eart science

1. PHILIPPINE WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY
Career Development and Continuing Education Center
Santa Cruz, Laguna
Earth and Life Science
LESSON 1: ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
COSMOLOGY – is a branch of astronomy that involves the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang to today
and on into the future.
- According to NASA the definition of cosmology is “the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the universe
as a blackhole”.
GALAXY - a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar systems. A galaxy is held together by gravity.
- Our galaxy, the MILKY WAY, also has a SUPERMASSIVE BLACKHOLE in the middle.
- When you look up at stars in the night sky, you’re seeing other stars in the Milky Way.
TYPES OF GALAXIES
• SPIRAL GALAXY - typically has a rotating disc with spiral 'arms' that curve out from a dense central
region.
➢ Famous Spiral Galaxies
▪ Andromeda Galaxy – Barred spiral galaxy in the Local Group.
▪ Milky Way – Galaxy containing the Solar System.
▪ Pinwheel Galaxy – Galaxy in the constellation Ursa Major.
▪ Sunflower Galaxy – Spiral galaxy in the constellation Canes Venatici.
▪ Triangulum Galaxy – Spiral galaxy in the constellation Triangulum.
• BARRED SPIRAL GALAXY - differ from normal spiral galaxies in that the arms of the galaxy do not lead
all the way into the center, but are connected to the two ends of a straight bar of stars which contains
the nucleus at its center.
➢ Famous Barred Spiral Galaxy
▪ NGC 1365 - also known as "The Great Barred Spiral Galaxy", is a double-barred spiral galaxy that is
twice the length of our Milky Way. It is located 56 million light-years away and has a magnitude of 10.3.
• ELIPTICAL GALAXY - have shapes that range from completely round to oval. They are less common
than spiral galaxies. Unlike spirals, elliptical galaxies usually contain little gas and dust and show very
little organization or structure.
➢ Famous Eliptical Galaxy
▪ 3C 244.1.
▪ M87 (NGC 4486), whose
supermassive black hole is the
first black hole to be imaged by
the Event Horizon Telescope.
▪ M49.
▪ M59.
▪ M60 (NGC 4649)
▪ M89.
▪ M105 (NGC 3379)
▪ ESO 383-76, one of the largest
galaxies known.
• IRREGULAR GALAXY - the most unusual of galaxies. They don't seem to fit into either the spiral or elliptical
galaxy categories. They don't have nice spiral arms, but they do have dark patches of gas and dust. Some
irregular galaxies clearly look like two galaxies ran into each other.
- composed of gasses, dust, stars, nebulous formations, neutron stars, black holes, and other elements
common to all galaxies. They are named so because they have no definite shape but like all galaxies,
they are in constant motion, moving outward and away from the center of our universe.
➢ Famous Irregular Galaxy
▪ Irr I galaxies are similar to spirals because they have lots of gas and young stars, but they don't have
spiral arms.
▪ Irr II galaxies are distorted and strange looking.
• LENTICULIAR GALAXY - have observational features of both spiral and elliptical galaxies. Lenticular galaxies
appear to have a disk and central bulge similar to spiral galaxies but no noticeable spiral arms, they also
primarily also contain very old stars, like those that dominate in elliptical galaxies.

2. ➢ Famous Lencticuliar Galaxies
▪ Mrk 820 is a lenticular galaxy classified as type S0 on the Hubble Tuning Fork.
▪ Messier 84 is a lenticular galaxy also known for its supernovae.
▪ NGC 6861 is a lenticular galaxy discovered in 1826 by the Scottish astronomer James Dunlop.
•PECULIAR GALAXY – a galaxy of unusual size, shape, or composition. Between five and ten percent of known
galaxies are categorized as peculiar.
➢ Famous Peculiar Galaxies
▪ M82 is a nearby galaxy forming stars 10 times faster than the Milky Way.
▪ ESO 162-17 is an example of a peculiar galaxy which is 40 million light-years away in the
constellation Carina.
UNIVERSE – everything we can touch, feel, sense, measure or detect. It includes living things, planets, stars, galaxies, dust
clouds, light and even time.
- Contains billions of galaxies, each containing millions or billions of stars. The space between the stars and galaxies is
largely empty.
SOLAR SYSTEM - consists of our star, the Sun, and everything bound to it by gravity – the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune; dwarf planets such as Pluto; dozens of moons; and millions of asteroids, comets, and
meteoroids.
- gravitationally bound system of the Sun and the objects that orbit it. The largest of such objects are the eight planets
*CHARACTERISTICS OF A PLANET
✓ It must orbit a star (in our cosmic neighborhood, the Sun).
✓ It must be big enough to have enough gravity to force it into a spherical shape.
✓ It must be big enough that its gravity cleared away any other objects of a similar size near its orbit around the Sun.
*GENERAL TYPE OF PLANET
TERRESTRIAL PLANETS- Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
GAS GIANTS- Jupiter and Saturn (Composed mostly of hydrogen and helium)
ICE GIANTS- Uranus and Neptune. (Containing mainly elements heavier than hydrogen and helium)
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE UNIVERSE
• NORMAL MATTER- are ordinary matter consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons.
• Also known as "Baryonic or Visible Matter"
• Universe is consisting of 4.6 ⁒ of Baryonic Matter
*Baryonic or Visible Matter- include protons, neutrons and all the objects
composed of them (i.e., atomic nuclei), but exclude things such as electrons and
neutrinos which are actually leptons.
*Examples of NORMAL MATTER: Stars, Galaxies, Planets and Nebulas
• DARK MATTER- composed of particles that do not absorb, reflect, or emit light but has a gravity.
• It is a hypothetical form of invisible matter that exerts gravitational effects on light and ordinary matter
• Universe is made up of 24 ⁒ Dark Matter
* Dark matter- is a hypothetical form of matter that isn't visible because it doesn't seem to interact with light at all. (anti-
gravity) Examples of DARK MATTER: Axion, Gravitino, Wimp, Neutralino
• DARK ENERGY
• DARK ENERGY -is a hypothetical form of energy that counteracts the gravity (anti-gravity).
• Dark energy is a force that is believed to be cause of the expansion of the universe at accelerating rate
• It does not interact with normal matter
• Universe is made up of 71.4 ⁒ Dark Energy
BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE UNIVERSE
*ELEMENTS IN THE UNIVERSE – Hydrogen, Helium and Lithium
Stars - the building block of galaxies-are born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies.
- Instabilities within the interstellar aclouds eventually results into gravitational collapse,
rotation, heating up, and transformation into a protostar
Protostar- a cloud of interstellar gas and dust that gradually collapses, forming a hot dense
core, and evolves into a star once nuclear fusion can occur in the core.
ARNO PENZIAS & ROBERT WOODROW

3. THE BIRTH, EVOLUTION, DEATH AND REBIRTH OF STARS
Stellar interiors are like furnaces where elements are synthesized or
combined/fused together.
Most stars such as the Sun belong to the so-called “main sequence
stars.”
In the cores of such stars, hydrogen atoms are fused through
thermonuclear reactions to make helium atoms.
Massive main sequence stars burn up their hydrogen faster than
smaller stars. Stars like our Sun burn up hydrogen in about 10 billion years.
The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets,
asteroids, or other bodies in the accompanying planetary system.
A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of galaxies form
superclusters. In between the clusters is practically an empty space. at a large
scale, it appears homogeneous and isotropic.
Based on recent data, the Universe is 13.8 billion years old. The
diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion
light-years (8.61 X 10²² km)
o LIGHT YEAR IS THEDISTANCE THAT LIGHT TRAVELS IN ONE YEAR
o LIGHT travels 300,000 km/sec
o 1 LIGHT YEAR IS EQUAL TO 9.5 TRILLION KILOMETERS
HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF THE
1.NON-SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT
✓ The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark and water-
covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
✓ In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes, and mind became the
sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
✓ Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from an infinite sea at the first
rising of the sun.
✓ The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme being created the universe, including
man and other living organisms.
2.THE STEADY STATE THEORY
✓ The now discredited steady state model of the universe was
proposed in 1948 by Bondi, Gould and by Hoyle.
✓ It maintains that new matter is created as the universe expands
thereby maintaining its density.
✓ Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection with the
discovery of the cosmic microwave background
❖ COSMIC WAVE BACKGROUND
✓ There is a pervasive Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation in the universe. Its accidental discovery in 1964 by
Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson earned them the physics Nobel Prize in 1978.
✓ It can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow in the microwave band coming from all directions- blackbody
radiation with an average temperature of about 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.
❖ THE "RED SHIFT"
✓ In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery of the “redshift” and its interpretation that galaxies are moving
away from each other, hence as evidence for an expanding universe, just as predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General
Relativity.
PROPONENTS OF THE STEADY STATE THEORY

4. ✓ He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a prism are shifted toward the red part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the band of lower frequency; thus, the inference that the star or galaxy must be
moving away from us.
✓ Red shift as evidence for an expanding universe. The positions of the absorptions lines for helium for light coming from the
Sun are shifted towards the red end as compared with those for a distant star. This evidence for expansion contradicted the
previously held view of a static and unchanging universe.
3. THE BIG BANG THEORY
✓ This theory was proposed by GEORGES LEMAÎTRE
✓ As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the Big Bang
Theory postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense and hot mass
to its present size and much cooler state.
The theory rests on two ideas:
I. GENERAL RELATIVITY
- In Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity- gravity is thought of as a distortion of space-time and no longer
described by a gravitational field in contrast to the Law of Gravity of Isaac Newton.
II. COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE
- Assumes that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when averaged over large scales. This is consistent with our
current large-scale image of the universe. But keep in mind that it is clumpy at smaller scales.
- The “bang” should not be taken as an explosion; it is better thought of a simultaneous appearance of space
everywhere. The theory does not identify the cause of the “bang.”
The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion:
1. The redshift;
2. Abundance of hydrogen, helium, and lithium, and;
3. The uniformly pervasive cosmic microwave background radiation-the remnant heat from the bang.
LESSON 2: EARTH SYSTEM AND SUBSYSTEM
*Earth as a SYSTEM
SYSTEM- A set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a unified whole.
CLOSED SYSTEM- A system where there is only an exchange of heat or energy and no exchange of matter.
==Major Themes of the Subsystem of the Earth==
➢ SCALE- Process in the Earth system act on length and scales of microns to thousands of kilometers, and on time scales of
milliseconds to millions of years.
➢ ENERGY- The Earth system is powered by one external source and two internal sources.
*EXTERNAL Source: Sun
*INTERNAL SOURCE: Radioactive Decay and Gravitational Energy (heating being lost from planetary movement or formation.)
➢ CYCLE- Materials in the Earth’s subsystem is continuously being recycled in numerous overlapping cycles.
==The Earth’s Subsystems==
❖ BIOSPHERE - It covers all ecosystems- from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the
plankton –rich ocean surface to the deep sea
❖ HYDROSPHERE - Dynamic mass of water that is continuously on the move.
o About 70% of the Earth’s water is covered with liquid water and much of it is in the ocean water.
o Only 3% of the Earth’s water is fresh:
GEORGES LEMAÎTRE

5. = 2/3 are in the form of ice
= 1/3 is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater
❖ ATMOSPHERE - Thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere. The earth's atmosphere is the air and gas
surrounding our planet. Atmosphere also describes the feeling of a place. Combining the Greek words for VAPOR
(atmos) and SPHERE (sphaira).
o Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere
▪ 78% Nitrogen (N)
▪ 21% Oxygen (O2)
▪ 0.9% Argon
▪ And trace number of other gases
❖ GEOSPHERE - The solid Earth. Extends from the surface of the center. It includes the rocks, minerals, and landforms of
the surface and interior.
▪ Lithosphere- The outermost layer of Earth, composed of the crust and the brittle part of the upper mantle. The
term lithosphere is derived from the Greek words "lithos," meaning stone, and "sphaira," meaning globe or ball.
==The Layers of the Earth==
➢ CRUST: It is the very thin outer skin of the Earth. The outermost layer where energy and mineral resources are derived.
o Two Parts of the Crust
▪ Continental Crust
- 35-40km thickness
- Found under land masses and made up of less dense rocks such as GRANITE.
- Mainly made up of SODIUM, OXYGEN, SILICON, ALUMINUM, POTASSIUM and CALCIUM
▪ Oceanic Crust
- 7-10km thickness
- Found under ocean floor and is made up of dense rock such as BASALT.
o Different Components that Compose the Earth’s Crust
o Oxygen
o Silicon
o Aluminum
o Iron
o Calcium
o Sodium
o Potassium
o Magnesium
o Titanium
o Hydrogen
➢ MANTLE: Less dense layer. Made up of silicate rocks, mostly made of the element’s silicon, oxygen, iron and
magnesium. Have a 2900km thickness.
o Three Regions of Mantle
✓ Upper Mantle
✓ Transition Zone
✓ Lower Mantle
▪ Asthenosphere- Low velocity zone. Soft, weak, top layer of the Upper mantle that is made up of hot
molten materials. It causes the movements of LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
➢ CORE: Denser layer. The Earth’s magnetic field. Strengthens the idea that the Earth’s outer core is molten or
liquid.
o Two Parts of the Core
✓ Inner Core: Consist of IRON and NICKEL ALLOY. 2600km in diameter. Made up of SOLID Iron and Nickel Alloy.
✓ Outer Core: Consist of IRON and NICKEL ALLOY. 2250km in diameter. Made up of MOLTEN Iron and Nickel Allow
==BOUNARIES IN EACH LAYERS OF THE EARTH==
➢ GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY: Boundary between OUTER CORE and LOWER MANTLE. Named before BENO
GUTENBURG an American-German Seismologist.
➢ MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY: Boundary between UPPER MANTLE and CRUST. Named before ANDRIJA
MOHOROVICIC a Croatian Meteorologist and Seismic.
➢ LEHMANN DISCONTINUITY: Boundary between INNER CORE and OUTER CORE. Named before INGE LEHMANN a
Danish Seismologist.

6. ==FACTORS THAT MAKES THE EARTH HABITABLE==
▪ ATMOSPHERE: It regulates the balance of WATER, OXYGEN and CARBON DIOXIDE. Provides chemicals needed for life,
such as NITROGEN and CARBON DIOXIDE.
▪ TEMPERATURE: Allows liquid water to exist on Earth’s surface which is favorable to life. Influences how quickly Atom and
other Molecules move. Only Earth’s surface is in the Temperature Range
▪ ENERGY: Light/chemical energy is used by organisms to run their life processes such as the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS
used by producers like PLANTS. Earth's energy budget accounts for the balance between the energy that Earth receives
from the Sun and the energy the Earth loses back into outer space.
▪ NUTRIENTS: Nutrients in the soil are taken up by plants, which are consumed by humans or animals, and excreted again
by them — or they are released back into the environment when organisms die. Used to maintain and regulate an
organism’s body.
LESSON 3: MINERALS and ROCKS
*Minerals: Fundamental component of Rocks. Made up of elements that are pure substance which cannot be broken down into
a simpler substance.
❖ CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
✓ Naturally occurring
✓ Inorganic
✓ Homogeneous solid with definite Chemical composition
✓ Orderly crystalline structure
❖ PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL
▪ COLOR: Color of the mineral.
▪ STREAK: Color of the mineral in powdered form.
▪ HARDNESS: Resistance to be scratched.
▪ CLEAVAGE: Lines of weakness of a mineral.
▪ CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE: Unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal mineral.
▪ DIAPHANEITY: Ability to allow light to pass through a mineral.
▪ LUSTER: How light is being reflected off of a mineral’s surface.
▪ TENACITY: Describes the mineral’s reaction to stress.
❖ SUB-PROPERTIES OF TENACITY
o BRITTLENESS: Property of mineral resulting to be powdered and form crumbs.
o MALLEABILTY: Ability of a mineral to be turned into sheets.
o DUCTILITY: Ability of a mineral to be stretched into wire.
o SECTILITY: Ability to be sliced by a knife.
o FLEXIBILITY
o INELASTIC: Ability of a mineral to be bent but remained in the new position or appearance.
o ELASTIC: Ability of a mineral to be bent and can be turned back into their original composition or shape.
*Rocks: -Combined aggregation of minerals. Natural substance composed of solid crystals of different minerals that have
been fused together into a solid lump.
❖ CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
✓ IGNEOUS ROCK: Formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten materials.
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
- Extrusive/Volcanic Rock: Fine grained crystals since the cooling process is fast. Lava that cools.
- Intrusive/ Plutonic Rock: Coarse grain crystals. MAGMA that cools SLOWLY.
CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS BASED ON ITS COMPOSITION
- FELSIC: Light-colored (feldspar and silicate)
- MAFIC: Dark in color
- INTERMIDIATE: Between Felsic and Mafic
- ULTRAMAFIC: Very dark in color

7. CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS BASED ON ITS TEXTURE
- APHANISTIC: Fine-grained.
- PHANERITIC: Coarse grained.
- PORPHYRITIC: Large and small crystals and minerals.
- GLASSY: Non-ordered solid from rapid quenching.
- PYROCLASTIC: Composite of ejected fragments.
✓ SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: Formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of one living organism.
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- CLASTIC: Formed from accumulation of clasts.
- CHEMICAL: Formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution.
- ORGANIC: Formed from the accumulation of materials from living things or products of living things.
✓ METAMORPHIC ROCKS: Formed from pre-existing rocks; the rocks have been modified by HEAT, PRESSURE and
CHEMICAL PROCESS.
METAMORPHISIM
- Change of minerals or geolic texture in pre-existing rocks
- Process that changes pre-existing rocks into new forms because of increases in temperature, pressure, and chemically
active fluids.
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
- REGIONAL METAMORPHISM: Happens over large region of the crust where high temperature and pressure is
present.
- CONTACT METAMORPHISM: Happens on layers of rocks having contact with heat (magma).
- DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM: The result of very high shear stress, such as those which occurs along fault zones.
*Rock Cycle: The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the three rock types
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Rock cycle has no beginning or end. It just continues. The processes involved
in the rock cycle take place over hundreds, thousands, or even millions of years.
Process of Rock Cycle
▪ Cooling and crystallization- Deep within the Earth, temperatures
can get hot enough to create magma. As magma cools, crystals
grow, forming an igneous rock. The crystals grow larger if the
magma cools slowly, as it does if it remains deep within the
Earth. If the magma cools quickly, the crystals will be very small.
When crystals form from magma it is called crystallization.
▪ Weathering and erosion- Water, wind, ice, and even plants and
animals all act to wear down rocks. Over time they can break
larger rocks into sediments. Rocks break down by the process
called weathering.
▪ Metamorphism- This long word means “to change form. “A rock
undergoes metamorphism if it is exposed to extreme heat and
pressure within the crust. With metamorphism, the rock does
not melt all the way. The rock changes due to heat and pressure. A metamorphic rock may have a new mineral composition
and/or texture.
LESSON 4: EXOGENIC PROCESSES
Nature of Exogenic Processes
❖ WEATHERING- The process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks. The breaking down or dissolving of rocks and
minerals on the surface of the Earth.

8. Three Types of Weathering
✓ Mechanical Weathering: Breaking down of rocks without changing its composition. Also known as Physical Weathering. In
this type of weathering, a large rock is disintegrated into smaller pieces of rocks
o Factors of Mechanical Weathering
1. Pressure: Collision of rocks. A rock that forms under great pressure is brought to the surface and overlying rock is
eroded away, fractures will form parallel to the outer surface of the rock.
2. Temperature: Most materials expand when they are heated, and contract when they are cooled. Can be
associated with water.
3. Frost Wedging: Splitting or breaking-up of rocks by the pressure of frozen water in cracks of the rock.
4. Abrasion: Rubbing, scouring or scraping of rocks through friction. Occurs when rocks collide against each other
while they are transported by water, glacial ice, wind, or gravitational force.
✓ Chemical Weathering: There are changes in the composition of rocks due to chemical reactions. It also occurs when rain
water mixes with mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals (clay) and soluble salts.
o Factors of Chemical Weathering
a) Dissolution: Rocks or minerals are dissolved in WATER. The action of slightly acidic solutions on the rock can leave
pits and holes, and it can act to slowly enlarge and widen preexisting fractures.
b) Hydrolysis: Breaking down of rocks by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salt. A reaction with water in which
molecules are cleaved into two parts by the addition of a molecule of water
c) Oxidation: Breaking down of rocks by oxygen often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-colored weathered surface.
Occurs when oxygen combines with another substance and creates compounds called oxides.
✓ Biological Weathering: Breakdown of rocks caused by the actions of living organisms. Can be considered as special as a
special type of weathering.
o Factors of Biological Weathering
i.Organic Activity: A plant growing cracks, roots of plants loosen rock materials; or any activities caused by living
organism to change the structure and composition of a rock.
ii.Human Activity: Primarily the cause of weathering through mining and construction which expose rock surfaces to
agents of weathering such as a strong acid. Recreational activities of humans can also cause weathering.
iii.Burrowing of Animals: Caused by digging of holes that expose new rocks to the effects of weathering. The holes
allow water and other weathering agents to reach the rock layer that had been covered by the soil.
EROSION- The separation and removal of weathered rocks due to different agents like water, wind and ice that causes
transportation of the minerals to where it was deposited.
MASS WASTING- The movement of sediments downslopes under the influence of gravity. Examples are: Fall,
Avalanche, Slide and Flow.
DEPOSITION- The process in which the weathered materials carried out by erosion settled down in a particular location.
LESSON 5: EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT (ENDOGENIC PROCESS)
*HEAT ENERGY: -One of the extreme factors that makes the world livable.
-Result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms, molecules or ions in solids, liquids and gases. It plays a vital
role in our planet. It’s one of the extreme factors in what makes the world livable.
➢ Heat: a result of movement of tiny particles called Atoms, molecules or ions in solid, liquid and gases.
Two Types of Heat
- Primordial Heat- The initial heat energy accumulated by dissipation in a planet during its first few million years of
evolution.
• Accretional Energy: a growth or increase in size by gradual external addition or accumulation. In astronomy
and planetary physics, accretion assumes the increase in the mass of a celestial object by collection of the
surrounding gas and objects (of smaller size) by gravity.

9. - Radiogenic Heat- Thermal energy released as a result of spontaneous nuclear disintegration of natural radioactive
elements inside the planet.
Three Types of Heat Transfer
✓ Conduction- Governs the internal conditions in almost entire solid portions of the Earth.
✓ Convection- Dominates the thermal conditions in the zones where large quantities of fluid exist.
▪ Subduction: the process by which collision of the Earth’s crustal plates results in one plate’s being drawn
down or overridden by another.
✓ Radiation- The process of Heat exchange between the Sun and the Earth.
*Magmatism: Process under the Earth’s crust where formation and movement of magma occur. It happens in the
ASTHENOSPHERE.
-Magma: Molten or semi-molten rocks beneath the surface of the Earth. Its temperature ranges from 700-1300 degrees
Celsius.
-Partial Melting: Different minerals in rock melts at different temperature and pressure.
It occurs in the lower crust and upper mantle.
==Conditions for Melting of Rocks to Occur==
1. Increase in Temperature: Hot molten rocks are being
connected to the crust resulting to a transfer of heat called
conduction. Minerals in the rocks will then have different
phases of melting point.
2. Decrease in Pressure: Rocks beneath the Earth remain solid
when exposed to high pressure.
During convection, rocks go upward reducing the pressure.
3. Addition of Volatile:
*FLUX MELTING- adding of impurities such as water and gas
to lower the melting point of rocks
==Movements of Plates==
*Tectonic Plates: Gigantic pieces of the Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle.
Types of FORCES
✓ Tension- Occurs when the plates are PULLED APART causing either an ELONGATION or a BREAKAGE in the crust.
✓ Compression- Occurs when the plates are PUSHED TOWARDS EACH OTHER causing it to crash
Forms of CHANGES
✓ Folding-Occurs when the Earth’s crust BENDS AWAY from the flat surface.
❖ Anticline- UPWARD bend
❖ Syncline- DOWNWARD bend
✓ Faulting- Happens when the Earth’s crust completely BREAKS and SLIDES past each other.
- A crack in the earth's crust resulting from the displacement of one side with respect to the other.
▪ Three Types of Fault
❖ Normal Fault- A dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault has moved downward relative to the block below.
❖ Reverse Fault- The block above the fault moves up relative to the block below the fault. This fault motion is caused
by compressional forces and results in shortening. A reverse fault is called a thrust fault if the dip of the fault plane is small.
❖ Strike-slip Fault- vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally.
NORMAL FAULT REVERSE FAULT STIKE-SLIP FAULT

10. ▪ Three Types of Plate Boundary
❖ Convergent Boundary- Two plates moves towards each other.
❖ Divergent Boundary- Two plates moves away from each other.
❖ Transform-Fault- When plates move slide past each other, 2 plates slide in opposite direction.
==Historical Background==
*Alfred Wegener: German meteorologist, geophysicist and polar researcher. In 1915 he published 'The Origin of Continents
and Oceans', which outlined his theory of Continental Drift.
*Pangaea: Derived from the Greek pangaia, meaning “all the Earth.” Known to be a massive and super-continent that exist on
the Earth’s surface.
Proven Studies
✓ Geographical- Continental coastlines (Jigsaw Puzzle)
✓ Biological- Fossils are found in different continents.
✓ Climatic Evidence- Glacial period occurred in areas of South America, South Africa, South India, Antarctica and
Australia.
CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY TRANSFORM-FAULT