriculum planners to plan learning activities and content material which provide a variety of educational experiences to learners. •Teaching model evaluates the behaviour of the students. For this important task, it presents such a criterion with the help of which the changes in the students behaviours can be easily evaluated.
  • 38.
    Characteristics of aTeaching model 1- Encourage Art of Teaching- Teaching is considered as an art.. Teaching models encourages this art by providing learning environment. 2- Development of Inherent Abilities -Teaching models bring about the qualitative development of personality as it helps in developing human abilities. It also increases the teacher’s social competency. 3- Based on Individual Differences- Teaching model uses the student’s interest, as it is constructed on the basis of individual differences. 4- Influenced by Philosophy- Every teaching model is influenced by the philosophy of education. Hence, teachers formulate different models of teaching under the influence of the philosophy they believe.
  • 39.
    5- Answers FundamentalQuestions- In every teaching model answers to all the fundamental questions pertaining to the behaviour of students and teachers are included. 6- Providing Appropriate Experiences- Teaching models provides proper experiences to both teacher and student. Selecting the content and presenting it for learning before the students is the main essentiality of teaching. This difficulty is solved when a teacher presents appropriate experience before the students. 7- Maxims of Teaching- The basis of teaching model is the maxims of teaching. They are the foundation of each teaching model. 8- Practice and Concentration- The development of a teaching model is based on regular and continuous practice and concentration. The proper development of a teaching model is only possible when the assumptions are made clear by related thinking.
  • 40.
  • 41.
    Fundamental Elements ofa Teaching Model: Normally majority of teaching models are based on the following six elements: Focus Focus is the central aspects of a teaching model. Objectives of teaching and aspects of environment generally constitute the focus of the model. Every teaching model is based on one or the other objective as its focal point. Any teaching model is developed by keeping this focal point in mind. Every teaching model differs from another in terms of its objectives. It is the nucleus of a teaching model. Every model is developed by keeping in view its focal point or objective . Every model has various phases, some particular types of competencies are developed by it.
  • 42.
    Syntax Syntax of themodel describes the model in action. Syntax includes the sequences of steps involved in the organization of the complete programmed of teaching. It is the systematic sequence of the activities in the model. Each model has a distinct flow of phases. It means the detailed description of the model in action. In it, the teaching activities and interactions between a pupil and the teacher are determined .The syntax of any teaching model means those points which produce activities focused on educational objectives at various phases. Under syntax, the teaching tactics, teaching activities and interaction between a student and the teacher are determined in such a pattern of sequence that the teaching objectives are achieved conveniently by providing desirable environmental situations.
  • 43.
    Principles of Reaction Principlesof Reaction tell the teacher how to regard the learner and to respond to what the learner does. This element is concerned with the way a teacher should regard and aspects respond to the activities of the students. These responses should be appropriate and selective. They provide the teacher with rules of thumb by which to select model, appropriate responses to what the student does. This element is concerned with the teacher’s reaction to the students responses. In it, he comes to know that how he has to react to the responses of the students and has to see whether the learners have been actively involved in the process, or not.
  • 44.
    The Social System Thiselement is concerned with the activities of pupil and the teacher and their mutual relationships. Every teaching model has separate objectives and will have therefore separate social systems. It is related with the interactive roles and relationship between the teacher and the student, and the kinds of norms that are observed and student behaviour which is rewarded. The Social System describes the role of and relationships between the teacher and the pupils. In some models the teacher has a dominant role to play. In some the activity is centred around the pupils, and in some other models the activity is equally distributed. This element is based on the assumption that every class is a miniature society. In it also discussed the selection of motivating strategies and tactics for the students. Naturally social system occupies a central position in making the teaching impressive and successful in relation to the previously selected objectives.
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    Support system Support Systemdescribes the supporting conditions required to implement the model. ‘Support’ refers to additional requirements beyond the usual human skills, capacities and technical facilities. The support system relates to the additional requirements other than the usual human skills or capacities of the teacher and the facilities usually available in the ordinary classroom. Teacher requirements refer to special skills, special knowledge of the teacher and special audio-visual material like films, elf-instructional material, visit to special place etc. This includes books, films, laboratory kits, reference materials etc. It means the additional requirements beyond the usual human skill, capacities and technical facilities. In it, the evaluation is done by oral or written examination, whether the teaching objectives have been achieved or not. On the basis of this success or failure, clear idea is achieved regarding the effectiveness of strategies, tactics and techniques used during teaching.
  • 46.
    Application It is animportant element of a teaching model. It means the utility or usage of the learnt material in other situations. Several types of teaching modes are available. Each model attempts to desirable the feasibility of its use in varying contexts related with goal achievements in terms of cognitive, and affective behaviour modification.
  • 47.
    Types of TeachingModels: Every teaching model has its specific objective. In order to achieve the objective of a teaching model, the teacher has to choose right type of model for achieving the particular objective. The teaching models have been classified into three main types: 1. Philosophical teaching models: Israel Saffer had mentioned such types of models. These include A- The Insight model (Plato).-The insight model discard the assumption that the meaning of a teaching model is merely deliver the knowledge or ideas through teaching to the mental domain of the students. According to this model the knowledge can not be provided merely through the expression of sense organs, but the knowledge of principles of language are most important. The knowledge can not be provided merely by speaking the words or listening them. Mental processes and language both work together.
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    B- The Impressionmodel of teaching (John Locke).-It is based on a general assumption the child’s brain is like a clean slate at the time of birth. Whatever experiences are provided through teaching, creates impression on child’s brain. These impressions are termed as learning. In the learning process the sense organs . C- The Rule model ( Kant)-In this model much importance is given to the logic. Kant gives importance to logic, because in it following certain rules is essential. The objective of rule model is to devlop the logical reasoning capacities of the student. Some particular rules are followed. Planning, organisation and interaction of teaching is performed under specific rules.
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    2- Psychological modelof teaching: John P. Dececco had mentioned such types of models. It includes A- Basic Teaching model (Robert Glaser)- Robert Glaser (1962) has developed a stripped- down teaching model which, with modifications, is the basic teaching model. The basic teaching model divides the teaching process into four components or parts. It will be useful in several ways.. The four parts of the model represent the basic divisions. Instructional objectives, Entering behaviour, instructional procedure, and finally performance assessment. B- An Interaction model of teaching (N.A. Flander).- Flander considered teaching process as an interaction process. He divided class-room behaviour in ten categories known as Flander’s ten category system. In this model the behaviour of student and teacher is analysed. An interaction between a teacher and the student is more emphasised in this model. C-Computer based teaching model ( Daniel Davis )-It is the most complicated model having , entering behaviour, determination of objectives and teaching aspect as fundamental elements. In this element computer teaching plan is selected according to the entering behaviour and instructional objectives. The performances of the student are evaluated. Accordingly alternative teaching plan is presented. In this model, the diagnosis and teaching go side by side. Remedial teaching is provided on the basis of diagnosis .Individual differences are also given importance.
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    3- Modern teachingmodels (Joyce and Weil) Eggen, Kauchar and Harder (1979) have discussed six Information Processing Models – 1.General Inductive Model, 2.Concept Attainment Model, 3.Taba Model, 4.General Deductive Model, 5.Ausubel’s Model and 6.Such man’s Inquiry Model. Modern teaching models The most comprehensive review of teaching models is that of Joyce and Weil (1980). Bruce R.Joyce has divided all the teaching models under the title “Modern teaching models”. They identified 23 models which are classified into four basic families based on the nature, distinctive characteristics and effects of the models. These four families are : 1. information Processing Models 2. Personal Models 3. Social Interaction Models and 4. Behaviour Modification Models. Within the families, there are specific models which are designed to serve particular purposes.
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    The models ofthis type are concerned with the intellectual development of the individual and help to develop the method of processing information from the environment. These models focus on intellectual capacity. They are concerned with the ability of the learner to observe, organise data, understand information, form concepts, employ verbal and nonverbal symbols and solve problems. The primary purposes are : 1. The mastery of methods of inquiry 2. The mastery of academic concepts and facts 3. The development of general intellectual skills such as the ability to reason and think more logically The models which belong to this family are : a. The Concept Attainment Model b. Inquiry Training Model c. The Advance Organiser Model d. Cognitive Growth Development Model e. Biological Science Inquiry Model
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    SOURCE TEACHING MODELINNOVATOR AIMS AND APPLICATION The Information Processing Source 1-Concept Attainment Model 2-Inductive Model Bruner, Hilda Taba To develop inductive reasoning, mental inductive process, and understanding of concepts and principles. Inquiry Training Model Richard Suchman To develop individual competencies to achieve the social objective. Biological Science Inquiry Model Joseph J. Schwab To develop understanding of research methodology, to think logically on social problems. Advance Organizational Model David Asubel To understand concepts and facts and to make the content purposeful and interesting. Cognitive Growth Developmental Model Jean Piaget To develop general intelligence and logic, social and moral development.
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    Types of InformationProcessing Model Information- Processing Model of Memory Gagne’s Information Processing Model The Expository T eaching Model Inquiry T eaching Model Scientific Inquiry Model Social Inquiry Model Juris-Prudential Inquiry Model Suchman’s Inquiry Model
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    What does OURMEMORY HAVE? Sensory Memory Compartment Hold a large amount of information in a duration just enough for a small portion to be selected for longer storage. Short-term Memory Capacity is limited. Storage duration is brief (unless assisted with rehearsal) Long-term Memory A very large storage capacity (unlimited). Stored longer.
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    Information-Processing Model ofMemory Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Memory Storage (1971)
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    Information-Processing Modelof Memory Incoming information (sensoryinput) pass through: Sensor y Short-term memory Long-term memory Sensory memory Retains information for only a fraction of a second but enough to select the portion of information that arrests one’s attention. (The information that caughtone’s attention is selected for longer storage) Short- term Can hold unrehearsed information for about 20–30 seconds. Information can be stored longer if it is engaged under rehearsal. (Repetition of memorizing). Long- term Information encoded may last for weeks, months or even years.
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    Gagne’s Information ProcessingModel Gagne’s Theory of Learning Process
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    Gagne’s 8 stagesof Learning Process PHASE ACTION RELATED Motivation Phase Expectancy Apprehension Phase Observation – Perception Selection Acquisition Phase Encoding – Prestoring Retention Phase Memory Retention Recall Phase Recall – searching Generalisation Phase Transfer Performance Phase Response Feedback Phase Reinforcement
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    ImportantAspectsinGagne’s8Phases • Learning readiness •Motivation • Perception • Conceptualization • Memorizing • Forgetting • Learning transfer
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    How it works? • Processbegins from extrinsic @ intrinsic motivation to perceive stimuli from environment. • New information recorded in short-term memory. • Information will be processed by relating stored information in long-term memory. • New information is reinforced, retained & applied when required.
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    Expository Teaching Model •Referred as explicit explanation in details of certain facts. • A way of presentation of information @ learning contents to pupils directly. • Presenting learning materials by explanation, narration or demonstration. • Suitably use to teach certain concept and skill during the beginning of the lesson.
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    • Principle andconcept are explained verbally, as all the facts are written on the board, showed on the screen. • Time saving: Enables teacher to finish all related concepts in a shorter period & pupils merely listen quietly. • More to a lecturing method. (Less effective for primary schools).
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    Inquiry Teaching Model •Scientific Inquiry Model: • –Used to study principles, phenomena & characteristics of scientific knowledge. • –Research process based on 5 stages: • Identify the problem. • Ascertain relevant information. • Determine hypothesis. • Testing hypothesis. • Evaluate, interpret, infer & conclude.
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    Social Inquiry Model: •Used to study topics related to social & humanity aspects. • Based on activities such as observation, interview, @ questionnaire. • Emphasizes on social interaction process. • 6 steps: • Formulation of problem by teacher. • Formulation of hypothesis by pupils. • Define hypothesis. • Discuss & confirm validity of the hypothesis. • Collect & analyse evidences for the hypothesis. • Interpret & derive inference @ conclusion.
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    Juris-prudential Inquiry Model: •Used to look for reality & accuracy in current issues (learning science is more useful than learning arts). • Concerns with science & philosophy of human law. • Based on activities, discussions and debates. • Two types: • Guided inquiry: Teacher guides pupils to carry out the whole discussion process. • Open Inquiry: No guidelines given. Students have to do the discussion themselves.
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    Suchman’s Inquiry Model: •Based on assumption that strategies used by scientists can be used as a teaching model especially in the study of science. • Procedures: • Teacher determines & indicates the problem. • Teacher explains the inquiry process to solve the previous problem. • Students are guided to form hypothesis, follows by the collection of relevant data. • Students use collected data to test hypothesis, aim to formulate theorem, law, principle or theory. • Discussion & making inferences. • Teacher & students discuss together and analyse.
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    TheImportanceofInformation ProcessingModel • Studentsare prepared with better equipments and information for learning. • Students are enforced with good mental exercises through different methods and approaches. • Students are informed of the objectives and learning outcomes that should be achieved. • Help students to remember the information for a longer period of time.
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    All the modelsin this family share a common theoretical base, a body of knowledge which referred to as behaviour theory. The common thrust of these models is the emphasis on changing the visible behaviour of the learner. The models which belong to this family is Operant Conditioning Model
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    SOURCE TEACHING MODEL INNOVATORS AIMSAND APPLICATION Behaviour Modification Source Operant Conditioning Model B.F. Skinner To achieve the objectives of lower level of cognitive domain on the basis of individual differences
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    Direct Instruction Model • Demonstration: •A teaching technique involves the use of a teacher’s skill to demonstrate @ perform a certain activity in the class. • Teacher has a strong control over what is learnt in the classroom, provides feedback, monitoring students, grading work and strict classroom rules & regulations. (Teacher- centred).
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    Mastery learning • Refersto a theory & practice of using remedial teaching based on feedback of pupil’s performance to assist them to achieve the learning objectives. Procedures: • Determine learning outcomes by planning explicit learning objective (based on students’ performance). • Teach pupils with effective teaching method & technique (use of suitable learning materials to suit different learning styles) • Evaluate learning result by diagnostic test & summative test (level of mastering & achievement) • Carry out remedial activities for pupils who have not fully mastered certain skills & provide enrichment activities for pupils who have mastered the lesson.
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    Programmed Instruction Model •Computer Assisted Instruction (CIA) • The application of technology & computer system in teaching. • Pupils follow designed learning materials in software without teacher’s help. • Teacher has to facilitate the pupils to have interest in manipulating computer.
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    Personal development modelsassist the individual in the development of selfhood, they focus on the emotional life an individual,. The emphasis of these models is on developing an individual into an integrated, confident and competent personality. They attempt to help students understand themselves and their goals, and to develop the means for educating themselves. Many of the personal models of teaching have been developed by counsellors, therapists and other persons interested in stimulating individual’s creativity and self expression. The primary goals are : •To increase the student’s self worth, •To help students understand themselves more fully. •To help students recognise their emotions and become more aware of the way emotions effect other aspects of their behaviour, •To help them develop goals for learning, •To help students develop plans for increasing their competence, •To increase the students’ creativity and playfulness, •To increase the students’ openness to new experience. The models which belong to this family are : a. Non-Directive Teaching Model, b. Synectics Teaching Model, c. Awareness Training Model, d. Classroom Meeting Model. e-Conceptual System Model
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    SOURCE TEACHING MODELINNOVATORS AIMS AND APPLICATION The Personal Source Non-Directive Teaching Model, Carl Rogers To develop self learning by auto instructions, self research and self understanding Synectics Teaching Model, William Gordon To develop creative competencies for problem solving. Awareness Training Model, W.S. Fietz To develop individual competencies and mutual relations. Classroom Meeting Model. William Glasser To develop skills of self –understanding and capacities of dutifulness. Conceptual System Model David. F. Hunt To adjust with the environment with flexibility in the personality.
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    Personal Model • Non-directiveT eaching Model • Developing Positive Self-concepts • Project Model –Research Project –Handicraft Project –Educational Visit
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    Non-directive Teaching Model •Basedon Carl Rogers’work, he believes thatpositive human relationships enable people to grow. • Therefore instruction should be based on concepts of human relations.
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    Action Outside theInterview Student initiates positive actions. Phase 5: Integration Student gains further insight and develops more positive actions. Teacher is supportive. Phase 4: Planning and Decision Making Student plans initial decision making. Teacher clarifies possible decision. Phase 3: Developing Insight Student discusses problem. Teacher supports student. Phase 2: Exploring the Problem Student is encouraged to define problem. Teacher accepts and clarifies feelings. Phase 1 : Defining the Helping Situation Teacher encourages free expression of feelings. Phases in Non- directive Model
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    The Importance ofNon-directive Teaching Model • Teacher helps students to explore new ideas. • Students have freedom to making decisions and choices. • Teacher and students are partners in learning. • Nurtures and moulds students to be the way they are. • Encourages students to think and reflect their uncertain feelings and become better and be positive.
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    Developing Positive Self- concepts •Appreciate the abilities and talents one possesses. • Positive self-concepts evolves with the moral values that should be emphasised among students. • Activities that help: Group/Individual Presentation, musical performances, stage performances.
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    The Importance ofPositive Self- concepts • Gain knowledge and experiences by enhancing their interests in learning through self-concepts. • Teacher shows positive approaches and optimistic reinforcements. • Boost their confidence. • Provide opportunities for students to express their ideas and listen to other’s opinions.
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    Project Model • Basedon the belief that learning would be effective if pupils are interested and ready to carry out learning activities. • Examples of Project Model: • Research Project. • Handicraft Project. • Educational Visit.
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    1. Research Project(Principles) • Teacher determines suitable research topic in accordance to the pupils’ experience, ability and interest. • Aims and procedures must be determined first and pupils are informed about this. • Teacher prepares relevant materials (check list, questions to be answered, etc.) to facilitate pupils.
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    • Research shouldbe carried out safely & every pupil should actively involve in group activities. • Teacher supervises and provides guidance to pupils. • Teacher discusses the outcomes of research & evaluation should be conducted after research is completed.
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    2. Handicraft Project(Principles) • Planning of the project is based on pupils’ interest and ability. • Prepare sufficient materials. • Explain procedure precisely. • Show examples of correct ways to do the project. • Time period is required! • Discussion is carried out to assess the work when it is done. • Display good quality work to the other students.
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    3. Educational Visit(Principles) • Before the Visit: • Identify the place of visit. • Obtain permission. • Arrange for transport. • Conduct briefing session regarding safety, precautions, behaviours, aims of visit and regulations. • Prepare sufficient equipment.
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    • During theVisit: • Divide pupils into several small groups. • Every pupil should actively involve. • Watch out for pupils’ safety. • Give appropriate response to pupils’ inquiry. • After the Visit: • Hold discussion session with pupils regarding their observations. • Plan follow-up activity (making model, draw plan or model, display things)
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    The Importance ofProject Model • Students able to relate their previous experiences to what they are studying. • Able to understand objectives of the projects before and after lesson. • Fun activities that attract students’ interests in learning more & apply what they have learnt. • Moral values are applied. • Theories, facts & hypotheses are brought into practices (I do, I remember & understand). • Co-operations among students. • Direct experiences & additional knowledge.
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    The models inthis family emphasise the relationships of the individual to the society or other persons. The core objective is to help students learn to work together. to identify and solve problems, either academic or social in nature. The primary goals are : To help students work together to identify and solve problems •To develop skills to human relations, and •To become aware of personal and social values. The models which belong to this family are : a. Group Investigation Model, b. Role Playing Model, c. Jurisprudential Inquiry Model, d. Laboratory Training Model, e. Social Simulation Model, f. Social Inquiry Model.
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    SOURCE TEACHING MODELINNOVATOR AIMS AND APPLICATION The Social Interaction Source Group Investigation Model John Dewey, Herbert To develop democratic abilities, use of knowledge and skills in life of individual and society. Jurisprudential Model Donald Oliver, James P. Shaver To solve problems on the basis of information and reasoning power. Social Inquiry Model Social Simulation Model, Role Playing Model. Benjamin Cox, Byron To develop competencies of problem solving and adjustment Laboratory Method Model Bethal, Maine To develop group skills individual capacities and adjustment.
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    Social Model • Modelof Group Teaching & Co- operative Learning • Simulation Model • –Sociodrama • –Role play
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    SOCIAL MODEL Encourages assimilation andunderstanding of the learners Relies on thestudents’ personal and social values Uses group inquiry and problem-solving strategies
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    Ways of Teaching GROUP TEACHING ANDCO-OPERATIVE LEARNING INFORMAL LEARNING GROUP FORMAL LEARNING GROUP STUDY TEAMS SIMULATION ROLE- PLAY SOCIO- DRAMA
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    ROLE- PLAY  Improves interpersonal skillsand  enhances communication Emphasize the social nature of learning stimulate students both socially and intellectually Role-playing is a teaching strategy that fits within the social family models
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    ROLE- PLAY FOUR STAGES 1.Preparation andexplanation of the activity by the teacher 2.Student preparation of the activity 3.The role-playing 4.The discussion after the role-playing activities
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    SOCIODRAM A More like anacting activity Based on a story which reflects a certain situation involving conflicting issue Script should be prepared earlier Next
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    ADV ANT AGES Promote acceptance, cooperation inclassroom Back Helps them to become aware of the typical ways they solve problems Increases both social and personal awareness
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    Formal learning group Being formedto complete a specific tasks, such as to carry a project, performing a lab experiment, etc
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    The Importance ofSocial Model Emphasize the worth of cooperative learning Incorporate the collective energy of the group Promote social skills including self- discipline, negotiation, democracy, etc.
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