This document provides a survey of different void handling techniques that are suitable for vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). It begins with an introduction to geographic routing and the void problem in networks. Then it describes six categories of void handling techniques: planar graph based, face routing based, restricted direction based, hierarchical based, trajectory based, and cluster based. For each category, it briefly explains one or two representative techniques. Finally, it provides a comparative survey of the techniques based on important performance features.
The document summarizes an Efficient Position-Based Opportunistic Routing (EPOR) protocol proposed for mobile ad hoc networks. EPOR takes advantage of geographic routing and the broadcast nature of wireless transmissions. When a packet is transmitted, overhearing nodes can act as forwarding candidates. The best forwarder is chosen, but if it fails to forward in time, a suboptimal candidate will forward instead to avoid transmission interruptions. Simulation results show EPOR achieves higher packet delivery ratios and lower end-to-end delays than GPSR and AOMDV routing protocols, even under high node mobility.
INVESTIGATING MULTILAYER OMEGA-TYPE NETWORKS OPERATING WITH THE CUT-THROUGH T...IJCNCJournal
The continuous increase in the complexity of data networks has motivated the development of more effective Multistage Interconnection Networks (MINs) as important factors in providing higher data transfer rates in various switching divisions. In this paper, semi-layer omega-class networks operating with a cut-through forwarding technique are chosen as test-bed subjects for detailed evaluation, and this network architecture is modelled, inspected, and simulated. The results are examined for relevant singlelayer omega networks operating with cut-through or ‘store and forward’ forwarding techniques. Two series of experiments are carried out: one concerns the case of uniform traffic, while the other is related to hotspot traffic. The results quantify the way in which this network outperforms the corresponding singlelayer network architectures for the same network size and buffer size. Furthermore, the effects of the dimensions of the switch elements and their corresponding reliability on the overall interconnection system are investigated, and the complexity and the relevant cost are examined. The data yielded by this investigation can be valuable to MIN engineers and can allow them to achieve more productive networks with lower overall implementation costs.
GRAPH THEORETIC ROUTING ALGORITHM (GTRA) FOR MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS (MANET)graphhoc
Battlefield theater applications require supporting large number of nodes. It can facilitate many multi-hop
paths between each source and destination pairs. For scalability, it is critical that for supporting network
centric applications with large set of nodes require hierarchical approach to designing networks. In this
research we consider using Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) with multiple clusters. Each cluster
supports a few nodes with a cluster head. The intra-cluster connectivity amongst the nodes within the
cluster is supported by multi-hop connectivity to ensure handling mobility in such a way that no service
disruption can occur. The inter-cluster connectivity is also achieved by multi-hop connectivity. However,
for inter-cluster communications, only cluster heads are connected. The selection of intra-cluster
communications and inter-cluster communications allow scalability of the network to support multiservices
applications end-to-end with a desired Quality of Service (QoS). This paper proposes graph
theoretic approach to establish efficient connection between a source and a destination within each cluster
in intra-cluster network and between clusters in inter-cluster network. Graph theoretic approach
traditionally was applied networks where nodes are static or fixed. In this paper, we have applied the
graph theoretic routing to MANET where nodes are mobile. One of the important challenges in MANET is
to support an efficient routing algorithm for multi-hop communications across many nodes which are
dynamic in nature. However, dynamic behavior of the nodes requires greater understanding of the node
degree and mobility at each instance of time in order to maintain end-to-end QoS for multi-service
provisioning. This paper demonstrates graph theoretic approach produces an optimum multi-hop
connectivity path based on cumulative minimum degree that minimizes the contention and scheduling
delay end-to-end. It is applied to both intra-cluster communications as well as inter-cluster
communications. The performance shows that having a multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster
communications is more power efficient compared to broadcast of information with maximum power
coverage. Each cluster performs similarly and the algorithm is also used for inter-cluster communications.
Our simulation results show that the proposed graph theoretic routing approach will reduce the overall
delay and improves the physical layer data frame transmission.
Analysis of Latency and Throughput of 2D Torus Topology using Modified XY Rou...IDES Editor
Network-on-Chip (NoC) is a packet switched onchip
communication network designed using a layered
methodology i.e. “routes packets, not wires”. It is an efficient
on chip communication architecture for System on Chip (SoC)
architectures. NoCs solved the disadvantages of SoCs and are
scalable. Each route in NoC includes some routers and it takes
a few clock periods by passing a router.
When the network is in congestion, the package transmission
will produce much more time delay. So adopting an appropriate
routing algorithm to get the balance between the time delay
and throughput rate becomes the key problem. In this paper
we tried to solve that problem using torus topology with our
modified XY routing algorithm.
We used NIRGAM simulator for analysis of latency and
throughput of modified XY routing algorithm for 2D torus
topology. 3x3 network size used for analyze the performance.
We consider all tiles as source, all tiles as destination and
vary the packet size & traffic used is Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
random traffic. It is found that packet size increases then
latency/packet increases and throughput (in Gbps) also
increases but latency/flit decreases.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
ADAPTIVE AODV ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKSijasuc
This document proposes techniques to improve the efficiency of route request flooding in mobile ad hoc networks. It presents two new enhancements to the Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol: EAODV1, which selects neighboring nodes to forward route requests based on mobility and recent usage for moderate node speeds; and EAODV2, which alternates between flooding and selection based on mobility and usage for high speeds. It also introduces Adaptive AODV (AAODV), which automatically switches between EAODV1 and EAODV2 based on measured node mobility. Simulation results show these methods reduce overhead, improve packet delivery ratio, and reduce end-to-end delay compared to standard AODV
A comparative study in wireless sensor networksijwmn
This document summarizes and compares several routing algorithms proposed for wireless sensor networks. It discusses algorithms that aim to improve reliability, power efficiency, lifetime, and fault tolerance. The evaluation section compares how each algorithm addresses challenges like reliability, energy conservation, and adapting to topology changes. While various algorithms achieve improvements in areas like power efficiency and lifetime, most still have limitations and do not fully address all the key challenges for wireless sensor networks.
Mobility is one of the basic features that define an ad hoc network, an asset that leaves the field free for the
nodes to move. The most important aspect of this kind of network turns into a great disadvantage when it
comes to commercial applications, take as an example: the automotive networks that allow communication
between a groups of vehicles. The ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol, designed
for mobile ad hoc networks, has two main functions. First, it enables route establishment between a source
and a destination node by initiating a route discovery process. Second, it maintains the active routes, which
means finding alternative routes in a case of a link failure and deleting routes when they are no longer
desired. In a highly mobile network those are demanding tasks to be performed efficiently and accurately.
In this paper, we focused in the first point to enhance the local decision of each node in the network by the
quantification of the mobility of their neighbours. Quantification is made around RSSI algorithm a well
known distance estimation method.
The document summarizes an Efficient Position-Based Opportunistic Routing (EPOR) protocol proposed for mobile ad hoc networks. EPOR takes advantage of geographic routing and the broadcast nature of wireless transmissions. When a packet is transmitted, overhearing nodes can act as forwarding candidates. The best forwarder is chosen, but if it fails to forward in time, a suboptimal candidate will forward instead to avoid transmission interruptions. Simulation results show EPOR achieves higher packet delivery ratios and lower end-to-end delays than GPSR and AOMDV routing protocols, even under high node mobility.
INVESTIGATING MULTILAYER OMEGA-TYPE NETWORKS OPERATING WITH THE CUT-THROUGH T...IJCNCJournal
The continuous increase in the complexity of data networks has motivated the development of more effective Multistage Interconnection Networks (MINs) as important factors in providing higher data transfer rates in various switching divisions. In this paper, semi-layer omega-class networks operating with a cut-through forwarding technique are chosen as test-bed subjects for detailed evaluation, and this network architecture is modelled, inspected, and simulated. The results are examined for relevant singlelayer omega networks operating with cut-through or ‘store and forward’ forwarding techniques. Two series of experiments are carried out: one concerns the case of uniform traffic, while the other is related to hotspot traffic. The results quantify the way in which this network outperforms the corresponding singlelayer network architectures for the same network size and buffer size. Furthermore, the effects of the dimensions of the switch elements and their corresponding reliability on the overall interconnection system are investigated, and the complexity and the relevant cost are examined. The data yielded by this investigation can be valuable to MIN engineers and can allow them to achieve more productive networks with lower overall implementation costs.
GRAPH THEORETIC ROUTING ALGORITHM (GTRA) FOR MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS (MANET)graphhoc
Battlefield theater applications require supporting large number of nodes. It can facilitate many multi-hop
paths between each source and destination pairs. For scalability, it is critical that for supporting network
centric applications with large set of nodes require hierarchical approach to designing networks. In this
research we consider using Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) with multiple clusters. Each cluster
supports a few nodes with a cluster head. The intra-cluster connectivity amongst the nodes within the
cluster is supported by multi-hop connectivity to ensure handling mobility in such a way that no service
disruption can occur. The inter-cluster connectivity is also achieved by multi-hop connectivity. However,
for inter-cluster communications, only cluster heads are connected. The selection of intra-cluster
communications and inter-cluster communications allow scalability of the network to support multiservices
applications end-to-end with a desired Quality of Service (QoS). This paper proposes graph
theoretic approach to establish efficient connection between a source and a destination within each cluster
in intra-cluster network and between clusters in inter-cluster network. Graph theoretic approach
traditionally was applied networks where nodes are static or fixed. In this paper, we have applied the
graph theoretic routing to MANET where nodes are mobile. One of the important challenges in MANET is
to support an efficient routing algorithm for multi-hop communications across many nodes which are
dynamic in nature. However, dynamic behavior of the nodes requires greater understanding of the node
degree and mobility at each instance of time in order to maintain end-to-end QoS for multi-service
provisioning. This paper demonstrates graph theoretic approach produces an optimum multi-hop
connectivity path based on cumulative minimum degree that minimizes the contention and scheduling
delay end-to-end. It is applied to both intra-cluster communications as well as inter-cluster
communications. The performance shows that having a multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster
communications is more power efficient compared to broadcast of information with maximum power
coverage. Each cluster performs similarly and the algorithm is also used for inter-cluster communications.
Our simulation results show that the proposed graph theoretic routing approach will reduce the overall
delay and improves the physical layer data frame transmission.
Analysis of Latency and Throughput of 2D Torus Topology using Modified XY Rou...IDES Editor
Network-on-Chip (NoC) is a packet switched onchip
communication network designed using a layered
methodology i.e. “routes packets, not wires”. It is an efficient
on chip communication architecture for System on Chip (SoC)
architectures. NoCs solved the disadvantages of SoCs and are
scalable. Each route in NoC includes some routers and it takes
a few clock periods by passing a router.
When the network is in congestion, the package transmission
will produce much more time delay. So adopting an appropriate
routing algorithm to get the balance between the time delay
and throughput rate becomes the key problem. In this paper
we tried to solve that problem using torus topology with our
modified XY routing algorithm.
We used NIRGAM simulator for analysis of latency and
throughput of modified XY routing algorithm for 2D torus
topology. 3x3 network size used for analyze the performance.
We consider all tiles as source, all tiles as destination and
vary the packet size & traffic used is Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
random traffic. It is found that packet size increases then
latency/packet increases and throughput (in Gbps) also
increases but latency/flit decreases.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
ADAPTIVE AODV ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKSijasuc
This document proposes techniques to improve the efficiency of route request flooding in mobile ad hoc networks. It presents two new enhancements to the Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol: EAODV1, which selects neighboring nodes to forward route requests based on mobility and recent usage for moderate node speeds; and EAODV2, which alternates between flooding and selection based on mobility and usage for high speeds. It also introduces Adaptive AODV (AAODV), which automatically switches between EAODV1 and EAODV2 based on measured node mobility. Simulation results show these methods reduce overhead, improve packet delivery ratio, and reduce end-to-end delay compared to standard AODV
A comparative study in wireless sensor networksijwmn
This document summarizes and compares several routing algorithms proposed for wireless sensor networks. It discusses algorithms that aim to improve reliability, power efficiency, lifetime, and fault tolerance. The evaluation section compares how each algorithm addresses challenges like reliability, energy conservation, and adapting to topology changes. While various algorithms achieve improvements in areas like power efficiency and lifetime, most still have limitations and do not fully address all the key challenges for wireless sensor networks.
Mobility is one of the basic features that define an ad hoc network, an asset that leaves the field free for the
nodes to move. The most important aspect of this kind of network turns into a great disadvantage when it
comes to commercial applications, take as an example: the automotive networks that allow communication
between a groups of vehicles. The ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol, designed
for mobile ad hoc networks, has two main functions. First, it enables route establishment between a source
and a destination node by initiating a route discovery process. Second, it maintains the active routes, which
means finding alternative routes in a case of a link failure and deleting routes when they are no longer
desired. In a highly mobile network those are demanding tasks to be performed efficiently and accurately.
In this paper, we focused in the first point to enhance the local decision of each node in the network by the
quantification of the mobility of their neighbours. Quantification is made around RSSI algorithm a well
known distance estimation method.
Mobile environment pretense a number of novel
theoretical and optimization issues such as position, operation
and following in that a lot of requests rely on them for
desirable information. The precedent works are sprinkled
across the entire network layer: from the medium of physical
to link layer to routing and then application layer. In this
invention, we present outline solutions in Medium Access
Control (MAC), data distribution, coverage resolve issues
under mobile ad-hoc network environment based on
congestion control technique using Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). In mobile ad-hoc network issues can arise
such as link disconnections, channel contention and recurrent
path loss. To resolve this issue, we propose a Cross Layer
based Hybrid fuzzy ad-hoc rate based Congestion Control
(CLHCC) approach to maximize network performance. Based
on the destination report it regulates the speed of data flow to
control data loss by monitoring the present network status
and transmits this report to the source as advice. The source
adjusts the sending flow rate as per the advice. This is
monitored by channel usage, ultimate delay, short term
throughput.
Routing in « Delay Tolerant Networks » (DTN) Improved Routing With Prophet an...CSCJournals
In this paper, we address the problem of routing in “delay tolerant networks” (DTN). In such networks there is no guarantee of finding a complete communication path connecting the source and the destination at any time, especially when the destination is not in the same region of the source, what makes the traditional routing protocols inefficient in that transmission of the messages between nodes. We propose to combine the routing protocol Prophet and the model of \"transfer by delegation\" (custody transfer) to improve the routing in DTN network and to exploit the nodes as a common carriers of messages between the network partitioned. To implement this approach and assess those improvements and changes we developed a DTN simulator. Simulation examples are illustrated in the article.
This document summarizes research on load balancing techniques for congestion control in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It first provides background on MANETs and issues like limited bandwidth. It then reviews literature on multipath routing and load balancing, categorizing approaches based on metrics like available bandwidth. The document proposes using acknowledgement times to estimate available bandwidth and distribute traffic to avoid congestion across multiple paths. By adapting sending rates based on estimated available bandwidth, this could minimize congestion in the network.
An Enhanced DSR Protocol for Improving QoS in MANETKhushbooGupta145
Ad hoc network is a network without centralized administration in which different users can communicate and exchange information. In such a structure, all the nodes participate in order to achieve the network and ensure the travel of the information. Hence, multihopping techniques are used to achieve this task. The communication reliability within an ad hoc network and how the different nodes act are managed by routing protocols. Nowadays, different types of protocols exist. Nevertheless, the source routing ones, based on information known at the source of the communication, seem to attract more studies. Source routing protocols had shown interesting results in realistic scenarios in areas such as military battlefields or airport stations.
This Paper deals with DSR Protocol and is focused on the multipath aspect of this routing protocol. Since, it is necessary to understand that multipath techniques enhance reliability and can ensure security. We have simulated a new multipath algorithm. The solution had been evaluated with the network Simulator 2. Since we want to know how our protocol reacts in different mobility cases, the random waypoint model which allows us to present relevant results, due to the fact this situation is taken into account.
Simulation results show that the multipath protocol behaves better than DSR, the main actual reactive protocol. The Proposed protocol MSR performs well in high mobility by using much less overhead than DSR. Additionally, it is interesting to see that DSR without any modifications manage poorly in high mobility situation.
This document proposes a new fuzzy logic-based routing protocol for mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) that considers path stability, residual energy of nodes, and bandwidth for optimal path selection at the source node. It also proposes adjusting the transmission rate at the source node based on end-to-end delay and packet loss ratio measured at the destination node. This cross-layer approach uses two fuzzy logic systems - one for path selection based on stability and bandwidth, and another for transmission rate adjustment based on delay and packet loss. The goal is to select stable paths and prevent congestion for more efficient data transmission in MANETs.
Mobility is one of the basic features that define an ad hoc network, an asset that leaves the field
free for the nodes to move. The most important aspect of this kind of network turns into a great
disadvantage when it comes to commercial applications, take as an example: the automotive
networks that allow communication between a groups of vehicles. The ad hoc on-demand
distance vector (AODV) routing protocol, designed for mobile ad hoc networks, has two main
functions. First, it enables route establishment between a source and a destination node by
initiating a route discovery process. Second, it maintains the active routes, which means finding
alternative routes in a case of a link failure and deleting routes when they are no longer
desired. In a highly mobile network those are demanding tasks to be performed efficiently and
accurately. In this paper, we focused in the first point to enhance the local decision of each node
in the network by the quantification of the mobility of their neighbours. Quantification is made
around RSSI algorithm a well known distance estimation method.
Tree Based Proactive Source Routing Protocol for MANETspaperpublications3
bstract: A mobile adhoc network (MANET) is a wireless communication network and the node that does not lie within the direct transmission range of each other depends on the intermediate nodes to forward data. Opportunistic data forwarding has not been widely utilized in mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) and the main reason is the lack of an efficient lightweight proactive routing scheme with strong source routing capability. PSR protocol facilitates opportunistic data forwarding in MANETs. In PSR, each node maintains a breadth-first search spanning tree of the network rooted at it-self. This information is periodically exchanged among neighboring nodes for updated network topology information. Here added a Mobile sink to reduce the overhead in case of number of child node increases and also to reduce the delay.
AN EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF HELLO PROCESS FOR ROUTING PROTOCOL IN MANETSIJCNCJournal
In the mobile ad hoc network (MANET) update of link connectivity is necessary to refresh the neighbor tables in data transfer. A existing hello process periodically exchanges the link connectivity information, which is not adequate for dynamic topology. Here, slow update of neighbour table entries causes link failures which affect performance parameter as packet drop, maximum delay, energy consumption, and reduced throughput. In the dynamic hello technique, new neighbour nodes and lost neighbour nodes are used to compute link change rate (LCR) and hello-interval/refresh rate (r). Exchange of link connectivity information at a fast rate consumes unnecessary bandwidth and energy. In MANET resource wastage can be controlled by avoiding the re-route discovery, frequent error notification, and local repair in the entire network. We are enhancing the existing hello process, which shows significant improvement in performance.
The document proposes an interference-oriented topology control algorithm for delay-constrained mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs). It aims to jointly consider delay and interference to control topology while minimizing interference. The algorithm takes into account transmission delay, contention delay, queuing delay, and interference constraints. Simulation results show the algorithm effectively reduces delay and improves performance for delay-constrained MANETs by controlling topology to meet interference constraints and increasing transmit range to meet delay requirements. Node mobility impact on the algorithm is also investigated.
Analysis of FSR, LANMAR and DYMO under MANETidescitation
A movable ad hoc system (MANET) is a self-configuring communications set of
connections of mobile procedure associated by wireless. Each mechanism in a MANET is
free to move independently in some way, and will therefore modify its relations to other
devices frequently [2]. The primary purpose of any ad-hoc network routing protocol is to
meet the challenges of the dynamically changing topology and establish an efficient route
connecting every two nodes. In this paper three protocols FSR, LANMAR and DYMO are
compared by using random waypoint mobility in few nodes with varying packet sizes in
CBR traffic. The parameters or metrics are used to assess the performance of protocols with
and without Black Hole attack, that are data Packet Delivery ratio and Average Jitter with
varying data traffic CBR (Constant Bit Ratio) using Qual Net 5.0.2 simulator.
Performance improvement of vehicular delay tolerant networks using public tra...ijmnct
In some networks, communications are sometimes interrupted and packet sending encounters many delays
due to lack of permanent connection between the nodes. Inter-vehicular and inter-satellite networks, which
are the so-called delay-tolerant networks, are an example to this type. This paper proposed a new routing
algorithm, which could increase efficiency of this kind of networks using predictability feature of bus
movement in a vehicular network. In this paper, bus routes were considered the backbone for vehicular
network and, knowing route of bus and destination of packets, the proposed algorithm, which was able to
use this information, was introduced. In addition, the proposed algorithm was simulated to prove its
efficiency and then it was compared with other algorithms in different conditions. The obtained results
indicated acceptable efficiency of the proposed algorithm.
A New Efficient Cache Replacement Strategy for Named Data NetworkingIJCNCJournal
The Information-Centric Network (ICN) is a future internet architecture with efficient content retrieval and distribution. Named Data Networking (NDN) is one of the proposed architectures for ICN. NDN’s innetwork caching improves data availability, reduce retrieval delays, network load, alleviate producer load, and limit data traffic. Despite the existence of several caching decision algorithms, the fetching and distribution of contents with minimum resource utilization remains a great challenge. In this paper, we introduce a new cache replacement strategy called Enhanced Time and Frequency Cache Replacement strategy (ETFCR) where both cache hit frequency and cache retrieval time are used to select evicted data chunks. ETFCR adds time cycles between the last two requests to adjust data chunk’s popularity and cache hits. We conducted extensive simulations using the ccnSim simulator to evaluate the performance of ETFCR and compare it to that of some well-known cache replacement strategies. Simulations results show that ETFCR outperforms the other cache replacement strategies in terms of cache hit ratio, and lower content retrieval delay.
SECTOR TREE-BASED CLUSTERING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT ROUTING PROTOCOL IN HETEROG...IJCNCJournal
The document proposes a new routing protocol called Sector Tree-Based Clustering for Energy Efficient Routing Protocol (STB-EE) for wireless sensor networks. STB-EE partitions the sensor field into dynamic sectors to balance the number of nodes per cluster. Within each sector, STB-EE constructs a minimum spanning tree to connect nodes and reduce long-distance communication. STB-EE selects cluster heads based on remaining energy and distance to the base station. Simulation results show STB-EE can improve network lifespan by about 15-16% compared to other protocols.
CONGESTION CONTROL USING FUZZY BASED LSPS IN MULTIPROTOCOL LABEL SWITCHING NE...ijfcstjournal
In this paper, we have proposed a fuzzy based decision making component for high volume traffic MPLS
networks, by implementing Traffic Engineering, Quality of Service and Multipath routing. The approach
explicitly proves to be successful in solving the issues and challenges pertaining to stability, scalability in
high volume and dynamic traffic. Furthermore, it will work to handle congestion by higher link utilization
and provides efficient rerouting of traffic along with fault tolerance in the network. In this research work,
fuzzy calculations are done for fixing the attributes of the MPLS label(s), which is put on particular packet
representing the Forwarding Equivalence Class. Fuzzy controller consists of two sub fuzzy systems- Label
Switched Path setup System (LsS) and Traffic Splitting System (TSS). The computation of dynamic status of
Load and Delay is utilized by LsS to arrange the paths in preference order. The attained Link Capacity and
Utilization Rate are employing by TSS for maintaining congestion free path. The impact of this is to
facilitate, we have better decision making for splitting the traffic for different promising paths. This was
apparent from the series of traffic scenarios. Observations are obtained using this realization.
Mobile ad hoc network is a reconfigurable network of mobile nodes connected by multi-hop wireless links and capable of operating without any fixed infrastructure support. In order to facilitate communication within such self-creating, self-organizing and self administrating network, a dynamic routing protocol is needed. The primary goal of such an ad hoc network routing protocol is to discover and establish a correct and efficient route between a pair of nodes so that messages may be delivered in a timely manner. Route construction should be done with a minimum of overhead and bandwidth consumption. This paper examines two routing protocols, both on-demand source routing, for mobile ad hoc networks– the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), an flat architecture based and the Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP), a cluster architecture based and evaluates both routing protocols in terms of packet delivery fraction, normalized routing load, average end to end delay, throughput by varying number of nodes per sq. km, traffic sources and mobility. Simulation results show that in high
mobility (pause time 0s) scenarios, CBRP outperforms DSR. CBRP scales well with increasing number of nodes.
THE IMPACT OF NODE MISBEHAVIOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANETIJCNCJournal
This document compares the performance of four routing protocols (AODV, DSR, OLSR, GRP) under the security attack of node misbehavior in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). The document presents background information on MANETs and the four routing protocols. It then discusses two types of misbehaving nodes (partially selfish and fully selfish) that are modeled in simulations. The simulations vary the percentage of misbehaving nodes and measure performance metrics like packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, data dropped, and load. The results show that packet delivery ratio decreases and data dropped increases as the percentage of misbehaving nodes increases for all protocols. OLSR generally has the lowest delay while
BEHAVIOUR OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS INVESTIGATED FOR EME...ijwmn
Mobile Ad hoc Networks are open, shared, dynamic and self-organized networks. These distinct nature
lead to efficient use in emergency and recue scenarios where the sharing of information is necessary. In
order to share information within the network, a proper routing protocol is required to establish routes
between nodes. This article discusses which of the routing protocols such as reactive or proactive has
better performance in such scenario. In order to implement the test bed, we choose a real area in
Uttarakhand state, India where the disaster occurred recently hence so many civilizations had vanished
due to lack of communication and failure in recovery. Our aim is to choose an optimum routing protocol
that is correct and used for efficient route establishment between nodes so that message could be delivered
on time without loss and it will be implemented and used in future based on the model that we propose.
Quality of Service Routing in Mobile Ad hoc Networks Using Node Mobility and ...IJNSA Journal
Exceptionally dynamic networks are Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Quality of Service (QoS) routing in such
Networks are frequently limited by the network split due to either energy depletion or node mobility of the
mobile nodes. In addition, to fulfill specific quality parameters, existence of multiple node-disjoint paths
becomes essential. Such paths assist in the optimal traffic distribution and consistency in case of path
breakages. Thus, to accommodate such problem, we present a node-disjoint multipath protocol. The metric
system of measurement used to select the paths takes into account the stability of the nodes and the
equivalent links.
Dubai Carbon Centre of Excellence has signed an MOU with AFC Energy to study deploying hydrogen fuel cells to generate 300MW of energy in Dubai by 2020, as part of the UAE's efforts to reduce carbon emissions and diversify its energy mix. Total held a training session in Qatar on enhanced oil recovery techniques like gas injection and carbon dioxide injection to increase oil production from maturing fields. Oman has approved plans to build an integrated industrial hazardous waste treatment facility in Liwa to handle the country's growing hazardous waste output, particularly from industries in Sohar.
Mobile environment pretense a number of novel
theoretical and optimization issues such as position, operation
and following in that a lot of requests rely on them for
desirable information. The precedent works are sprinkled
across the entire network layer: from the medium of physical
to link layer to routing and then application layer. In this
invention, we present outline solutions in Medium Access
Control (MAC), data distribution, coverage resolve issues
under mobile ad-hoc network environment based on
congestion control technique using Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). In mobile ad-hoc network issues can arise
such as link disconnections, channel contention and recurrent
path loss. To resolve this issue, we propose a Cross Layer
based Hybrid fuzzy ad-hoc rate based Congestion Control
(CLHCC) approach to maximize network performance. Based
on the destination report it regulates the speed of data flow to
control data loss by monitoring the present network status
and transmits this report to the source as advice. The source
adjusts the sending flow rate as per the advice. This is
monitored by channel usage, ultimate delay, short term
throughput.
Routing in « Delay Tolerant Networks » (DTN) Improved Routing With Prophet an...CSCJournals
In this paper, we address the problem of routing in “delay tolerant networks” (DTN). In such networks there is no guarantee of finding a complete communication path connecting the source and the destination at any time, especially when the destination is not in the same region of the source, what makes the traditional routing protocols inefficient in that transmission of the messages between nodes. We propose to combine the routing protocol Prophet and the model of \"transfer by delegation\" (custody transfer) to improve the routing in DTN network and to exploit the nodes as a common carriers of messages between the network partitioned. To implement this approach and assess those improvements and changes we developed a DTN simulator. Simulation examples are illustrated in the article.
This document summarizes research on load balancing techniques for congestion control in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It first provides background on MANETs and issues like limited bandwidth. It then reviews literature on multipath routing and load balancing, categorizing approaches based on metrics like available bandwidth. The document proposes using acknowledgement times to estimate available bandwidth and distribute traffic to avoid congestion across multiple paths. By adapting sending rates based on estimated available bandwidth, this could minimize congestion in the network.
An Enhanced DSR Protocol for Improving QoS in MANETKhushbooGupta145
Ad hoc network is a network without centralized administration in which different users can communicate and exchange information. In such a structure, all the nodes participate in order to achieve the network and ensure the travel of the information. Hence, multihopping techniques are used to achieve this task. The communication reliability within an ad hoc network and how the different nodes act are managed by routing protocols. Nowadays, different types of protocols exist. Nevertheless, the source routing ones, based on information known at the source of the communication, seem to attract more studies. Source routing protocols had shown interesting results in realistic scenarios in areas such as military battlefields or airport stations.
This Paper deals with DSR Protocol and is focused on the multipath aspect of this routing protocol. Since, it is necessary to understand that multipath techniques enhance reliability and can ensure security. We have simulated a new multipath algorithm. The solution had been evaluated with the network Simulator 2. Since we want to know how our protocol reacts in different mobility cases, the random waypoint model which allows us to present relevant results, due to the fact this situation is taken into account.
Simulation results show that the multipath protocol behaves better than DSR, the main actual reactive protocol. The Proposed protocol MSR performs well in high mobility by using much less overhead than DSR. Additionally, it is interesting to see that DSR without any modifications manage poorly in high mobility situation.
This document proposes a new fuzzy logic-based routing protocol for mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) that considers path stability, residual energy of nodes, and bandwidth for optimal path selection at the source node. It also proposes adjusting the transmission rate at the source node based on end-to-end delay and packet loss ratio measured at the destination node. This cross-layer approach uses two fuzzy logic systems - one for path selection based on stability and bandwidth, and another for transmission rate adjustment based on delay and packet loss. The goal is to select stable paths and prevent congestion for more efficient data transmission in MANETs.
Mobility is one of the basic features that define an ad hoc network, an asset that leaves the field
free for the nodes to move. The most important aspect of this kind of network turns into a great
disadvantage when it comes to commercial applications, take as an example: the automotive
networks that allow communication between a groups of vehicles. The ad hoc on-demand
distance vector (AODV) routing protocol, designed for mobile ad hoc networks, has two main
functions. First, it enables route establishment between a source and a destination node by
initiating a route discovery process. Second, it maintains the active routes, which means finding
alternative routes in a case of a link failure and deleting routes when they are no longer
desired. In a highly mobile network those are demanding tasks to be performed efficiently and
accurately. In this paper, we focused in the first point to enhance the local decision of each node
in the network by the quantification of the mobility of their neighbours. Quantification is made
around RSSI algorithm a well known distance estimation method.
Tree Based Proactive Source Routing Protocol for MANETspaperpublications3
bstract: A mobile adhoc network (MANET) is a wireless communication network and the node that does not lie within the direct transmission range of each other depends on the intermediate nodes to forward data. Opportunistic data forwarding has not been widely utilized in mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) and the main reason is the lack of an efficient lightweight proactive routing scheme with strong source routing capability. PSR protocol facilitates opportunistic data forwarding in MANETs. In PSR, each node maintains a breadth-first search spanning tree of the network rooted at it-self. This information is periodically exchanged among neighboring nodes for updated network topology information. Here added a Mobile sink to reduce the overhead in case of number of child node increases and also to reduce the delay.
AN EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF HELLO PROCESS FOR ROUTING PROTOCOL IN MANETSIJCNCJournal
In the mobile ad hoc network (MANET) update of link connectivity is necessary to refresh the neighbor tables in data transfer. A existing hello process periodically exchanges the link connectivity information, which is not adequate for dynamic topology. Here, slow update of neighbour table entries causes link failures which affect performance parameter as packet drop, maximum delay, energy consumption, and reduced throughput. In the dynamic hello technique, new neighbour nodes and lost neighbour nodes are used to compute link change rate (LCR) and hello-interval/refresh rate (r). Exchange of link connectivity information at a fast rate consumes unnecessary bandwidth and energy. In MANET resource wastage can be controlled by avoiding the re-route discovery, frequent error notification, and local repair in the entire network. We are enhancing the existing hello process, which shows significant improvement in performance.
The document proposes an interference-oriented topology control algorithm for delay-constrained mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs). It aims to jointly consider delay and interference to control topology while minimizing interference. The algorithm takes into account transmission delay, contention delay, queuing delay, and interference constraints. Simulation results show the algorithm effectively reduces delay and improves performance for delay-constrained MANETs by controlling topology to meet interference constraints and increasing transmit range to meet delay requirements. Node mobility impact on the algorithm is also investigated.
Analysis of FSR, LANMAR and DYMO under MANETidescitation
A movable ad hoc system (MANET) is a self-configuring communications set of
connections of mobile procedure associated by wireless. Each mechanism in a MANET is
free to move independently in some way, and will therefore modify its relations to other
devices frequently [2]. The primary purpose of any ad-hoc network routing protocol is to
meet the challenges of the dynamically changing topology and establish an efficient route
connecting every two nodes. In this paper three protocols FSR, LANMAR and DYMO are
compared by using random waypoint mobility in few nodes with varying packet sizes in
CBR traffic. The parameters or metrics are used to assess the performance of protocols with
and without Black Hole attack, that are data Packet Delivery ratio and Average Jitter with
varying data traffic CBR (Constant Bit Ratio) using Qual Net 5.0.2 simulator.
Performance improvement of vehicular delay tolerant networks using public tra...ijmnct
In some networks, communications are sometimes interrupted and packet sending encounters many delays
due to lack of permanent connection between the nodes. Inter-vehicular and inter-satellite networks, which
are the so-called delay-tolerant networks, are an example to this type. This paper proposed a new routing
algorithm, which could increase efficiency of this kind of networks using predictability feature of bus
movement in a vehicular network. In this paper, bus routes were considered the backbone for vehicular
network and, knowing route of bus and destination of packets, the proposed algorithm, which was able to
use this information, was introduced. In addition, the proposed algorithm was simulated to prove its
efficiency and then it was compared with other algorithms in different conditions. The obtained results
indicated acceptable efficiency of the proposed algorithm.
A New Efficient Cache Replacement Strategy for Named Data NetworkingIJCNCJournal
The Information-Centric Network (ICN) is a future internet architecture with efficient content retrieval and distribution. Named Data Networking (NDN) is one of the proposed architectures for ICN. NDN’s innetwork caching improves data availability, reduce retrieval delays, network load, alleviate producer load, and limit data traffic. Despite the existence of several caching decision algorithms, the fetching and distribution of contents with minimum resource utilization remains a great challenge. In this paper, we introduce a new cache replacement strategy called Enhanced Time and Frequency Cache Replacement strategy (ETFCR) where both cache hit frequency and cache retrieval time are used to select evicted data chunks. ETFCR adds time cycles between the last two requests to adjust data chunk’s popularity and cache hits. We conducted extensive simulations using the ccnSim simulator to evaluate the performance of ETFCR and compare it to that of some well-known cache replacement strategies. Simulations results show that ETFCR outperforms the other cache replacement strategies in terms of cache hit ratio, and lower content retrieval delay.
SECTOR TREE-BASED CLUSTERING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT ROUTING PROTOCOL IN HETEROG...IJCNCJournal
The document proposes a new routing protocol called Sector Tree-Based Clustering for Energy Efficient Routing Protocol (STB-EE) for wireless sensor networks. STB-EE partitions the sensor field into dynamic sectors to balance the number of nodes per cluster. Within each sector, STB-EE constructs a minimum spanning tree to connect nodes and reduce long-distance communication. STB-EE selects cluster heads based on remaining energy and distance to the base station. Simulation results show STB-EE can improve network lifespan by about 15-16% compared to other protocols.
CONGESTION CONTROL USING FUZZY BASED LSPS IN MULTIPROTOCOL LABEL SWITCHING NE...ijfcstjournal
In this paper, we have proposed a fuzzy based decision making component for high volume traffic MPLS
networks, by implementing Traffic Engineering, Quality of Service and Multipath routing. The approach
explicitly proves to be successful in solving the issues and challenges pertaining to stability, scalability in
high volume and dynamic traffic. Furthermore, it will work to handle congestion by higher link utilization
and provides efficient rerouting of traffic along with fault tolerance in the network. In this research work,
fuzzy calculations are done for fixing the attributes of the MPLS label(s), which is put on particular packet
representing the Forwarding Equivalence Class. Fuzzy controller consists of two sub fuzzy systems- Label
Switched Path setup System (LsS) and Traffic Splitting System (TSS). The computation of dynamic status of
Load and Delay is utilized by LsS to arrange the paths in preference order. The attained Link Capacity and
Utilization Rate are employing by TSS for maintaining congestion free path. The impact of this is to
facilitate, we have better decision making for splitting the traffic for different promising paths. This was
apparent from the series of traffic scenarios. Observations are obtained using this realization.
Mobile ad hoc network is a reconfigurable network of mobile nodes connected by multi-hop wireless links and capable of operating without any fixed infrastructure support. In order to facilitate communication within such self-creating, self-organizing and self administrating network, a dynamic routing protocol is needed. The primary goal of such an ad hoc network routing protocol is to discover and establish a correct and efficient route between a pair of nodes so that messages may be delivered in a timely manner. Route construction should be done with a minimum of overhead and bandwidth consumption. This paper examines two routing protocols, both on-demand source routing, for mobile ad hoc networks– the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), an flat architecture based and the Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP), a cluster architecture based and evaluates both routing protocols in terms of packet delivery fraction, normalized routing load, average end to end delay, throughput by varying number of nodes per sq. km, traffic sources and mobility. Simulation results show that in high
mobility (pause time 0s) scenarios, CBRP outperforms DSR. CBRP scales well with increasing number of nodes.
THE IMPACT OF NODE MISBEHAVIOR ON THE PERFORMANCE OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANETIJCNCJournal
This document compares the performance of four routing protocols (AODV, DSR, OLSR, GRP) under the security attack of node misbehavior in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). The document presents background information on MANETs and the four routing protocols. It then discusses two types of misbehaving nodes (partially selfish and fully selfish) that are modeled in simulations. The simulations vary the percentage of misbehaving nodes and measure performance metrics like packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, data dropped, and load. The results show that packet delivery ratio decreases and data dropped increases as the percentage of misbehaving nodes increases for all protocols. OLSR generally has the lowest delay while
BEHAVIOUR OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS INVESTIGATED FOR EME...ijwmn
Mobile Ad hoc Networks are open, shared, dynamic and self-organized networks. These distinct nature
lead to efficient use in emergency and recue scenarios where the sharing of information is necessary. In
order to share information within the network, a proper routing protocol is required to establish routes
between nodes. This article discusses which of the routing protocols such as reactive or proactive has
better performance in such scenario. In order to implement the test bed, we choose a real area in
Uttarakhand state, India where the disaster occurred recently hence so many civilizations had vanished
due to lack of communication and failure in recovery. Our aim is to choose an optimum routing protocol
that is correct and used for efficient route establishment between nodes so that message could be delivered
on time without loss and it will be implemented and used in future based on the model that we propose.
Quality of Service Routing in Mobile Ad hoc Networks Using Node Mobility and ...IJNSA Journal
Exceptionally dynamic networks are Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Quality of Service (QoS) routing in such
Networks are frequently limited by the network split due to either energy depletion or node mobility of the
mobile nodes. In addition, to fulfill specific quality parameters, existence of multiple node-disjoint paths
becomes essential. Such paths assist in the optimal traffic distribution and consistency in case of path
breakages. Thus, to accommodate such problem, we present a node-disjoint multipath protocol. The metric
system of measurement used to select the paths takes into account the stability of the nodes and the
equivalent links.
Dubai Carbon Centre of Excellence has signed an MOU with AFC Energy to study deploying hydrogen fuel cells to generate 300MW of energy in Dubai by 2020, as part of the UAE's efforts to reduce carbon emissions and diversify its energy mix. Total held a training session in Qatar on enhanced oil recovery techniques like gas injection and carbon dioxide injection to increase oil production from maturing fields. Oman has approved plans to build an integrated industrial hazardous waste treatment facility in Liwa to handle the country's growing hazardous waste output, particularly from industries in Sohar.
El documento describe los diferentes tipos de buses de datos en un computador. Explica que el bus es la vía de comunicación entre la CPU y los dispositivos y que existen buses de control, datos, dirección y expansión. También describe tres arquitecturas de bus - ISA, MCA y EISA - siendo ISA la utilizada originalmente y EISA una mejora del estándar ISA que aumentó la velocidad y capacidad del bus.
The document discusses Android threading and processes. It explains that by default all components of an application run in the same process and thread, but components can be defined to run in separate processes. It describes how the system manages processes and process importance levels. It also discusses how to handle long operations to avoid blocking the UI thread, including using AsyncTask and Loaders to run operations asynchronously.
This document discusses social return on investment (SROI) analysis as an innovative framework for measuring the impact of One Health initiatives. SROI analysis is a process for understanding, measuring, and reporting on the social, environmental, and economic value created by an organization, program, or policy. It can be used prospectively during planning or retrospectively for evaluation. The principles of SROI analysis include involving stakeholders, understanding what changes, valuing what matters, only including material factors, not over-claiming results, and being transparent. An example is provided of how SROI analysis was applied to measure the impact of establishing an emergency medical system in Kenya.
POSITION BASED ADAPTIVE ROUTING FOR VANETSIJCNCJournal
Routing plays a very significant role in multi hop data dissemination in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks
(VANETs). Wehave proposed a Position based Adaptive Routing (PAR) protocol which is scalable for different
network densities in VANETs. This scheme uses Preferred Group Broadcasting (PGB) for route discovery.
In this mode, after broadcasting the request for route discovery the source node starts listening to
the channel. If the packet is not further rebroadcasted by any neighbor in a set timeout, then it repeats the
broadcast. This process is repeated until the request reaches the destination. The destination keeps on accumulating
route requests coming from different paths until predefined time. It then chooses the least cost
path as route reply. It uses the set of traversed anchors for sending the unicast route reply to the source
node. PAR uses Advance Greedy Forwarding (AGF) for data forwarding and greedily forwards the data
packet to the next anchor towards destination node. It switches to carry and forward mode once it finds
partitions in the network. The intermediate vehicle buffers the packet until next junction and switches back
to position based scheme and greedily forwards to next node in range which is closest to the destination. To
have an end to end connectedpath, it uses guards to guard anchors tied to different junction and geographical
locations in the network. The algorithm is scalable and exploits advantages of existing techniques
already developed for specific scenarios in VANET. Results show that the service ratio and packet
delay of PAR are higher than its counterparts.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER)ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) is an intentional online Journal in English monthly publishing journal. This Journal publish original research work that contributes significantly to further the scientific knowledge in engineering and Technology.
Efficient Destination Discovery using Geographical Gossiping in MANETsidescitation
Due to dynamic topology of Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETS), early designs of
routing protocols incur a large number of discovery packets while trying to discover a route
to a destination node in the network. To reduce the number of discovery packets,
geographical information assisted routing protocols came into picture. In case of
geographical ad hoc routing protocols, there is no need to discover a route to a destination
node. But, they need to discover the fresh location of a destination node to deliver data
packets to the destination location. Geographical information assisted ad hoc routing
protocols reduce discovery packet overhead using past information about the destination
node such as location, velocity and direction of motion. When a source node does not have
any information about a destination node, the existing geographical routing protocols use
flooding techniques or location database server to know the present location of the
destination. A flooding technique or a location database server induces large number of
control packets in the network. To reduce the number of control packets during location
discovery, we propose a novel geographical gossiping technique for MANETs. The
technique basically uses two types of gossiping viz. selective and random gossiping. We have
evaluated the performance of the proposed technique using qualnet simulator and
compared its performance with flooding technique and probability based gossiping
technique. The simulation results clearly show that our technique has considerably reduced
control packet overhead compared to flooding and probability based gossiping technique.
Destination Aware APU Strategy for Geographic Routing in MANETEditor IJCATR
In this paper, we have explained the Enhanced Adaptive Position Update strategy for geographic routing in mobile ad hoc
network In Adaptive Position Update strategy, there are two techniques: Mobility prediction rule and On-demand learning rule. Proposed
system is based on the destination aware routing in which path to transfer the data over the network is based on the distance from highly
stable node to the destination node. Results of the proposed system are compared with Periodic Beaconing on the basis of packet delivery
ratio, beacon overhead, energy consumption. Experiment results show a high improvement in results on the parameters energy
consumption, packet delivery ratio and beacon overhead. Proposed work is implemented on the NS2 (Network Simulator) Environment
to perform experiments.
A new approach in position-based routing Protocol using learning automata for...ijasa
This document summarizes a research paper that proposes a new position-based routing protocol called PBLA (Position-Based routing protocol using Learning Automata) for vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) in urban scenarios. PBLA uses learning automata and traffic information to initially find the best and shortest path to a mobile destination. It has two phases: a learning phase where vehicles learn traffic patterns on streets to assign costs; and a routing phase where the shortest path is found using Dijkstra's algorithm and packets are forwarded between intersections greedily. The performance of PBLA is evaluated against GPSR and GPCR protocols in a simulated urban road network, showing it can efficiently route packets in high mobility V
This document summarizes a research paper that proposes a hybrid evolutionary clustering approach for optimized routing in mobile ad hoc networks. It uses particle swarm optimization (PSO) and ant colony optimization (ACO) to perform spatial clustering of nodes. Greedy routing is then used to find routes, and when dead ends are encountered, genetic algorithms are applied to find alternative routes. The approach aims to improve greedy routing performance and recovery from dead ends by avoiding the use of floating nodes. Simulation results showed improved greedy routing and fewer concave nodes compared to other methods.
Data-Centric Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Network: A surveyAli Habeeb
This document summarizes several data-centric routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. It begins by outlining the challenges of routing in WSNs, including energy consumption, scalability, addressing, robustness, topology, and application-specific needs. It then describes several data-centric routing protocols, including flooding, directed flooding, constrained flooding, gossiping, fuzzy gossiping, location-based gossiping, and others. It notes advantages and disadvantages of these protocols for efficiently routing data in wireless sensor networks while minimizing energy consumption.
LOAD BALANCING AND PROVIDING SECURITY USING RSA IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKSIJARIIT
This paper presents load balancing and provides security using RSA algorithm. This is brief introduction to handle the traffic on node. This represents the converge-casting protocol in wireless sensor networks. The protocol is localized and distributed, and adapts efficiently to vary traffic. Graphs are analyzed using NS-2 simulator, here end-to-end packet latency, packet delivery ratio, throughput are analyzed. This is done for 30 nodes in NS-2 simulation.
This document evaluates the performance of various routing protocols for ad hoc networks including AODV, DSDV, DSR, AOMDV, and geographic greedy forwarding. It compares the protocols based on metrics like percentage packet delivery, end-to-end delay, jitter, throughput, and number of packets dropped. The results show that geographic greedy forwarding generally performs better with higher packet delivery ratios, lower delays and jitter, and fewer dropped packets compared to the other protocols especially for a network of 50 nodes.
A Review on Geographical Location Based Energy Efficient Direction Restricted...IJRES Journal
Delay Tolerant Network (DTNs) is a wireless network that experiences frequent connectivity and due to mobility of nodes long duration partitions occurred during transmission of data. DTN has the main feature that there is not full path present from source to destination. In Delay Tolerant Network (DTN), traditional routing protocol for mobile Ad-hoc protocol to be ineffective to extend of message transmission between different nodes. Delay tolerant networks (DTNs) are used in many applications like in deep space communications, under water Acoustic Network, Sparsely Populated Areas Networks Etc. In such network a routing with minimum energy congumption is major issue. In this paper, we try to explore a routing issue in DTN. First energy requirement and routing with their corresponding countermeasures in DTN are explained. Moving nodes in DTN keep the updating of network as well energy at every stage. By using the geographical concept the location of each node is maintained by updating in topology. There are many routing protocols are available for routing purpose in DTN.
Understanding Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks and Use of Greedy Routing Protocolijsrd.com
Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANET) belong to a subclass of Mobile ad hoc networks . VANET provides a distinguished approach for Intelligent Transport System (ITS). VANET has become an active area of research and development since it has tremendous potential to improve vehicle and road safety, traffic efficiency, and convenience as well as comfort to both drivers and passengers. In this paper we discuss the characteristics and architecture of VANET. Further we provide an overview of Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing Protocol. Efficient routing protocols are essential for smart ITS.
Improving the scalability by contact information compression in routingijitjournal
The existence of reduced scalability and delivery leads to the development of scalable routing by contact
information compression. The previous work dealt with the result of consistent analysis in the performance
of DTN hierarchical routing (DHR). It increases as the source to destination distance increases with
decreases in the routing performance. This paper focuses on improving the scalability and delivery through
contact information compression algorithm and also addresses the problem of power awareness routing to
increase the lifetime of the overall network. Thus implementing the contact information compression (CIC)
algorithm the estimated shortest path (ESP) is detected dynamically. The scalability and release are more
improved during multipath multicasting, which delivers the information to a collection of target
concurrently in a single transmission from the source.
The document summarizes a paper that proposes a contact information compression algorithm to improve scalability and delivery in delay tolerant networks. The algorithm compresses contact information using three collective methods and dynamically estimates shortest paths. It is shown to improve scalability and delivery during multipath multicasting, which concurrently delivers information to multiple targets in a single transmission. The algorithm aims to address challenges of information aggregation, compression in time-space domains while maintaining routing information.
This document summarizes geographical routing in wireless sensor networks. It begins with an introduction to geographic routing protocols, which route packets based on the geographic position of nodes rather than their network addresses. It then discusses several specific geographic routing protocols, including Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) and Geographical and Energy Aware Routing (GEAR). The document also covers topics like how nodes obtain location information, security issues in geographic routing like the Sybil attack, and concludes that geographic routing can enable scalable and energy-efficient routing in wireless sensor networks.
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF ERGR-EMHC ROUTING PROTOCOL USING LSWTS AND 3DUL LOC...IJCNCJournal
This paper studies the impact of different localization schemes on the performance of location-based
routing for UWSNs. Particularly, LSWTS and 3DUL localization schemes available in the literature are
used to study their effects on the performance of the ERGR-EMHC routing protocol. First, we assess the
performance of two localization schemes by measuring their localization coverage, accuracy, control
packets overhead, and required localization time. We then study the performance of the ERGR-EMHC
protocol using location information provided by the selected localization schemes. The results are
compared with the performance of the routing protocol when using exact nodes’ locations. The obtained
results show that LSWTS outperforms 3DUL in terms of localization accuracy by 83% and localization
overhead by 70%. In addition, the results indicate that the localization error has a significant impact on
the performance of the routing protocol. For instance, ERGR-EMHC with LSWTS is better in delivering
data packets by an average of 175% compared to 3DUL
Performance Evaluation of ERGR-EMHC Routing Protocol using LSWTS and 3DUL Loc...IJCNCJournal
This paper studies the impact of different localization schemes on the performance of location-based routing for UWSNs. Particularly, LSWTS and 3DUL localization schemes available in the literature are used to study their effects on the performance of the ERGR-EMHC routing protocol. First, we assess the performance of two localization schemes by measuring their localization coverage, accuracy, control packets overhead, and required localization time. We then study the performance of the ERGR-EMHC protocol using location information provided by the selected localization schemes. The results are compared with the performance of the routing protocol when using exact nodes’ locations. The obtained results show that LSWTS outperforms 3DUL in terms of localization accuracy by 83% and localization overhead by 70%. In addition, the results indicate that the localization error has a significant impact on the performance of the routing protocol. For instance, ERGR-EMHC with LSWTS is better in delivering data packets by an average of 175% compared to 3DUL.
An Improved Greedy Parameter Stateless Routing in Vehicular Ad Hoc NetworkIJAAS Team
Congestion problem and packet delivery related issues in the vehicular ad hoc network environment is a widely researched problem in recent years. Many network designers utilize various algorithms for the design of ad hoc networks and compare their results with the existing approaches. The design of efficient network protocol is a major challenge in vehicular ad hoc network which utilizes the value of GPS and other parameters associated with the vehicles. In this paper GPSR protocol is improved and compared with the existing GPSR protocol and AODV protocol on the basis of various performance parameters like throughput of the network, delay and packet delivery ratio. The results also validate the performance of the proposed approach.
Virtual Position based Olsr Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networksijcnes
This document summarizes a research paper on a virtual position-based routing protocol for wireless sensor networks. The protocol aims to address the "void routing problem" that occurs in geographic routing when a node has no neighbors that are closer to the destination. The proposed protocol maps node coordinates on the edges of voids to a virtual circle to transform the random network structure and allow greedy forwarding to continue. It divides the area around voids into three regions and applies different routing strategies in each region. Simulation results show the protocol achieves higher delivery rates, shorter paths, lower overhead and energy consumption compared to protocols using face routing to bypass voids.
Power Aware Geocast Based Geocast Region Tracking Using Mobile Node in Wirele...inventionjournals
The document proposes a Power Aware Geocast Based Geocast Region Tracking Using Mobile Node in Wireless Ad Hoc Network. It introduces Position-Aware Geocast Routing Mechanism (PAGRM) to improve reliability of data delivery and energy efficiency. PAGRM uses geographical locations for geocast routing and region tracking. It combines geographic routing with region flooding to achieve high delivery rates and low overhead. Simulation results show PAGRM has higher throughput and lower time complexity than other region tracking methods.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
1. International Journal of Grid Distribution Computing
Vol.8, No.2 (2015), pp.101-114
http://dx.doi.org/10.14257/ijgdc.2015.8.2.10
ISSN: 2005-4262 IJGDC
Copyright ⓒ 2015 SERSC
A Survey on Void Handling Techniques for Geographic Routing
in VANET Network
Sanaz Parvin1*
, Dr. Mehdi Agha Sarram2
, Dr. Ghasem Mirjalily3
and
Dr. Fazlollah Adibnia4
1,2,4
Department of Computer Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
1
parvin@stu.yazd.ac.ir, 2
mehdi.sarram@yazd.ac.ir, 3
mirjalily@yazd.ac.ir,
4
fadib@yazd.ac.ir
Abstract
Geographic routing exerts geographic information to select the next-hop along the
route to the destination. Greedy forwarding is a geographic routing mechanism that uses
geographical location information of nodes and the distance of each node to the
destination, to select next-hop node that achieve the most positive movement to the
destination. Where greedy forwarding is not possible, it can be said a void occurred. In
this case, if there is no an alternative mechanism, packets are easily removed. Hence a
void-handling technique is need to continue routing and recovery greedy forwarding.
There is a possibility of void in all types of wireless networks including vehicular ad hoc
network (VANET). In this article we introduce void problem and present a survey on
varied void-handling techniques which are suitable for VANET networks. At the end, we
provide a comparative survey of these techniques based on some important features that
are effective on the network performance.
Keywords: Geographic routing, ad-hoc, VANET, void, greedy forwarding
1. Introduction
Today, a VANET network, owing to its characteristics such as self-configuration,
multi-hop routing and lack of centralized management, has gained considerable attention.
Due to the mobility of nodes, unreliable wireless environment and time-sensitive
applications in VANET, a routing protocol with minimum delay and higher packet
delivery ratio always been need [1-5]. Traditional routing protocols such as AODV, DSR,
etc., are based on the network topology [6] and therefore not consistent with rapid
changes of network topology in VANET [7, 8]. Hence, another type of routing is
introduced which does not require knowledge of the network topology and use
geographical information. This type of routing is known as geographic routing [8].
Geographic Routing, which in some references is also called "Position-Based Routing"
[4, 7], is known as one of the best routing methods to use in vehicular ad hoc networks
due to its high scalability [4, 10]. This routing algorithm, unlike topology based routing,
instead of using path information it uses the geographically position information of nodes
to route packets to reach the destination. Hence it’s not necessary to create and maintain a
path from source to destination. As a result, nodes do not have to store and update any
routing table. In addition, the network bandwidth is not occupied for exchange routing
packets [10].
Basic and common method in geographic routing is “greedy forwarding”, through
which the packet is forwarded to one of the neighboring nodes that compared to the other
nodes have a shorter distance to the destination. Sometimes it is not possible to use the
greedy forwarding, because none of the neighboring nodes are closer to the destination
2. International Journal of Grid Distribution Computing
Vol.8, No.2 (2015)
102 Copyright ⓒ 2015 SERSC
than the current node. For example, in Figure 1 exist two valid path from S to D,
S X Y D and 뼎 뼎S U V W D . As regards S is closer to the
destination D than any of its neighboring nodes, so, it cannot continue moving the packet
toward D using greedy forwarding. This situation called a “communication void” [11], is
sometimes also known as a local minimum [10] or local maximum [12]. The high density
of nodes reduces the probability of occurrence of void, but it may be some packages meet
voids, due to lack of constant density over time, presence of obstacles and unreliable
nodes. In this case, these packets are easily removed, because the greedy routing cannot
be used to forward them. To prevent this, an effective recovery mechanism is needed as
an alternative mechanism [9, 11].
Figure 1. A Void Occurred at Node S
So many void-handling techniques have been proposed which may be appropriate
either for mobile networks or static networks according to the method used in them. In
this paper a review on techniques that are suitable for VANET networks provided. For
this purpose, first concepts of geographic routing and void problem described. Then
surveys of various techniques have been used to address the void introduced. And finally
a brief comparison between these techniques base on their important features presented.
2. Basic Concepts and Description of Problem
Geographic routing [10] is composed of two basic elements: a positioning service and a
geographic based routing algorithm. The main task of positioning services is determining
the location of the destination, in response to a request from the source node. Then
position obtained added to the packet header by the source node.
Operation of Geographic forwarding algorithm runs in two modes: greedy mode and
recovery mode [11]. In greedy mode data packet is forwarded to one of the neighboring
nodes that provide the greatest positive progress towards the destination. This selection
process is performing by considering geographic location of current node, neighboring
nodes and the destination node. Each node is aware of its own position using GPS
receiver. Also, the positions of the other nodes are obtained through exchange periodic
beacon packages. Thus, intermediate nodes can easily route packets according to
geographic location of its own, neighboring nodes and the destination node. When the
packet encountered a void, recovery mode is invoked. In this situation, the packet gets
stuck at a node that called “void node”. In recovery mode, the void node tries to forward
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the stuck packet surrounding the void since it is probability that there is a topologically
valid route from the source to the destination node. The basic difference between various
recovery techniques is their criterion to select the next hop.
Without using an appropriate technique when dealing with voids, some of the packets
in the network are likely to be discarded, and furthermore, much of the network resources
are wasted. Hence, one of the major challenges for geographic routing protocols is the
existence of communications voids problem and effectively and efficiently handling this
problem. The most plain void-handling technique is flooding in which stuck packet is
broadcasted to all neighbors by void node and every node that receives stuck packet at the
first time. Through this technique, the packet will certainly reach its destination. So this
technique has a good effectiveness, but on the other hand, this is not efficient method.
Because large amounts of network resources, including network traffic capacity allocated
to a single packet. In addition, may be a large number of unnecessary duplicate packets
received by the destination node [10]. When the stuck packet reaches at a node that is
closer to the destination than the void node, routing mode returns to greedy forwarding.
Note that should be in the attention is that a void-handling technique is invoked only
when encountering a packet with voids.
3. Void handling Techniques
In following section, existing void handling techniques suitable for VANET network
are classified into six distinct categories [9, 11] and function and characteristics of each
are described briefly.
3.1. Planar-graph-based Techniques
Planar graph is a graph in which the edges of the network do not intersect. With
creating planar graph of the network, a planar graph traversal algorithm, which operates
on the right hand rule, can be used to forward packets to the destination. Base on the right
hand rule it can be traverse an obstacle such as a wall in a maze by keeping one’s right
hand against the wall while walking forward [11]. In wireless networks, around each
node, there is a circular area with a radius r which indicates the node’s radio range. Each
node is a vertex of the network and two nodes form a network edge if they are within
wireless range of each other. Converting the network graph into a planar graph and using
a planar graph based forwarding algorithm, guarantees that packets will be reach to its
destination via traverse the planar graph.
Performance of planar graph based techniques, in addition to being dependent on
performance of planar graph traversal algorithm, also depends on performance of
planarization algorithm. The most well-known planar graph based void-handling
technique is perimeter routing that used in Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR)
protocol [13] and two other of these techniques are Request-Response algorithm (RR) in
Beacon-Less Routing (BLR) [14] and 2-Hop Forwarding in SPEED-vb protocol [15]. In
the following these techniques are explained.
3.1.1 Perimeter Routing: The void-handling technique that is used in GPSR protocol
[13], like the other techniques in this category is consists of two distinct algorithms, one
for planarization the network graph and another to traverse planar graph. In GPSR
protocol planarization operation is done in a pre-processing phase, which creates a planar
graph of network graph using either RNG planarization algorithm or GG planarization
algorithm. When a packet encounters a void, forwarding mode is changed to perimeter
routing. In this case void node puts its own ID and position into data packet header as the
location of the void, before forwarding it to one of the neighboring nodes according to the
right-hand rule. While the graph is traverse by a packet, other information such as the
position of intersection of current face and pervious face, and the first edge traversed on
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the current face, are inserted to the packet header. After each hop to forward packet, the
algorithm using information that has been added to the packet header checks whether the
current node or any of the neighboring nodes is closer to the destination than the void
node, if yes retrieves the greedy forwarding. Note here is that the traversal path using the
perimeter routing for forwarding stuck packet to the destination not necessarily the
optimal path. An example of a planar graph traversal by perimeter routing algorithm is
shown in Figure 2 from [11].
3.1.2. Request-Response: In this technique, which is one of two techniques presented in
the BLR protocol [14], like perimeter routing forwarding packets to the destination is
done via a planar graph traversal algorithm, however in RR technique a partial planar
graph is constructed only in the area around the void on demand (e.g., only when a data
packet encounters a void). Since the BLR protocol does not exchange periodically beacon
packets to update position of the nodes, before forwarding the data packet, a request sent
by the source node to all neighboring nodes and through it their current position is
obtained. If one of the neighboring nodes has a shorter distance to the destination than the
source node, is selected as the next hop. Otherwise, the source node runs planarization
algorithm and then begins traversing the planar graph. Upon reaching the data packet to a
point that is closer to the destination than the void node, greedy forwarding begins again.
The main disadvantage of this technique is the high network latency, due to continuous
requests to get the current position of the nodes [14].
Figure 2. Planar Traversal using Perimeter Routing
3.1.3. 2-Hop Forwarding: This technique, that has been proposed to improve the
protocol SPEED [16], provides a 2-hop forwarding approach [15] to address the problem
of void in the networks. In this technique, which uses four Separate and complementary
algorithms to forward a data packet, voids in the network are divided into two categories:
open voids and closed voids. Closed voids means voids that are surrounded by network
nodes and open voids located on the border of the network. Depending on whether the
packet is stuck in the area of a closed void or open void, invoked a different algorithm.
Two algorithms VBM and VBD are implemented respectively in order to recognize
closed voids and updated them, and two algorithms NBM and NBD are used to recognize
and update open voids. When a node S needs to send a packet, via this technique 3 case
are possible: 1- Sender s has no information about voids: In this case, if none of the s’s
neighbors are not in the forward candidate neighbors set (FS), the sender s runs the VBD
algorithm to identify the void region, otherwise forward the packet to one of the nodes in
FS set. 2- Sender s is on the network boundary: Sender s uses the OVA-nb mechanism,
which is described in [17], to direct packets to the destination by using a 2-hop
forwarding mode on the network boundary. 3- Sender s is on boundary of a closed void:
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Sender s invokes the OVA-vb routine based on a 2-hop forwarding mode on the void
boundary. Thus, If there is no neighbor of s in the forwarding area as shown in Figure 3-a
from [15], sender s sends the packet to its 2-hop upstream node identified by the VBD
algorithm, but if the this area is not empty (i.e., there is at least one non-boundary node in
FS as shown in Figure 3-b), sender s forwards the packet to a neighbor n selected from its
reduced FS.
Figure 3. Sender s is on the Boundary of a Closed Void
2.2. Geometric Techniques
The basic idea of these techniques is the use of the geometric characteristics to identify
void regions. By implementing a distributed detection algorithm, checked that a node is
located at the border of a void or not. Then details of the boundary of the void are stored
in the void nodes. According to the requirement of the applications, this algorithm can be
implemented in a pre-processing phase or on demand. BOUNDHOLE technique [14] is
the best known and most effective technique in this group.
2.2.1. BOUNDHOLE: By the TENT rule [12], which is implemented in a distributed
manner, void region detection operation is done. Through this rule neighboring nodes of
node p are numbered according to the order of their position, then for each pair of
adjacent nodes (p, x) and (p, y) perpendicular bisectors of the lines (p, x) and (p, y) is
assumed. Intersection of these two bisectors, for example O point, considered as criterion
to identify voids. If this point is within radio range of node p, as shown in Figure 4 from
[12], node p is a non-void node; otherwise, the node p is located at the boundary of a void.
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Figure 4. The TENT Rule to Detect Void Nodes
In the latter case node p runs BOUNDHOLE algorithm to identify whole boundary of
the void region. The algorithm starts by sending specific packet from node p to
neighboring nodes. Each void node that receives the packet, stores IDs of previous
boundary nodes and sends packet contained these IDs to its neighbors. This process
continues until the packet entered again at node p. Once all void regions of the network
were identified through BOUNDHOLE algorithm and using TENT rule, upon arrival the
first data packet at node p and get stops data packet at this node, stuck packet is forwarded
on the boundary of void using IDs of boundary nodes are stored in the node p. Upon
reaching data packet to a node that has less distance to destination than the distance
between node p and destination, greedy forwarding algorithms back. The process of the
algorithm is shown in Figure 5 from [12].
Figure 5. An Example to Show BOUNDHOLE Technique
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2.3. Flooding based Techniques
Void-handling techniques in this category can guarantee packet delivery to the
destination using flooding packets in a network. Through the simplest type of flooding
which known as original flooding or full flooding [18], every node in the network is
supposed to get a copy of stuck packets. Although this method is very effective and
simple but it has extremely low efficiency, because a data packet is only useful for a
specific destination, and the other nodes are not interested to receive unimportant Packets.
Another reason that makes the method inefficient is large number of duplicate packets
received at the destination. In short it can be said a large amount of network resources
consumed to transmit a single packet. So in order to reduce the cost of flooding and keep
its simplicity and effectiveness in flooding-based void-handling techniques, attempts have
been made to control the range of flooding and the frequency of occurrence of flooding at
void nodes to an intended extent. These flooding mechanism are called restricted flooding
or partial flooding [19]. Among the techniques in this group there are the one hop
Flooding [20] and Partial Source Routing which second algorithm is provided in OGF
protocol [21].
2.3.1 One-hop Flooding: A kind of partial flooding mechanisms that is initiated by the
void node through which the void node broadcasts stuck packet to only nodes in its
immediate neighborhood. Upon receiving the packet, each neighbor resumes forwarding
packet using greedy forwarding algorithm individually. If the void node be selected again
as the next hop by one of the neighboring nodes to forward the stuck packet, void node
discards the packet and sends a warning message to forwarder neighbor that means
another node must be selected. If this neighbor node does not found another appropriate
node to forward packet through it, this neighbor node has become into a void node. This
algorithm can be extended to n-hop flooding technique. Function of this algorithm to
handle a void is shown in Figure 6 from [21].
Figure 6. An Example to Demonstrate How One-hop Flooding Handles a
Void
2.3.2 Partial Source Routing: This technique includes an ON-Demand algorithm that
consists of two phases: partial route discovery and source packet forwarding [23]. The
aim of the algorithm in route discovery phase is finding a route through which the void
node is directly connected to the destination node or to a node closer to the destination
node than the void node. The route discovery phase begins at void node by sending a
discovery packet to all its two-neighboring nodes. If a path discovered, this phase ends up
otherwise the range of sending the discovery packet expanded to three-hop that is one
more hop than the previous search, and then the discovery packet is re-broadcasted. This
process continues until the desired node is found or the number of algorithm running is
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reaches the threshold defined in the protocol, which at the latter case the stuck packet will
be discarded. At the forwarding phase the void node inserts to the stuck packet header the
path that is learned and begins the packet forwarding in that path. Note here is that the
path has been found is stored only in the void node. In Figure 7 from [21], a simple
example of how to handle a void using the partial source routing is shown.
Figure 7. An Example to Demonstrate How PSR Handles a Void
2.4 .Cost-based Techniques
These techniques handle a void through a cost based idea. One technique into this
category is Distance Upgrading Algorithm (DUA) [22]. Main operation of these
techniques is forwarding packets from a node has a higher cost towards a node has a
lower cost. Proportional to the using context cost parameter can be defined differently.
Once the using a cost based technique, according to the cost parameter defined in the
protocol, a cost value will be assigned to all nodes in the network. Then the technique is
activated after encountering any package with void.
2.4.1. Distance Upgrading Algorithm: The DUA algorithm, main idea is similar to the
idea of cost-based forwarding in the PAGER-M protocol, describes two problems in cost-
based algorithms and offers a solution for each. First problem is that there is a possible to
generate inefficient routing paths, due to too high cost value that is upgraded at each node.
In this algorithm, a method is provided for reducing the distance cost to an appropriate
level. Figure 8.b and 8.c from [22] show respectively the mentioned problem and the
presented solution in this algorithm. Second problem is incompatibility of these
techniques with changes of the network topology. Hence, the algorithm proposed and
applied a cost recovery process.
Figure 8. An Example to Demonstrate How Distance Downgrade Produces
Efficient Routing Paths
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2.5. Heuristic Techniques
These techniques are based on several intuitive ideas and thus there is no a strict
theoretical analysis on their effectiveness and performance. The basis of such techniques
is exploiting some additional resources or using the natural properties of the network
topology and geographical properties of the void area. Some of these techniques are
avoidance, such as Anchored Geodesic Packet Forwarding (AGPF) [23] and Timer Based
DFS recovery (TBD-LAROD) [24]. The other of these techniques includes alternate
network [20] and intermediate node forwarding (INF) [25].
2.5.1. Alternate Networks: In this technique, each network node to handle the void and
forward data packet around void area should be equipped with an alternative wireless
network (e.g., satellite). Although this method is effective but its cost is very high.
2.5.2. Intermediate Node Forwarding: The algorithm uses a probabilistic approach to
forward packets that are stuck at a void node. When a packet encounters a void, the void
node discards the stuck packet and sends a warning message to the source node. Once the
source node receives such a message, assumes a line between themselves and the
destination node and considers the middle point of the line as center of circle O.
Afterwards the source node selects a random point inside the circle O and resend the data
packet. If the packet enters at a node that random point is within the communication
range, the node sends the packet to a neighbor node that is close to the destination than
the other. If the packet re-stopped in a void node and discarded again, source node
increases the radius of circle O and chooses another random point. This process repeated
until either the packet reaches the destination, or the number of repetition reach to
threshold value and the source node suppose that the destination is unreachable. Operation
of the algorithm is shown in figure 8 from [25]. Node A is sending a data packet to the
destination G. The data packet forward to node C via node B and gets stuck at node C. In
this case, C discards the stuck packet and notifies to A via a warning message. Upon
receiving the message at node A, it forms circle with radius r1 and selects random point l1
inside the circle. For the second time the data packet forwarded to node C and discarded
by node C. Once receiving the second warning, the source node A increases radius r1 to
r2 and considers another random point. Thus data packet delivered via route
C D E F to destination G.
Figure 9. An INF Example
2.5.3. Anchored Geodesic Packet Forwarding: Unlike a lot of void-handling
techniques, AGPF in terminode routing [23] is a preventive technique, which tries to
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prevent a packet from encountering. In this technique, the source node attaches a list of
temporary destinations which are called anchors, in the packet header before sending that.
Once reaching the data packet to a node that has the first anchor in its radio range, ID of
that removed from the list and forwarded to the second anchor. This process continues
until all IDs of anchors removed from the list then deliver to the original destination. The
data packet is forwarded greedily between anchors. If the anchors are properly chosen,
there is high possibility to deliver the data packet to the destination. Note that the sender
needs to acquire the position information of anchors and maintain it periodically. Note
that the sender needs to maintain and update the current position of anchors.
2.5.4. TBD-LAROD Technique: In this technique, that is presented to improve the
performance of the LAROD-LoDiS protocol, when a node i is required to forward a stuck
packet it broadcasts a ReTF message to find the next best node among the neighboring
nodes. As soon as receiving the ReTF message, each neighbor node calculates a timer
based on the node’s positive progress towards the destination node and void flag value.
VF flag is maintained locally via each node Flag indicates the state of the node with
respect to a specific destination. When the timer expires, each node responds with an
RsTF (Response-To-Forward) message to notify its willingness to be the next hop. Other
nodes cancle sending your response when node I receives the first RsTF message. An
example of how to deliver data packets from a source to a destination using TBD
algorithm is shown in Figure 9 from [24]. Gray nodes show the nodes that are involved in
the process of sending and receiving RsTF and ReTF messages, an arrow between two
nodes indicates the direction of sending messages, dotted lines represent movements by
nodes when packet could not be transmitted and the numbers besides nodes are the void
flag [24]. Node x is recognized as a void node. Also in this figure can realize the locally
maintaining VF values.
Figure 10. Example of Packet Forwarding by TBD-LAROD Technique
2.6. Virtual Destination based Technique
Exploit of Virtual destinations in void-handling Techniques is a new approach has been
introduced in [26]. According to this proposed algorithm advantages of greedy forwarding
can be exploited to direct data packets even in dealing with voids by specifying one or
more temporary destination, whereas during the other void handling techniques the
advantage of greedy forwarding cannot be achieved. POR algorithm [27] is an effective
and efficient technique in this group.
2.6.1. POR: A POR algorithm’s feature that is different from another geographic routing
protocol is node that changes the routing mode. In most geographic routing protocols after
encountering with a void, the forwarding mode changes at the void node, whereas the
POR algorithm shows a situation (Figure 10 from [26]) where choosing the void node to
change the packet forwarding mode, here node 5 in Figure 10, causes a non-optimal
routing path. Hence the algorithm provides a solution in which void node sends a warning
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message to its previous node. Upon receiving the void warning message, that is just the
data packet with some extra flags included in its header, the previous node (referred as
trigger node) obliged to switch routing mode from greedy to void handling and forward
the stuck packet. Greedy forwarding mode can be return when the stuck packet receives at
a node that is closer to the destination than the trigger node. If the number of hops passed
by the stuck packet exceeded the threshold a disrupt message sent to the trigger node, then
the trigger node stops the routing in this path. It’s clear that if the void happens at the
source node, this node will be selected as trigger node and so source node will set
forwarding mode as void handling without any other choice.
Figure 11. Example of Packet Forwarding by Position based Opportunistic
Routing Technique
4. Brief Comparison
In this section these explained void handling techniques compared based on some
important features to determine the most appropriate technique to use in the VANET.
Table 1 shows the comparison of explained techniques.
Table 1. Characteristics of Void Handling Techniques
Guarantee
DeliveryScalabilityComplexity
Overhead
Optimal
Path
YesYesMedium
Medium
NoPerimeter
routing
YesYesMediumMediumNoRequest-
Response
YesYesHighMediumYes2-hop
forwarding
sometimesYesHighMediumNoBOUNDHOLE
YesYesLowHighNoOne hop
flooding
YesNoHighHighYesPSR
YesYesMediumMediumYesDUA
YesYesHighMediumNoAlternate
network
NoNoMediumHighNoINF
NoYesHighMediumNoAGPF
YesYesMediumMediumYesTBD-LAROD
YesYesLowMediumYesPOR
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From table can be found that although planar graph based techniques, flooding based
techniques and cost based techniques guarantee delivery data packets, however, only in
distance upgrading algorithm, 2-hop forwarding and partial source routing the path
through which the packet reaches the destination first is the optimal path. Instead, in the
POR algorithm, a Virtual Destination based void handling method can provide high
reliability in packet delivery through optimal path. BOUNDHOLE algorithm can
guarantee the delivery of data packets to the destination only when the destination is
outside the void region; however it’s not necessarily the optimal path. Also, in alternate
network technique, when it’s available, is no attempt to find the optimal path but can
ensure the delivery of packet. The TBD-LAROD algorithm with using a prioritization
function can guarantee the delivery of packet and finds the optimal path.
The complexity of an algorithm is the degree of difficulty and cost in implementing the
algorithm. Alternate network technique has a lot of complexity because of using of
additional resources during implementation. Besides, the BOUNDHOLE algorithm, the
PSR, 2-hop forwarding and AGPF techniques have a large complexity when
implementing because of the difficulty of the protocol is used. The one hop flooding-
based void-handling technique minimizes the flooding cost leads to no scalability.
About overhead can be found that likewise the flooding based techniques that have a
large overhead because the nature of this type of publication, the INF algorithm impose
excessive overhead to the network.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a variety of void handling techniques to address voids in the vehicular ad-
hoc network were examined. Process of each of these techniques and their features were
explained. After that these void handling techniques were compared in term of several
important features in order to study their impact on vehicular ad-hoc network
performance.
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Authors
Sanaz Parvin, achieved her Associate Degree in Software
Engineering from Islamic Azad University, Khuzestan, Iran and
B.Sc. degree in Hardware Engineering from Safahan Esfahan
University, Isfahan, Iran. Already she is studying M.Sc. degree in
Computer Networking at Yazd University, Yazd, Iran. Her research
interests are Mobile Communications and Networking.
Mehdi Agha Sarram, currently working as an assistant professor
at the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering in Yazd
University, Iran. He was honored Ph.D. degree from University of
Wales, Cardiff, U.K. in1979. He is Member of Australian Institute of
Control and Instrumentation and also Member of Steering Committee
on IT standards (ISIRI-ITTC). He was designed hardware and
software for control and automation of Material handling machines
14. International Journal of Grid Distribution Computing
Vol.8, No.2 (2015)
114 Copyright ⓒ 2015 SERSC
for coal mines for Coal & Allied Company situated in Hunter Valley
from 1980- 1984. He has been responsible for establishment of
organization and operation of computing systems facilities for both
educational and administrative purposes from 1990-1999. He has
been Casual Lecturer in Australian Universities such as SIBT
Macquarie University, University of Western Sydney Macarthur and
SWIC University of Western Sydney from 2000- 2003. His current
research interests are Network coding, QoS, MANETs and Wireless
Sensor Networks.
Ghasem Mirjalily, was born in Iran in 1969. He received his
Ph.D. degree in Telecommunication Engineering from Tarbiat
Modarres University, Iran in 2000 with honors. He has been a visiting
researcher at the Communications Research Laboratory, McMaster
University, Canada in 1998. Since 2000, he has been with Yazd
University, Iran, where he is currently full professor at faculty of
Electrical and Computer Engineering. His current research interest is
Wireless Communication and Networking. Prof. Mirjalily is senior
member of IEEE, also founder and supervisor of the Computer and
Communication Networks Research Group (CCNRG) at Yazd
University.
Fazlollah Adibnia, received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from the
Isfahan University of technology and Sharif University of
technology, Iran in the field of computer hardware engineering in
1988 and 1990 respectively, and Ph.D. degree from the Bremen
University, Germany in the field of Computer Networks in 1999. In
the 1990 he joined the department of electrical engineering, the Yazd
University, and moved to department of Computer engineering in
1999. He is now an assistant professor at the Yazd University. His
research activities include information security, routing, congestion
control and traffic engineering.