This document summarizes a study on valorizing apple peels through extracting phenolic antioxidants and nutrients. The researchers investigated different drying and extraction methods to develop bulk peel powders or antioxidant extracts from Bramley's Seedling apple peels. High amounts of ascorbic acid and polyphenols were found in the peels. Freeze-dried peels extracted with acetone had the highest phenolic yields and antioxidant power equivalent to oregano. Oven-drying and ethanol extraction also recovered antioxidants but with lower energy/cost. Recovering antioxidants from processed apple peels could provide a valuable alternative to waste disposal and enhance traditional apple markets.
This study investigated the effects of high-pressure processing (HPP) at 400, 500, and 600 MPa and 35°C for 5 min on phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in 'Golden Delicious' apples from two different geographical origins. Total phenolic compounds, flavonoids, dihydrochalcones, and antioxidant activity were higher in apples from northeastern Spain compared to northern Italy. HPP affected phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity depending on geographical origin. For Spanish apples, 400 MPa increased total flavonols by 30% and maintained total phenolic compounds, while for Italian apples, 600 MPa increased total phenolic compounds the most at 54%. Untreated and HPP-treated Italian apples had higher
Extraction of Colorant From Dragon Fruit Peel and It's Application in a baker...Salemir Hossain
This is a project or thesis proposal presentation for B.Sc Engineering level on Extraction of Colorant From Dragon Fruit Peel and It's Application in a bakery Product. If any help is needed then contact on salemirhossainjust@gmail.com
Assessment of Bioactive Activity of Blackberry Seed Extractijtsrd
The aim of this study was to determine the bioactive activity of the blackberry (Rubus laciniatus) seed extracts. Total phenolic and total antioxidant activity of blackberry seed extracts were assessed with respect to two extracting solvents (absolute ethanol and absolute acetone) and two extracting techniques (hot extraction at 40°C and cold extraction at 26°C). Proximate analysis showed that blackberry seeds contained 12.12% moisture, 8.00% protein, 0.74% fat, 2.15% ash and 76.99% total carbohydrate. The antioxidant activities of blackberry seeds were determined by evaluating total phenolic activity by gallic acid equivalent (GAE), total antioxidant capacity by ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE) content and ferric reducing powder assay. The tested sample showed variable amount of total phenolic content (33.21-56.56 mg GAEg of dry extract), total antioxidant capacity (75.46-82.42 AAEg) and reducing power (0.23-0.26) depending on different extraction techniques and solvents used. Higher amount of extract, total antioxidant capacity and reducing power were obtained for hot extraction technique. As compared to cold extraction technique, higher extract yields (7.48% vs 7.19% for ethanol and 4.35% vs 4.28% for acetone) and other properties were obtained by hot extraction for a given solvent. Ethanol extract with hot extraction technique gave total phenolic content as 56.56 mg GAEg of dry extract, total antioxidant capacity as 82.42 AAEg and reducing power as 0.26 at extract concentration of 250 µgml. The overall observations of the present experiment indicated that hot ethanol extract of blackberry seeds have strong antioxidant property and bioactive activity. Sajeda Begum | Pabitra Chandra Das | Md. Nur Hossain | Abdullah Iqbal"Assessment of Bioactive Activity of Blackberry Seed Extract" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-5 , August 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd15947.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/food-engineering/15947/assessment-of-bioactive-activity-of-blackberry-seed-extract/sajeda-begum
Use of Chitosan as Edible Coating on Fruits and in Micro biological Activity ...inventionjournals
Chitin is a biodegradable,long, linear chain polymer found naturally abundantly in the marine and terrestrial environments. In this study, the capability of Chitin to delay the ripening of fruits is proved by coating chitin composites in three concentrations (low0.25%, Medium0.5%, High0.75%) on Apple and Tomato samples. A comparison study was carried out between three groups of samples which were coated with Glucose/Chitosan Medium, Glucose/Chitosan medium added chitinase enzyme and Chitosan Silver Nano composites respectively. Edible Chitosan coating effected positively on the samples and the coated samples showed significant difference in all physiochemical parameters than the control (uncoated). The results showed that all the groups showed similar effects in the quality parameters such as pH, phenolic content and antimicrobial activity of the samples. The third group comprising of the Apples and Tomatoes coated with Chitosan silver Nano composites showed significant time delay of ripening of the fruits in comparison with the other two groups.Chitosan coatings can be used for storage of highly perishable fruits as it had showed increase in the shelf life of the samples used in the study. They significantly control the moisture content between the fruits and the external environment thus proving effective in preventing fungal contamination of the fruits.
lime pretreatment associated compositional and ultrastructural changesIJEAB
The study aimed at exploring the suitability of processing residues from selected root and vegetables for bioethanol production, which are otherwise environmental pollutants. The effect of lime pretreatment at high (HT), low (LT) or room (RT) temperatures on compositional and ultrastructural changes in peels of root crops (sweet potato, elephant foot yam and tannia) and vegetable processing residues (peels from ash gourd and mixed vegetable waste) was studied. Pretreatment resulted in the removal of very little polysaccharides, including starch from these biomasses. Hemicellulose was removed to a higher extent in 24 h RT pretreatment (11.6-12.3%) compared to 7.3-8.5% removal in HT pretreatment. Maximum lignin removal (ca. 33-38%) occurred in RT pretreated (24 h) samples. Approximately 22-25.7% lignin was removed during HT pretreatment (121 °C) for 30 min. which increased to 28-31% when prolonged to 60 min. Pretreatment Efficiency (PE) was low (4.2-14.7%) in HT pretreatment, while 5.7-13.5% and 5.2-14.2% PE was observed in LT and RT pretreatments respectively. Scanning electron micrographs of lime pretreated biomass indicated that starch being a major ingredient of the biomass under study, preferential saccharification of starch by amylases might be necessary to expose the cellulose and hemicellulose for their subsequent saccharification to release fermentable sugars.
A REVIEW ON APPLICATIONS OF BIOSURFACTANTS PRODUCED FROM UNCONVENTIONAL INEXP...SUS GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
Biosurfactants can serve as green alternative in different areas due to
their ecological acceptance as they are biodegradable and nontoxic.
Nowadays biosurfactants are predominantly used in pharmaceutical,
oil industry, and for the bioremediation of pollutants. Apart from these,
biosurfactants also show potential applications in many sectors of food
industry and agriculture. Allied with emulsion forming and breaking,
antiadhesive, functional ingredient, are some properties that can be
exploited in agro-food biotechnology. Potential role of biosurfactants
in food and agricultural sectors as well as present concern of lowering
the production cost of biosurfactants by using the unconventional
wastes as substrate is discussed in this article.
Biopolymers can be divided into three categories based on their origin and production:
1) Polymers directly extracted from biomass like starch and cellulose
2) Polymers produced from biobased monomers through chemical synthesis like polylactic acid
3) Polymers produced by microorganisms or genetically modified bacteria like polyhydroxyalkanoates
Common biopolymers include starch, polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, and polycaprolactone. These materials have properties similar to conventional plastics but are biodegradable. Their gas barrier and thermal properties depend on material and humidity conditions. Biopolymers can be composted within weeks to months depending on
Studies on Aminobenzothiazole and Derivatives: Part-2. Synthesis of Intermedi...BRNSS Publication Hub
The substituted phenylthiourea is used as intermediate in different reactions because they play an important role in synthesizing the heterocyclic compounds. These reactions involve the synthesis of an intermediate phenylammonium chloride which is converted to substituted thiourea using ammonium thiocyanate. The final product formed, substituted phenylthiourea has potential to use as an intermediate in the synthesis of a building block for the heterocyclic compound, 2-aminobenzothiazole.
This study investigated the effects of high-pressure processing (HPP) at 400, 500, and 600 MPa and 35°C for 5 min on phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in 'Golden Delicious' apples from two different geographical origins. Total phenolic compounds, flavonoids, dihydrochalcones, and antioxidant activity were higher in apples from northeastern Spain compared to northern Italy. HPP affected phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity depending on geographical origin. For Spanish apples, 400 MPa increased total flavonols by 30% and maintained total phenolic compounds, while for Italian apples, 600 MPa increased total phenolic compounds the most at 54%. Untreated and HPP-treated Italian apples had higher
Extraction of Colorant From Dragon Fruit Peel and It's Application in a baker...Salemir Hossain
This is a project or thesis proposal presentation for B.Sc Engineering level on Extraction of Colorant From Dragon Fruit Peel and It's Application in a bakery Product. If any help is needed then contact on salemirhossainjust@gmail.com
Assessment of Bioactive Activity of Blackberry Seed Extractijtsrd
The aim of this study was to determine the bioactive activity of the blackberry (Rubus laciniatus) seed extracts. Total phenolic and total antioxidant activity of blackberry seed extracts were assessed with respect to two extracting solvents (absolute ethanol and absolute acetone) and two extracting techniques (hot extraction at 40°C and cold extraction at 26°C). Proximate analysis showed that blackberry seeds contained 12.12% moisture, 8.00% protein, 0.74% fat, 2.15% ash and 76.99% total carbohydrate. The antioxidant activities of blackberry seeds were determined by evaluating total phenolic activity by gallic acid equivalent (GAE), total antioxidant capacity by ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE) content and ferric reducing powder assay. The tested sample showed variable amount of total phenolic content (33.21-56.56 mg GAEg of dry extract), total antioxidant capacity (75.46-82.42 AAEg) and reducing power (0.23-0.26) depending on different extraction techniques and solvents used. Higher amount of extract, total antioxidant capacity and reducing power were obtained for hot extraction technique. As compared to cold extraction technique, higher extract yields (7.48% vs 7.19% for ethanol and 4.35% vs 4.28% for acetone) and other properties were obtained by hot extraction for a given solvent. Ethanol extract with hot extraction technique gave total phenolic content as 56.56 mg GAEg of dry extract, total antioxidant capacity as 82.42 AAEg and reducing power as 0.26 at extract concentration of 250 µgml. The overall observations of the present experiment indicated that hot ethanol extract of blackberry seeds have strong antioxidant property and bioactive activity. Sajeda Begum | Pabitra Chandra Das | Md. Nur Hossain | Abdullah Iqbal"Assessment of Bioactive Activity of Blackberry Seed Extract" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-5 , August 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd15947.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/food-engineering/15947/assessment-of-bioactive-activity-of-blackberry-seed-extract/sajeda-begum
Use of Chitosan as Edible Coating on Fruits and in Micro biological Activity ...inventionjournals
Chitin is a biodegradable,long, linear chain polymer found naturally abundantly in the marine and terrestrial environments. In this study, the capability of Chitin to delay the ripening of fruits is proved by coating chitin composites in three concentrations (low0.25%, Medium0.5%, High0.75%) on Apple and Tomato samples. A comparison study was carried out between three groups of samples which were coated with Glucose/Chitosan Medium, Glucose/Chitosan medium added chitinase enzyme and Chitosan Silver Nano composites respectively. Edible Chitosan coating effected positively on the samples and the coated samples showed significant difference in all physiochemical parameters than the control (uncoated). The results showed that all the groups showed similar effects in the quality parameters such as pH, phenolic content and antimicrobial activity of the samples. The third group comprising of the Apples and Tomatoes coated with Chitosan silver Nano composites showed significant time delay of ripening of the fruits in comparison with the other two groups.Chitosan coatings can be used for storage of highly perishable fruits as it had showed increase in the shelf life of the samples used in the study. They significantly control the moisture content between the fruits and the external environment thus proving effective in preventing fungal contamination of the fruits.
lime pretreatment associated compositional and ultrastructural changesIJEAB
The study aimed at exploring the suitability of processing residues from selected root and vegetables for bioethanol production, which are otherwise environmental pollutants. The effect of lime pretreatment at high (HT), low (LT) or room (RT) temperatures on compositional and ultrastructural changes in peels of root crops (sweet potato, elephant foot yam and tannia) and vegetable processing residues (peels from ash gourd and mixed vegetable waste) was studied. Pretreatment resulted in the removal of very little polysaccharides, including starch from these biomasses. Hemicellulose was removed to a higher extent in 24 h RT pretreatment (11.6-12.3%) compared to 7.3-8.5% removal in HT pretreatment. Maximum lignin removal (ca. 33-38%) occurred in RT pretreated (24 h) samples. Approximately 22-25.7% lignin was removed during HT pretreatment (121 °C) for 30 min. which increased to 28-31% when prolonged to 60 min. Pretreatment Efficiency (PE) was low (4.2-14.7%) in HT pretreatment, while 5.7-13.5% and 5.2-14.2% PE was observed in LT and RT pretreatments respectively. Scanning electron micrographs of lime pretreated biomass indicated that starch being a major ingredient of the biomass under study, preferential saccharification of starch by amylases might be necessary to expose the cellulose and hemicellulose for their subsequent saccharification to release fermentable sugars.
A REVIEW ON APPLICATIONS OF BIOSURFACTANTS PRODUCED FROM UNCONVENTIONAL INEXP...SUS GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
Biosurfactants can serve as green alternative in different areas due to
their ecological acceptance as they are biodegradable and nontoxic.
Nowadays biosurfactants are predominantly used in pharmaceutical,
oil industry, and for the bioremediation of pollutants. Apart from these,
biosurfactants also show potential applications in many sectors of food
industry and agriculture. Allied with emulsion forming and breaking,
antiadhesive, functional ingredient, are some properties that can be
exploited in agro-food biotechnology. Potential role of biosurfactants
in food and agricultural sectors as well as present concern of lowering
the production cost of biosurfactants by using the unconventional
wastes as substrate is discussed in this article.
Biopolymers can be divided into three categories based on their origin and production:
1) Polymers directly extracted from biomass like starch and cellulose
2) Polymers produced from biobased monomers through chemical synthesis like polylactic acid
3) Polymers produced by microorganisms or genetically modified bacteria like polyhydroxyalkanoates
Common biopolymers include starch, polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, and polycaprolactone. These materials have properties similar to conventional plastics but are biodegradable. Their gas barrier and thermal properties depend on material and humidity conditions. Biopolymers can be composted within weeks to months depending on
Studies on Aminobenzothiazole and Derivatives: Part-2. Synthesis of Intermedi...BRNSS Publication Hub
The substituted phenylthiourea is used as intermediate in different reactions because they play an important role in synthesizing the heterocyclic compounds. These reactions involve the synthesis of an intermediate phenylammonium chloride which is converted to substituted thiourea using ammonium thiocyanate. The final product formed, substituted phenylthiourea has potential to use as an intermediate in the synthesis of a building block for the heterocyclic compound, 2-aminobenzothiazole.
This document summarizes an experiment that optimized the ultrasound-assisted extraction of polyphenols from eggplant peels using aqueous mixtures of glycerol and ethanol as solvents. The researchers used a Box-Behnken experimental design to evaluate how solvent composition, liquid-to-solid ratio, and temperature affected the yield of total polyphenols. Their models showed that extractions with water/glycerol and water/ethanol mixtures could achieve similar maximum polyphenol yields under optimized conditions. However, the extraction kinetics and impact of the variables differed between the two solvent systems. The study suggested that glycerol may be a suitable green solvent for extracting polyphenols from food waste.
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the phenolic compounds in Chilean mistletoe (Quintral, Tristerix tetrandus) using UHPLC–Q/Orbitrap/MS/MS. Six anthocyanins were identified, along with several phenolic acids and flavonols. The mistletoe leaves showed the highest antioxidant activity as measured by three assays. The compounds were characterized using mass spectrometry and correlated with antioxidant measurements.
secondmodified Guo-Poster for College Presentation-02-18-15Aina Guo
Total phenolics and anthocyanins were measured in three types of black raspberry confections (pectin gummy, starch gummy, hard candy) stored at 4°C and 25°C over two months. The following results were found:
1. Total phenolics remained relatively stable during storage at both temperatures for pectin gummy and hard candy. Anthocyanins decreased in the first two weeks but then stabilized, except in starch gummy stored at 25°C which decreased after six weeks.
2. Polymeric colors increased in all confections stored at room temperature, while those stored at 4°C were more stable.
3. Pectin and hard candy confections stored at
Promoviendo una educación multicultural e interdisciplinar: Químicos Británic...Cátedra Banco Santander
Contribución en la XI Jornada de Buenas Prácticas en la docencia universitaria con apoyo de TIC celebrada en formato online el 25 de noviembre de 2020 y organizada por la Cátedra Banco Santander de la Universidad de Zaragoza.
This document describes research into developing lyophilized biopolymer-clay hydrogels for drug delivery. Sulfathiazole (STH), a model drug, was intercalated into various clays including Laponite RDS and montmorillonite. The drug-clay mixtures were then incorporated into natural hydrogels of carrageenan or hydroxyethyl cellulose. The hydrogels were lyophilized to form xerogels. Differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy showed the amorphous form of STH was intercalated in Laponite RDS within the structure of carrageenan. Optimal xerogels contained 1.5% carrageen
Fourier-transform Infrared Analysis and In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Or...BRNSS Publication Hub
The present research is to assess the Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis and antibacterial activities of Ormocarpum cochinchinense leaf extract using different solvents dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), ethyl acetate, ethanol (EtOH), methanol (MeOH), and chloroform. To investigation of FT-IR analysis and antibacterial activities become used agar well diffusion method. FT-IR vibrational bands confirmed that the fractions of O. cochinchinense had lots of biologically active compounds which include H–Bonded Phenols, alkanes, carboxylic acid, carboxylic acid, flavonoids, polyphenols, catechins, aromatics, and aliphatic amines. Antibacterial activity showed that the strongest activities had been produced by MeOH solvent reaction with all the human pathogens. This research may be concluded that MeOH solvent extract of O. cochinchinense might be a capability for the treatment of antibacterial activities.
This document discusses prodrugs, which are biologically inert derivatives of drug molecules that undergo conversion in vivo to release the active parent drug. Prodrugs can help overcome issues like poor solubility, stability, absorption and toxicity. They are designed to improve pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. The concepts of carrier-linked prodrugs, mutual prodrugs, bioprecursor prodrugs and polymeric prodrugs are explained. The objectives of prodrug design like improving formulation, absorption and safety are covered. In conclusion, prodrug design is an important part of drug development that can enhance clinical effectiveness by overcoming undesirable properties.
Ripening is a process in fruits that makes them acceptable for consumption by converting starch to sugar, changing color, and developing full flavor and aroma. Ripening is triggered by the plant hormone ethylene in climacteric fruits like bananas and tomatoes, causing a spike in respiration. In commercial operations, controlled ethylene exposure is used to induce ripening. Treatment with 1-methylcyclopropene binds ethylene receptors and inhibits ripening, allowing longer storage of climacteric fruits.
Agroindustrial Exploitation of the Mucilage Obtained from the Nopal Cactus Op...CrimsonpublishersNTNF
Agroindustrial Exploitation of the Mucilage Obtained from the Nopal Cactus Opuntia spp. Cultivated in Hydroponics by Romeo Rojas in Food Science Journal
This document provides an overview of microencapsulation techniques. It defines microencapsulation as encapsulating active food ingredients in micro- or nanoparticles using various techniques like spray drying, extrusion, fluidized bed, and coacervation. These techniques encapsulate ingredients in a protective coating to preserve nutrients, flavors, and other sensitive components during processing and storage. The document also discusses challenges in the food industry that microencapsulation addresses, such as ingredient degradation and incompatibility with food matrices. It reviews common encapsulation materials and methods used.
Nuts, cereals, seeds and legumes proteins derived emulsifiers as a source of ...Sadia Chemist
The document reviews nuts, cereals, seeds and legumes as potential sources of plant-based protein beverages. It discusses the physicochemical composition, protein and fat quality, and functional properties of plant-based emulsions derived from these sources. Processing treatments like heat and high pressure can affect the protein structure and emulsifying properties. The review summarizes the nutritional composition and health benefits of beverages from different plant sources and how processing may impact stability, solubility, and digestibility of proteins in plant-based beverages.
A prodrug is a precursor compound that is metabolized within the body to form an active drug. Prodrugs can improve how medicines are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated to reduce unintended side effects. There are two types of prodrugs - Type I are activated intracellularly by enzymes, while Type II are activated extracellularly by enzymes or in bodily fluids. Examples of prodrugs include heroin metabolites and diet pills. Endogenous compounds are substances naturally found in or produced by the body that can act as drugs or help other compounds act as drugs. Determining the effects of administering endogenous compound drugs can be difficult due to existing background levels in the body.
The prodrug concept was first proposed in 1958 as a way to temporarily modify drugs' physicochemical properties to improve their usefulness and decrease toxicity. Prodrugs are converted to the active drug within the body through enzymatic or non-enzymatic reactions. This allows for improved solubility, delivery, stability, and decreased adverse effects. Ideal prodrugs are inactive or less active than the parent drug, are cleaved in vivo to release the parent drug, and produce non-toxic metabolic fragments. Common prodrug modifications include esterification of carboxylic acids and alcohols as well as derivatization of carbonyl groups. Successful prodrugs have been developed to improve patient acceptance, reduce gastric irritation,
Done by Creators group, Karaana Independent secondary school for boys
Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs.
Now lots of products are made out of plastic. A lot of it is throw away and will stay in garbage dumps of thousands of years. Biodegradable plastic, unlike normal plastic made from petroleum, will decompose and become part of the soil. This project will show how one easy way to make some biodegradable plastic that can be used in food packaging and thus become edible
This document provides an overview of prodrug design. It defines a prodrug as an inactive derivative of a drug molecule that undergoes biotransformation to release the active drug. Prodrugs are classified based on their structure and include carrier-linked, bipartite, tripartite, mutual, and bioprecursor prodrugs. The document discusses various rationales for prodrug design such as improving solubility, absorption, patient acceptability, and site-specific drug delivery. Common functional groups used in prodrugs include esters, amides, phosphates, and carbamates. The document also covers practical considerations and approaches for overcoming limitations like pre-systemic metabolism and blood-brain barrier penetration.
This document provides an introduction to food properties. It begins by defining food properties and classifying them into four main categories: physical and physicochemical properties, kinetic properties, sensory properties, and health properties. Each of these categories is further broken down into specific property types. The document also discusses the structural levels of foods (molecular, microscopic, and macroscopic) and how food properties are applied in food engineering processes and quality/safety evaluations. It provides examples of measuring techniques for important properties like water activity and outlines factors that influence water availability in foods.
Basic Concepts & Application of Prodrugs Design [Antiviral,Antibiotics,GPAT Q...ThePharmaFacts
PCI Syllabus 6th Semester Medicinal Chemistry III
Introduction
History of Prodrug
Prodrug Concept
Classification of Prodrug
Objectives of Prodrug
Applications of Prodrug
Q&A on Prodrug
Phytochemical and antioxidant studies of methanol and chloroform extract from...shailendradhakal
This research was carried out with the aim of phytochemical analysis and determining antioxidant activity present in methanol and chloroform leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica. Due to its potential in curing various ailments as well as wide spread application of antioxidant activity such as in the field of cosmetology, the plant was selected for the study. The total phenolics contained in the plant extracts were also studied which are responsible for the antioxidant activity.
The document discusses the concept of prodrugs. It defines prodrugs as therapeutically inactive compounds that are metabolized into active drug metabolites. The objectives of prodrug design are to overcome barriers like poor solubility, stability, absorption and toxicity. An ideal prodrug is pharmacologically inert, transforms rapidly into the active form at the target site, and produces non-toxic metabolic fragments. Prodrugs are classified based on their structure and site of conversion. The applications of prodrugs include improving drug properties and delivery.
IEEE University of Moratuawa Student Branch - Newsletter 2014/2015Malintha Fernando
This document summarizes activities of the IEEE University of Moratuwa Student Branch in 2014. It discusses events organized by the student branch including an awareness session, Enumero technical workshop, participation in IEEEXtreme programming competition where they placed third, and an annual charity project. It provides information on leadership of the student branch and its affinity groups for Power and Energy Society, Robotics and Automation Society, and Women in Engineering.
The document discusses key financial strategies for automotive businesses to increase profits and cash flow. It emphasizes the importance of budgeting, controlling costs, optimizing product and customer mixes, and monitoring key performance indicators. The document also covers industry trends like increasing age of vehicles, changes to independent repair practices, emerging technologies, and shifting models of car ownership like rental and sharing programs.
This document summarizes an experiment that optimized the ultrasound-assisted extraction of polyphenols from eggplant peels using aqueous mixtures of glycerol and ethanol as solvents. The researchers used a Box-Behnken experimental design to evaluate how solvent composition, liquid-to-solid ratio, and temperature affected the yield of total polyphenols. Their models showed that extractions with water/glycerol and water/ethanol mixtures could achieve similar maximum polyphenol yields under optimized conditions. However, the extraction kinetics and impact of the variables differed between the two solvent systems. The study suggested that glycerol may be a suitable green solvent for extracting polyphenols from food waste.
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the phenolic compounds in Chilean mistletoe (Quintral, Tristerix tetrandus) using UHPLC–Q/Orbitrap/MS/MS. Six anthocyanins were identified, along with several phenolic acids and flavonols. The mistletoe leaves showed the highest antioxidant activity as measured by three assays. The compounds were characterized using mass spectrometry and correlated with antioxidant measurements.
secondmodified Guo-Poster for College Presentation-02-18-15Aina Guo
Total phenolics and anthocyanins were measured in three types of black raspberry confections (pectin gummy, starch gummy, hard candy) stored at 4°C and 25°C over two months. The following results were found:
1. Total phenolics remained relatively stable during storage at both temperatures for pectin gummy and hard candy. Anthocyanins decreased in the first two weeks but then stabilized, except in starch gummy stored at 25°C which decreased after six weeks.
2. Polymeric colors increased in all confections stored at room temperature, while those stored at 4°C were more stable.
3. Pectin and hard candy confections stored at
Promoviendo una educación multicultural e interdisciplinar: Químicos Británic...Cátedra Banco Santander
Contribución en la XI Jornada de Buenas Prácticas en la docencia universitaria con apoyo de TIC celebrada en formato online el 25 de noviembre de 2020 y organizada por la Cátedra Banco Santander de la Universidad de Zaragoza.
This document describes research into developing lyophilized biopolymer-clay hydrogels for drug delivery. Sulfathiazole (STH), a model drug, was intercalated into various clays including Laponite RDS and montmorillonite. The drug-clay mixtures were then incorporated into natural hydrogels of carrageenan or hydroxyethyl cellulose. The hydrogels were lyophilized to form xerogels. Differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy showed the amorphous form of STH was intercalated in Laponite RDS within the structure of carrageenan. Optimal xerogels contained 1.5% carrageen
Fourier-transform Infrared Analysis and In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Or...BRNSS Publication Hub
The present research is to assess the Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis and antibacterial activities of Ormocarpum cochinchinense leaf extract using different solvents dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), ethyl acetate, ethanol (EtOH), methanol (MeOH), and chloroform. To investigation of FT-IR analysis and antibacterial activities become used agar well diffusion method. FT-IR vibrational bands confirmed that the fractions of O. cochinchinense had lots of biologically active compounds which include H–Bonded Phenols, alkanes, carboxylic acid, carboxylic acid, flavonoids, polyphenols, catechins, aromatics, and aliphatic amines. Antibacterial activity showed that the strongest activities had been produced by MeOH solvent reaction with all the human pathogens. This research may be concluded that MeOH solvent extract of O. cochinchinense might be a capability for the treatment of antibacterial activities.
This document discusses prodrugs, which are biologically inert derivatives of drug molecules that undergo conversion in vivo to release the active parent drug. Prodrugs can help overcome issues like poor solubility, stability, absorption and toxicity. They are designed to improve pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. The concepts of carrier-linked prodrugs, mutual prodrugs, bioprecursor prodrugs and polymeric prodrugs are explained. The objectives of prodrug design like improving formulation, absorption and safety are covered. In conclusion, prodrug design is an important part of drug development that can enhance clinical effectiveness by overcoming undesirable properties.
Ripening is a process in fruits that makes them acceptable for consumption by converting starch to sugar, changing color, and developing full flavor and aroma. Ripening is triggered by the plant hormone ethylene in climacteric fruits like bananas and tomatoes, causing a spike in respiration. In commercial operations, controlled ethylene exposure is used to induce ripening. Treatment with 1-methylcyclopropene binds ethylene receptors and inhibits ripening, allowing longer storage of climacteric fruits.
Agroindustrial Exploitation of the Mucilage Obtained from the Nopal Cactus Op...CrimsonpublishersNTNF
Agroindustrial Exploitation of the Mucilage Obtained from the Nopal Cactus Opuntia spp. Cultivated in Hydroponics by Romeo Rojas in Food Science Journal
This document provides an overview of microencapsulation techniques. It defines microencapsulation as encapsulating active food ingredients in micro- or nanoparticles using various techniques like spray drying, extrusion, fluidized bed, and coacervation. These techniques encapsulate ingredients in a protective coating to preserve nutrients, flavors, and other sensitive components during processing and storage. The document also discusses challenges in the food industry that microencapsulation addresses, such as ingredient degradation and incompatibility with food matrices. It reviews common encapsulation materials and methods used.
Nuts, cereals, seeds and legumes proteins derived emulsifiers as a source of ...Sadia Chemist
The document reviews nuts, cereals, seeds and legumes as potential sources of plant-based protein beverages. It discusses the physicochemical composition, protein and fat quality, and functional properties of plant-based emulsions derived from these sources. Processing treatments like heat and high pressure can affect the protein structure and emulsifying properties. The review summarizes the nutritional composition and health benefits of beverages from different plant sources and how processing may impact stability, solubility, and digestibility of proteins in plant-based beverages.
A prodrug is a precursor compound that is metabolized within the body to form an active drug. Prodrugs can improve how medicines are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated to reduce unintended side effects. There are two types of prodrugs - Type I are activated intracellularly by enzymes, while Type II are activated extracellularly by enzymes or in bodily fluids. Examples of prodrugs include heroin metabolites and diet pills. Endogenous compounds are substances naturally found in or produced by the body that can act as drugs or help other compounds act as drugs. Determining the effects of administering endogenous compound drugs can be difficult due to existing background levels in the body.
The prodrug concept was first proposed in 1958 as a way to temporarily modify drugs' physicochemical properties to improve their usefulness and decrease toxicity. Prodrugs are converted to the active drug within the body through enzymatic or non-enzymatic reactions. This allows for improved solubility, delivery, stability, and decreased adverse effects. Ideal prodrugs are inactive or less active than the parent drug, are cleaved in vivo to release the parent drug, and produce non-toxic metabolic fragments. Common prodrug modifications include esterification of carboxylic acids and alcohols as well as derivatization of carbonyl groups. Successful prodrugs have been developed to improve patient acceptance, reduce gastric irritation,
Done by Creators group, Karaana Independent secondary school for boys
Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs.
Now lots of products are made out of plastic. A lot of it is throw away and will stay in garbage dumps of thousands of years. Biodegradable plastic, unlike normal plastic made from petroleum, will decompose and become part of the soil. This project will show how one easy way to make some biodegradable plastic that can be used in food packaging and thus become edible
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Quantitative analysis of total phenolic content in avocado (persia americana)...Alexander Decker
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In the present scenario, people consume plant substances not only for the satisfaction of hunger or to fulfill the nutrients requirement to maintain the body processes but also to obtain those substances which help to endorse health by reducing the risk of disease. Green leafy vegetables GLV have been the mainstay of human diet as a source of micronutrients and gives an important contribution in combating micronutrient malnutrition in addition of food security as compared to conventional cultivated other vegetables Flyman and Afolyan, 2006 . Judicious use of GLV on a regular basis can replace or reduce the use of expensive medicines and supplements to maintain the health of individuals. Navita Pareek | Ayesha Jamal "Effect of Different Method on Processing and Mineral Composition of Portulaca Oleracea Leaves" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-1 , December 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd48035.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/home-science/food-and-nutrition/48035/effect-of-different-method-on-processing-and-mineral-composition-of-portulaca-oleracea-leaves/navita-pareek
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A fenugreek seed (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is a native of India, and also found in Mediterranean region, southern Europe, Africa and western Asia. These seeds have their importance due to the medicinal properties as well as nutraceutical value present in their chemical composition. This fenugreek seeds were used for treating diabetes, menstrual cramps, cancer, heart related disease, skin and hair fall treatments, high per tension, weight loss, to increase milk supply in women who were breastfeeding. This seeds is found to be abundant in N-Dimethylaminomethyl, 1-ptoprnol, 2, 2-dimethyl-aceto, Aziridine,1,2,3-trimethyl-trans, 2-pentanone,4-hydroxy-4 meth, 2-trimethylsily-1,3-dithiane, 3-0-methyl-d-glucose, d-mannopyranoiside,uronate,Diazidine1,3,3-trimethyl,Methyl 4,8dimethylnonanoate There are numerous methods available on extraction of these compounds right from conventional (Maceration, Percolation, Reflux extraction, Soxhlet extraction, microwave assist extraction, pressurised liquid extraction, super critical fluid extraction, Pulsed electric field extraction, Enzyme assisted extraction, Ultrasound assisted extraction) apart from this some water based extraction technique may also use to extract bioactive compounds from fenugreek seeds. In present article a focus has been given to highlight importance of fenugreek seeds extract in terms of extraction of bioactive compounds and their probable application in the area of food and pharmaceuticals.
Over the past decades, the use of natural additives has increased as an alternative to artificial ingredients in the food industry. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of pomegranate peel (PP) as a natural food additive. Many factors, including genotype, could affect the quality of PP as a by-product of juice production with many nutritional, functional and anti-infective properties. In this study, the most significant phytochemical characters of thirty Iranian pomegranate peels (IPP) from different genotypes, including total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC), and nine phenolic compounds were determined. The HPLC-DAD-MS results of PPEs revealed nine phenolic compounds in the IPP extracts. Punicalagin β, punicalagin α, and ellagic acid were the main components constituting 20.8–48.7, 13.9–30.1, and 1.6–13.4 μg/mg DW, respectively. The peel of IPP23 (Kabdar-Shirin-e- Behshahr) contained the highest quantity of polyphenolic compounds. Also, TPC and TFC of the peel extracts ranged between 66.38 and 181.41 mg GAE/ g DW and 38.5 to 144.13 mg RE/ g DW, respectively. Eventually, antioxidant potential estimated by the DPPH assay ranged between 4.1 and 14.4 μg/ml. The results showed that the antioxidant property of pomegranate peel extracts is significantly higher than the standard of gallic acid. Also, the peel of the genotypes that had high phenolic compounds were introduced as superior genotypes. The results of HCA showed that, among the studied genotypes, the peel of IPP23 can be introduced as a potential source of natural preservatives in the food industry.
Screening and evaluation of medicinal properties of grape fruit varieties in ...EditorIJAERD
Theni districts could be considered one of the highest grapes producing area also export best quality of
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contents such as carbohydrate contents of 29mg, Protein 18.7mg and fat content 3.7mg /100 g of f. wt. Micronutrients
were estimated by AAS which showed that calcium content was 3.1mg/g.f.wt, iron content 2.7 mg/g.f.wt, potassium 2.6
mg/g.f.wt found to be more than other minerals in fresh extracts of grape fruits. The comparative results of revealed
considerable amount of phytoconstituents in grape fruits in which anthocyanins alone has been taken to evaluate
therapeutic effects on breast cancer cell MCF-7 cell viability test was carried out to determine cell proliferation. The
results revealed presence of anthocyanins in high quantity in the process of purification through various biochemical
methods that could ultimately be used for preventing cancerous cell proliferation which reduces the development of
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1361278282 massini312012 ejfrr2239
1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: Email: laura.massini@dit.ie;
European Journal of Food Research & Review
3(1): 1-15, 2013
SCIENCEDOMAIN international
www.sciencedomain.org
Valorisation of Apple Peels
Laura Massini1*
, Daniel Rico2
, Ana Belen Martín Diana2
and Catherine Barry-Ryan1
1
School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Cathal
Brugha Street, D1, Dublin, Ireland.
2
Agro Technological Institute of Castilla y Leon (ITACYL), Government of Castilla y Leon,
Finca Zamadueñas, Valladolid, Spain.
Authors’ contributions
The experimental study was designed in collaboration between all authors.
Author LM managed the literature searches, the analyses of the study and wrote the first
draft of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Received 21
st
September 2012
Accepted 1
st
February 2013
Published 19
th
February 2013
ABSTRACT
The peels of processed apples can be recovered for further food applications. Limited
information on the valorisation of this type of waste is available for cooking varieties, e.g.
cv Bramley’s Seedling. Extracts from fresh or dried (oven-dried or freeze-dried) peels were
obtained with solvents of different polarity (aqueous acetone or ethanol) and assayed for
their total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity; their antiradical power was compared
to herb extracts. The dried peels were also characterised as bulk powders by assessing
their nutritional value and total phenolic content. High amounts of ascorbic acid (up to 4
mg/g, dry weight) and polyphenols (up to 27 mg gallic acid equivalents/g, dry weight) were
found in the peels, with the latter contributing significantly to the antioxidant capacity; the
nutrient profile was low in protein (less than 10%, w/w) and total dietary fibre content (less
than 40%, w/w). Higher yields of phenolic antioxidants were recovered with acetone from
freeze-dried peels; the resulting extracts had equivalent antioxidant power to oregano
leaves (Origanum vulgare L.). The combination of oven-drying/ethanol led to lower
recovery yields of phenolic antioxidants; however, these conditions could increase the
feasibility of the extraction process, leading to antioxidant extracts with lower energy or
cost input, and higher suitability for further food use.
The recovery of phenolic antioxidants from the peels of processed apples could be a
Research Article
2. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
2
valuable alternative to traditional disposal routes (including landfill), in particular for
cooking varieties.
The recycling process could enhance the growth of traditional culinary apple markets in
UK and Ireland thanks to the new business opportunities for the peel-derived materials.
Keywords: Waste valorisation; cooking apples; peel polyphenols; antioxidant value.
1. INTRODUCTION
There is an increasing interest about natural plant extracts (i.e. botanicals) in novel food
applications, as nutraceutical ingredients [1] or natural preservatives [2] and antioxidants
[3,4,5]. Various agri-food waste and by-products have been screened for the recovery of
natural phenolic antioxidants [6]. The recovery of valuable materials is a strategy of waste
minimisation [7]. Some nutraceutical products have been developed from grape waste or
apple peels, and marketed for the functional markets of Japan and USA [8,9]. In Europe, the
use of botanicals such as vegetable and fruits, herbs and spices, herbal teas and infusions,
and herbs is allowed in food and beverages for taste or functional purposes (e.g. guarana,
gentian, etc.) [1]; however, the functional applications of many botanicals have not yet
received the scientific opinions of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [10].
Apples are important dietary sources of phenolic compounds and have strong antioxidant
capacity compared to other fruits [11]. Apple polyphenols have various in vitro bioactivities,
possibly in combination with dietary fibre (i.e. reduced risk of coronary heart disease) [12].
Higher amounts of polyphenols, in particular flavonol glycosides, are generally found in the
skin of the fruit, compared to the pulp [13].
Some studies have reported about the recycling of apple peels as a source of phenolic
compounds and/or dietary fibre; depending on the compounds, different peel waste-derived
materials were developed (Table 1). The apple peels were preferably processed into a dried
and pulverised bulk material for fibre formulation or nutraceutical use. Phenolics were
extracted with organic solvents (or aqueous mixtures thereof) and then characterised for
their potential health benefits. The second recycling option involved the preparation of crude
or purified mixtures of phenolic antioxidants and/or their formulation in nutraceutical or
functional food applications. To the best of our knowledge, the preparation and
characterisation of apple peel extracts for food stabilisation or preservation has not been
studied.
In the preparation and characterisation of plant waste-derived materials, conditions such as
the drying and the liquid extraction of phenolic compounds have an impact onto the
feasibility of the recycling process (i.e. energy consumption and cost input), and further
applications of the recovered ingredient [14]. For example, the extracts from apple peels
developed in [15] were obtained with methanol; therefore they could not be tested in food
systems. Ethanol and water should be preferred over methanol in view of food applications
[16]. Freeze-drying, which is advantageous for heat sensitive materials, also requires higher
energy consumption and initial and maintenance costs than oven-drying or air-drying,
therefore its use could be limited in the industry [17].
3. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
3
Table 1. Recycling of apple peel-derived materials: processing conditions (drying; extraction solvent); target compounds;
and further applications
Peel-derived
materials
Preservation conditions
(peel material)
Extraction solvent
(phenolic compounds)
Applications Target
compounds
References
Bulk peel
powders
Pre-drying
treatments
Drying
N/A Drum-drying; 70% Acetone (v/v)
Fibre
formulation/
Functional
foods
Dietary fibre
and phenolic
compounds
[18]
Water blanching;
Oven-drying (60ºC,
with air circulation)
Methanol
Fibre
formulation/
Functional
foods
Dietary fibre
and phenolic
compounds
[19]
Water blanching;
ascorbic acid dip
Freeze-drying; air-
drying; oven-drying
(at 40/60/80ºC, no
air circulation)
80% Acetone or 80%
ethanol (v/v)
Nutraceuticals
Phenolic
compounds
[20]
Antioxidant peel
extracts
N/A Freeze-drying Methanol
Functional
foods
Phenolic
compounds
[15]
N/A N/A N/A
Functional
foods
Phenolic
compounds
[21]
a
N/A N/A Ethanol or methanol Nutraceuticals
Phenolic
compounds
[22]
N/A Freeze-drying 80% Acetone (v/v) Nutraceuticals
Phenolic
compounds
[23]
a
In this study, the apple peel extract was commercially available; the conditions used for its preparation were not described. N/A: not applicable.
4. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
4
The diversion of the peel waste from traditional disposal routes (landfertilising, feedstock, or
landfill) towards more valuable food applications could favour the sustainable development
of the culinary apple markets in the British Isles that are primarily based on cv Bramley’s
Seedling. This variety is known for the sole purpose of cooking, i.e. processed into sauce or
puree, or used for home baking. Due to changes in the lifestyle, at the end of the 90’s the
fresh sector has narrowed in UK [24]; the same trend has occurred in Ireland, with the
consequent overproduction at low farm gate prices [25]. In the absence of official statistics
about the waste generated, it was estimated that 300 tonnes of peels could be discarded
annually by processing lines in Ireland [26], assuming a yield of 11% (w/w) of peels from the
whole apple. Another 5,000 tonnes of peels could be generated from the amount of
processed lines in UK.
1
The peels and/or pulp of cooking apples were assessed for their phenolic content in order to
establish their dietary significance [27,28]. However, few studies have investigated their
recovery for valuable applications. Polyphenols were extracted from the pomace as potential
nutraceutical compounds [29]. The contribution of the skin to the extractable phenolics from
the pomace was studied in comparison to the peeled fruit, distinguishing among soluble and
insoluble bound components in view of further applications [30].
In the present study, different approaches for the preparation of peel-derived materials (bulk
powders or extracts) with nutritional and/or antioxidant value from cv Bramley’s Seedling
apple (origin: Ireland) were investigated with the aim of establishing an optimal recovery
process for further food use. The recycling value of these materials was compared to other
plant-based products already developed for food applications (i.e. from the peels of different
apple varieties; or herb leaves). Processing conditions (drying and/or extraction solvent) with
different energetic or cost input were compared with the aim of defining a feasible recycling
process with increased industrial applications. This valorisation approach could be applied to
other processed apples in order to increase the type of waste-derived products recovered
from solid fruit waste.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Chemicals
Chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Ireland) and included: sodium nitrite;
sodium carbonate; ferric chloride; aluminium chloride hexahydrate; 2.0 N Folin-Ciocalteu’s
phenol reagent; 2,4,6-tri(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine (TPTZ); 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH);
Celite, acid-washed; enzymes for the digestion of the dietary fibre: amyloglucosidase from
Aspergillus niger; protease from Bacillus licheniformis; α-amylase (heat stable) from Bacillus
licheniformis; and the standards: (+)-catechin hydrate; gallic acid and L-ascorbic acid.
2.2 Plant Material
Two batches of apples (i.e. 3-5 kg per batch) (Malus domestica Borkh. cv. Bramley’s
Seedling) were purchased from a local store (Dublin, Ireland) between October 2007 and
April 2008. According to the information provided by the retailer, the apples were grown in
Co. Armagh, Northern Ireland, harvested in late August/September and made available
throughout the year thanks to storage facilities (under controlled atmosphere).
1
http://www.bramleyapples.co.uk
5. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
5
The purchased apples were stored at 4ºC in a polyethylene film, until processing. The
apples were washed under tap water, dried by patting on a paper cloth and weighed. The
peels were manually removed with a hand-peeler. Five grams of fresh peels were collected
in triplicate from each batch of apples and immediately assayed. The remaining peels were
oven-dried at 60 ± 2 ºC (OD) on stainless steel trays in a ventilated oven (BS Oven 250,
Weiss Gallenkamp, UK) or freeze-dried (FD) in a Micro Modulyo E-C Apparatus (Davidson &
Hardy, USA) until a constant weight was achieved, in the dark. After drying, the samples
were pulverised in a coffee grinder and the resulting powders were stored in amber bottles at
-20ºC until analysis.
2.3 Experimental Design
The experimental design included the preparation of peel extracts from oven-dried samples
with 80% ethanol, or freeze-dried peels with 80% acetone. The drying and solvent systems
were studied under these combinations (i.e. freeze-drying/acetone; and oven-drying/ethanol)
with the purpose of comparing conditions with less or more favourable impact onto the
feasibility of the recovery process. The resulting extracts were compared to fresh samples
extracted under similar conditions in order to assess the effect of processing onto the
phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of the peels. Oregano and rosemary leaf extracts
were prepared from herbs purchased from a local store and used as reference plant extracts
with established food applications [2]. The dried and pulverised peels were also
characterised as bulk materials (i.e. nutritional value and total phenolic content). Soluble
phenolic compounds were extracted with acetone or ethanol from dried peels (oven-dried or
freeze-dried) and further quantified. The colour and free acidity of the powders were
assessed because of their potential sensorial impact in further food formulation.
2.4 Characterisation of Bulk Peel Powders
2.4.1 Proximate analysis
The proximate analysis was carried out according to official methods [31]: moisture content
(Method 930.04); ash content (Method 930.05); protein content (Method 920.152); fat
content (Method 983.23, with petroleum ether); ascorbic acid content (Method 967.21). The
total dietary fibre (TDF) was determined according to [32]. Sugars were extracted from the
plant matrix using 80% ethanol (v/v) under boiling conditions and quantified as glucose
equivalents (g/100 g) using the phenol-sulphur method [33]. The analyses were done in
triplicate and expressed on a dry weight basis (DW).
2.4.2 Free titratable acidity
For the free titratable acidity, 1 g of peel powder was boiled for 10 mins in 20 mL of distilled
water and filtered through a Büchner funnel. The free titratable acidity was measured
according to [31] (Method 942.15.b).
2.4.3 Colour
The CIELAB* colour (L*; a*; b* values) of the powders was measured in triplicate using
ColorQuest®Xe (HunterLab, USA) applying the reflectance method: 10° observer; D65
illuminant. The instrument was calibrated with standard white and black tiles. The colour
6. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
6
values were expressed as: L* = lightness (from 0 to 100); a* = redness/greenness (from +a*
to –a*); b* = yellowness/blueness (from +b* to –b*).
2.5 Characterisation of Peel Extracts
2.5.1 Extraction of phenolic compounds
Crude mixtures of soluble polyphenols were obtained in triplicate from fresh or dried peels,
using a procedure previously described with minor modifications [20]. For the dried peels, ~1
gram of powder was homogenised (Ultra-Turrax T25, IKA Laborteck, Germany) with 40 g of
chilled aqueous 80% ethanol or 80% acetone (v/v) at 9500-13500 min
-1
for 5 min. The
obtained slurry was filtered under vacuum. The remaining solids were added to 15 mL
solvent and extracted again, homogenising for 1 min. For the fresh peels, 5 g of sample was
blended in a portable mini blender (dj2000 Illico Mini Chopper, Moulinex, France) with 40 g
of solvent for 3 min, and then filtered through N.6 Whatman paper in a Büchner funnel. In the
last filtration step, for both fresh and dried samples, another 15 mL of solvent was poured
onto the filter cake. During the extraction, the extracts were kept chilled in an ice bath, in the
dark. Homogenisation was stopped after one minute, waiting at least another minute before
resuming. The filtrates were collected and the organic solvent was removed at 40ºC using a
Büchi rotavapor, until the aqueous phase remained. The concentrated extracts were brought
to the volume of 25 mL with distilled water, filtered through N.1 Whatman paper, and stored
at -20ºC in the dark. Before analysis, they were thawed, centrifuged at 8,000 rpm for 15 min,
filtered through 0.45 μm PTFE (Acrodisc, Pall, UK) membrane disc filter, and brought up to
the volume of 50 mL with distilled water.
2.5.2 Total phenolic content
The total phenolic content (TPC) was assessed using Folin-Ciocalteu assay [34]. Volumes of
0.5 mL of distilled water and 0.125 mL of sample were added to a test tube. A volume of
0.125 mL of 2.0 N Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was added and allowed to react for 6 min. Then,
1.25 mL of a 7% sodium carbonate solution (v/v) was added to the mixture and allowed to
stand for 90 min in the dark, for colour development. Before reading the absorbance at 760
nm in a spectrophotometer (Spectronic 1201, Milton Roy, USA), the mixture was diluted up
to 3 mL with distilled water. Gallic acid solutions were used for the standard calibration curve
and the total phenolic content was expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g or 100 g
peels (dry weight or fresh weight basis, DW or FW). All measurements were carried out in
triplicate.
2.5.3 Total flavonoid content
The total flavonoid content (TFC) was assessed using aluminium-chloride assay [35]. A
volume of 0.25 mL of sample was added to a test tube containing 1.25 mL of distilled water.
An aliquot of 0.075 mL of 5% sodium nitrite solution (w/v) was added to the mixture and
allowed to stand for 5 min. Then, the addition of 0.15 mL of 10% aluminium chloride (w/v)
developed a yellow flavonoid-aluminium complex. After 6 min, 0.5 mL of 4.3% NaOH (w/v)
was added. The absorbance was measured immediately in a spectrophotometer (Spectronic
1201, Milton Roy, USA) at 510 nm and compared to a standard curve of (+)-catechin
solutions. The flavonoid content was expressed as mg catechin equivalents (CE)/g peels
(FW). All measurements were carried out in triplicate.
7. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
7
2.5.4 Ferric reducing antioxidant power
The antioxidant capacity was evaluated using a modified FRAP assay procedure based on a
previously published protocol [36]. A freshly prepared FRAP-reagent (25 mL acetate buffer,
300 mM, pH 3.6 + 2.5 mL 10 mM TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-5-triazine) in 40 mM HCl + 2.5 mL 20
mM FeCl3·6 H2O) was heated in water bath at 37ºC for 5 min before being transferred (0.9
mL) into tubes containing 0.1 mL of plant extracts. The tubes were left in water bath at 37ºC
for 40 minutes. The absorbance was then measured at 593 nm in a spectrophotometer
(Spectronic 1201, Milton Roy, USA). The antioxidant capacity was compared to standard L-
ascorbic acid through a calibration curve, and expressed as mg ascorbic acid equivalents
(AAE)/g peels (FW), which was also referred to as AEAC (ascorbic acid equivalent
antioxidant capacity). All measurements were carried out in triplicate.
2.5.5 Radical scavenging capacity
The radical scavenging capacity was measured against the synthetic radical compound
DPPH
•
[37]. A volume of 0.1 mL of diluted extracts (bulk; 1:2; 1:5; 1:10; 1:20; 1:50) was
added in a reaction vessel containing 0.9 mL of a freshly prepared DPPH
•
solution (0.08 mM
in 96% ethanol, v/v); the reaction was allowed to run for at least 30 minutes. The decrease in
absorbance of the samples was read at 515 nm against a blank of distilled water in a
spectrophotometer (Spectronic 1201, Milton Roy, USA) and compared to that of a control
solution of DPPH
•
prepared with 0.1 mL of distilled water.
The % Reduced DPPH
•
was calculated using the following equation:
% Reduced DPPH
•
= [(1 – Abs sample)/Abs control)] * 100
The % Reduced values were expressed as AEAC (mg AAE/g peels, FW) by comparison
with a standard calibration curve with ascorbic acid. The IC50 value (i.e. concentration of
plant extract that reduces by 50% the initial concentration of the radical form of DPPH
•
in the
reaction mixture) was calculated from the curves of sample concentration (as mg/mL, FW)
vs. % Reduced DPPH
•
. The values were expressed as Antiradical Power (ARP) = 1/IC50
(mL/g sample, FW) according to [38]. For the preparation of plant extracts with reference
antiradical power, fresh leaves of oregano (OR) and rosemary (ROS) were purchased from a
local store (Dublin, Ireland) and oven-dried at 60ºC ± 2ºC in a ventilated air oven (Weiss
Gallenkamp BS Oven 250, UK) until constant weight was achieved, in the dark. The samples
were pulverised using a mortar and a pestle. Rosemary (5 g) and oregano (2 g) leaf powders
were extracted with 95% ethanol (v/v) homogenising for 2 minutes [39]. The resulting ROS
and OR extracts were filtered through Nº6 Whatman filter paper using a Büchner funnel,
under vacuum. The filtrates were collected and further evaporated in a rotary evaporator at
40ºC under vacuum, until 20% of the original volume remained. The extracts were stored in
amber glass bottles at -20ºC until analysis.
2.6 Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using StatGraphics Centurion XV (Statpoint Technologies
Inc., USA) and GraphPad v. 5.01 for Windows (GraphPad Software Inc., USA). Normal data
was tested for significance using the one-way ANOVA (LSD post-hoc test), and F-test as
appropriate. A regression analysis was also carried out. For all the statistical tests, the
significance level taken was P<0.05.
8. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
8
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Bulk Peel Powders
The characteristics of the powders obtained under different drying conditions were studied
and further compared (Table 2). Regardless of the drying method, the powders generally
had reduced protein content (less than 5%), making them a poor animal feed. They had high
content of total carbohydrates (up to 80%, w/w). When compared to peel materials already
developed from dessert varieties, e.g. cv Granny Smith [18], cv Northern Spy or cv Ida Red
[19], the powders from Bramley apple peels had lower total dietary fibre (less than 40%, w/w,
DW). They also had high acidity (almost 4-fold higher than in the peels of cv Granny Smith),
which could negatively impact the sensorial characteristics in further food formulations. The
ascorbic acid content was high, with values ranging from 3.0 to 4.4 (mg/g, DW); values
between 0.7–3.4 mg/g were reported in the peels of various dessert apples [40].
Table 2. Physical and chemical characteristics of bulk peel powders as affected by the
drying method
Parameter
(%, w/w)
Drying method
OD FD
Total ash 2.23
a
± 0.10 2.49
a
± 0.44
Total fat 3.83
b
± 0.23 6.61
a
± 0.82
Total protein 5.07
a
± 0.32 5.36
a
± 0.19
Total dietary fibre 35.38
a
± 2.22 32.49
a
± 0.10
Total sugars
(as glucose)
46.00
a
± 8.27 40.36
a
± 3.03
Free titratable acidity
(% malic acid, w/v)
8.52
a
± 0.11 8.16
a
± 0.76
Ascorbic acid
(mg/g)
3.01
b
± 0.30 4.42
a
± 0.20
Colour
L* 71.3
b
± 0.6 74.3
a
± 0.2
a* 1.9
a
± 0.2 -6.6
b
± 0.1
b* 30.5
b
± 0.3 34.6
a
± 0.1
Values were expressed as mean ± SD (n = 6) on a dry weight basis, considering an average residual
moisture content of 7.5% and 9.0% for oven-dried (OD) and freeze-dried (FD) peels, respectively.
Different superscript letters in each row denoted significant difference (P<0.05) between samples.
Some physical and chemical parameters were significantly affected by the drying system
(Table 2). In particular, the thermal drying (e.g. oven-drying) produced a significant reduction
of the fat and ascorbic acid content of the powders in comparison to freeze-drying. The
oven-dried powders poorly retained the colour of the fresh peels in comparison to freeze-
dried samples, and their colour had significant (P<0.05) lower greenness and yellowness
values.
The drying system also influenced significantly (P<0.001) the yield of total phenolic
compounds (calculated as TPC) in the final powders (Table 3). The yield also depended on
the organic solvent used for their extraction (P<0.001). The thermal decomposition of the
lipid substances in the skin could be associated to an increased oxidative damage of its
natural antioxidants.
9. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
9
Table 3. Total phenolic content of oven-dried and freeze-dried bulk peel powders
(extracted with different organic solvents)
Drying system Extraction solvent Total phenolic content
(mg GAE/g, DW)
Freeze-drying (FD)
Acetone (Ac) 27.04 ± 1.76
Ethanol (Et) 21.93 ± 0.36
Oven-drying (OD)
Acetone (Ac) 21.75 ± 0.36
Ethanol (Et) 17.97 ± 0.42
Main effects
F-test
LSD0.05 = 1.24 Mean
Drying system ***
24.97 (FD)
20.04 (OD)
Extraction solvent ***
24.78 (Ac)
20.23 (Et)
*** indicated a highly significant effect (P<0.001). TPC values were expressed as mean ± SD (n = 6). GAE:
gallic acid equivalents.
The loss of phenolic compounds during oven-drying was reported for various plants [6].
Natural antioxidants are normally accumulated in the skin in order to supply their antioxidant
protection [40]. Phenolics could be regenerated by non-enzymatic reactions with ascorbate
in the apple fruit [41]. The TPC values of the Bramley apple peels were in agreement with
results already reported for this variety [27].
3.2 Peel Extracts
3.2.1 Phenolic yield
The total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid (TFC) contents of fresh and dried peels extracted
with different solvents were compared (Table 4). With regard to the same solvent, dried
peels had similar TPC than fresh samples, but their TFC was significantly different (P<0.05).
Table 4. Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of fresh and dried peels extracted
with the same type of solvent
Parameter
(mg/g peels, FW)
Extraction solvent Peels
Fresh Dried i
TPC (as GAE) Acetone 7.68a
± 0.74 7.63a
± 0.17
Ethanol 6.35b
± 0.76 5.86b
± 0.35
TFC (as CE) Acetone 5.34a
± 0.48 4.51b
± 0.10
Ethanol 4.76b
± 0.47 4.03c
± 0.06
FRAP
(as AEAC)
Acetone
Ethanol
13.26a
± 0.88
9.88b
± 1.66
13.92a
± 0.29
10.43b
± 1.34
Radical scavenging Acetone 12.11a
± 1.22 10.43b
± 1.34
capacity (DPPH)
(as AEAC)
Ethanol 9.15c
± 0.61 7.27d
± 0.64
i
Freeze-dried (extracted with acetone); oven-dried (extracted with ethanol).
Values were expressed as mean ± SD (n=6). Different superscript letters indicated significant difference
(P<0.05) between fresh and dried samples extracted with the same type of solvent (within row). TPC: total
phenolic content, expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE); TFC: total flavonoid content, expressed as
catechin equivalents (CE); FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power, expressed as ascorbic acid equivalents
(AEAC); Radical scavenging capacity against DPPH, expressed as ascorbic acid equivalents (AEAC).
10. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
10
These findings suggested that some flavonoids were lost during the processing of the peels,
while other phenolics (i.e. conjugated) could be released after hydrolysis of the cell wall
linkages, thus contributing to the yield of total phenolics. Most of the conjugated phenolics in
apples are esters of hydroxycinammic acids [42].
With regard to the extraction solvent, acetone extracted higher amounts of phenolic
compounds than ethanol. In particular, the yield of phenolic compounds with ethanol was
nearly 20% less than with acetone. The solubility of plant phenolics in solvents such as
ethanol or water is due to glycosilated forms than are more water-soluble than the related
aglycones. A solvent of lower polarity, such as acetone, can favour the extraction of
flavonoids of low-medium polarity (procyanidins) that remain otherwise bound to the alcohol-
insoluble matrix in apples [43].
3.2.2 Antioxidant capacity
The ascorbic acid equivalent antioxidant capacities (AEAC) of the processed samples were
compared to those of fresh samples extracted under the same solvent conditions (Table 4).
The radical scavenging capacity (for DPPH
•
) reduced significantly (P<0.05) after the
processing of the peels, while the ferric reducing antioxidant power was not affected. These
findings suggested that the redox potential (FRAP) of the fresh sample was maintained
during processing because the amount of total reducing substances (including total
polyphenols, TPC) remained stable possibly as a result of released hydroxycinnamic acids
otherwise bound in the fresh tissue [20]. On the contrary, the radical scavenging capacity of
the processed mixture lowered in comparison to fresh samples, possibly in response to the
loss of flavonoid compounds (TFC). In particular, it is believed that the loss of oligomeric
procyanidins, i.e. indicated as the most powerful antioxidants in apples [44], could influence
significantly the radical scavenging capacity of the processed samples, as it is known that
the number and substitution patterns of hydroxyl groups on the flavonoid structure is crucial
for their radical scavenging capacity [45]. The two antioxidant assays, FRAP and DPPH,
could respond differently to the antioxidant mixtures as they are based on different
antioxidant mechanisms [46,47]. With regard to the solvent, the extracts obtained with
acetone showed significantly higher antioxidant capacity (P<0.05) than those obtained with
ethanol. This was explained as due to the solubilisation of higher amounts of phenolic
compounds (especially flavonoids). The FRAP capacities of fresh and dried peels from cv.
Bramley’s Seedling were in agreement with data reported for dessert apples [13]. To the
best of our knowledge, no AEAC values measured by the DPPH assay have been reported
in literature for other apple peels.
3.2.3 Antiradical power
The Antiradical Power (ARP) of apple peel extracts was compared to oregano and rosemary
leaf extracts (Fig. 1).
11. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
11
Fig. 1. Antiradical power of apple peel and herb leaf extracts.
Different superscript letters denoted significant difference (P<0.05) among samples. Drying: oven-
drying (OD); freeze-drying (FD). Extraction solvent: acetone (Ac); ethanol (Et). Herbs: oregano (OR);
rosemary (ROS).
The peel extracts obtained with acetone had similar antioxidant capacity than oregano leaf
extracts. Rosemary extract had the strongest ARP (P<0.05) amongst the plant extracts
investigated. Fresh peels had IC50 values of 4.28 ± 0.23 and 3.04 ± 0.27 mg peels/mL (FW)
when extracted with ethanol and acetone, respectively. Dried peels had IC50 values of 6.51 ±
0.84 and 3.72 ± 0.48 mg peels/mL (FW), when extracted with ethanol and acetone,
respectively. Kondo et al. [48] reported for the skin of dessert and cider apples IC50 values
lower than 5 mg peels/mL (in the reaction mixture, FW), that is ARP values higher than 200
mL/g. The ARP values for fresh peels of cv. Bramley’s Seedling in this study were 234 ± 13
and 331 ± 30 mL/g peels (in the reaction mixture, FW), for the extracts obtained with ethanol
and acetone, respectively.
Oregano and rosemary leaf extracts had IC50 values of 3.13 ± 0.04 and 1.89 ± 1.12 mg
herb/mL (FW); these values were equivalent to 0.39 and 0.16 mg herb/mL on DW basis,
assuming an average moisture content of 86%, w/w, which were consistent with previous
data reported in literature [49].
3.2.4 Regression analysis between antioxidant capacity and phenolic content
A regression analysis between the antioxidant capacity and the phenolic content of the peels
was carried out (Table 5). The Pearson correlation coefficients were strongly significant
(P<0.01) between the variables. However, it was observed a higher deviation from linearity
in the regression values (r-square<0.66) of the whole peels (fresh + dried, n = 18) compared
to dried samples (n = 12). This could indicate that reducing substances other than
polyphenols (e.g. ascorbic acid) were extracted from fresh samples and contributed to the
antioxidant capacity together with phenolics. In agreement with this hypothesis, the
relationship between AEAC (measured as FRAP) and the total flavonoid content (r-
square<0.34) was weak; while the radical scavenging capacity was better correlated with the
total flavonoid content (r-square>0.63).
12. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
12
Table 5. Regression analysis between antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of
apple peels
Antioxidant capacity
(as AEAC)
Total phenolic
content
Total flavonoid
content
Fresh+Dried Corr. r-square Corr. r-square
FRAP ** (0.66) ** (0.34)
DPPH ** (0.47) ** (0.63)
Dried Corr. r-square Corr. r-square
FRAP ** (0.76) ** (0.48)
DPPH ** (0.63) ** (0.69)
** indicated a very significant correlation between the variables (P<0.01); the linear regression fit for
the correlated data was reported in brackets (R-square). AEAC: ascorbic acid equivalent antioxidant
capacity; Corr.: Pearson’s correlation.
In the dried samples, the contribution of phenolic compounds to the antioxidant capacity
increased above 70%, particularly for flavonoids and their radical scavenging capacity, thus
indicating the possible reduction of co-extracted substances, such as ascorbic acid. Results
previously reported [27] for Bramley apple indicated a weak linear correlation between the
antioxidant capacity (as FRAP) and the total phenolic content (r-square<0.58).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The recycling value of the peels from cv. Bramley’s Seedling depended on its high
levels of natural antioxidants, in particular phenolic compounds that contributed
significantly to its antioxidant capacity.
The recovery of target phenolic antioxidants (especially flavonoids) could be lowered
by the processing, i.e. cutting; drying and pulverising; however, during the
processing, phenolic compounds conjugated in the fresh plant matrix could be
released with a consequent increase of the redox potential and total phenolic
content of the resulting extracts.
The drying system and the organic solvent used for the phenolic recovery affected
their extraction yield, consequently their antioxidant capacity. Freeze-drying
protected the antioxidant value better than oven-drying, while acetone favoured the
solubilisation of higher amounts of phenolic compounds than ethanol. The resulting
extracts had equivalent antioxidant power to oregano leaf extract.
The use of oven-drying/ethanol for the phenolic recovery could lead to extracts with
lower antioxidant value compared to freeze-drying/acetone but with enhanced food
applications.
Further investigation on the isolation of antioxidant phenolic compounds from the
peels of Bramley’s Seedling apple for future food applications is desirable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the DIT Strand III 2007-2010
for the carrying out of this project.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
13. European Journal of Food Research & Review, 3(1): 1-15, 2013
13
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