This document provides an overview of carbohydrates, including their classification, structures, and properties. It discusses the three major classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and other sugars. Disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose are formed from two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose are long chains of monosaccharide units. The document also examines properties of carbohydrates like mutarotation, glycosidic linkages, isomerization, and reducing abilities.
1- Carbohydrates.pptx for bsn first semisteritxshanzee4892
Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.
Biochemistry of Carbohydrates for MBBS, BDS, Lab Med 2024.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain large quantities of hydroxyl groups.
The simplest carbohydrates also contain either an aldehyde moiety (these are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone moiety (polyhydroxyketones).
All carbohydrates can be classified as either monosaccharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
This document discusses monosaccharides, which are the simplest forms of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that cannot be further broken down by hydrolysis. The document outlines the key properties and classifications of monosaccharides, including that they are reducing sugars, contain asymmetric carbons, and often exist as cyclic structures called pyranoses and furanoses. Examples of important monosaccharides are glucose, galactose, and fructose. Glucose is a critical energy source, while mannose and derivatives have biological roles.
This document discusses the nomenclature and classification of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the structural features of common monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and mannose. It also discusses stereoisomers, anomers, mutarotation, and the reactions of monosaccharides like reduction, oxidation, ester formation, and glycoside formation. Important carbohydrate derivatives like amino sugars are also introduced.
This document discusses the nomenclature and classification of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the structural features of common monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and mannose. It also discusses stereoisomers, anomers, mutarotation, and the reactions of monosaccharides like reduction, oxidation, ester formation, and glycoside formation. Important carbohydrate derivatives like amino sugars are also introduced.
Carbohydrates range in size from small monosaccharides like glyceraldehyde to large polysaccharides such as amylopectin. They serve important functions like energy storage, structural components of cell walls, and cell signaling. Monosaccharides can exist as linear or cyclic structures, with cyclic forms predominating in solution. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose, which differ in stereochemistry and functional groups. Glucose is frequently used to test for reducing sugars through colorimetric or electrochemical methods.
Carbohydrates range widely in size and structure, and serve important functions in living organisms. They are produced from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis in plants. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and include sugars like glucose, galactose, and fructose. In solution, monosaccharides typically form ring structures called pyranoses or furanoses with intramolecular bonds. The cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with linear forms, and reducing sugars can be detected through chemical tests involving oxidation-reduction reactions. Modern methods for quantifying sugars like glucose use enzyme-based colorimetric or electrochemical assays.
Carbohydrates are an important class of biological molecules. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form and include glucose, fructose, and ribose. Many monosaccharides exist as ring structures in aqueous solution through hemiacetal or hemiketal linkages. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units and include maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides serve important structural and storage functions and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates play critical roles in energy storage, structure, and numerous biological processes.
1- Carbohydrates.pptx for bsn first semisteritxshanzee4892
Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.Biochemistry of carbohydrate for bsn first semister.
Biochemistry of Carbohydrates for MBBS, BDS, Lab Med 2024.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain large quantities of hydroxyl groups.
The simplest carbohydrates also contain either an aldehyde moiety (these are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone moiety (polyhydroxyketones).
All carbohydrates can be classified as either monosaccharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
This document discusses monosaccharides, which are the simplest forms of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that cannot be further broken down by hydrolysis. The document outlines the key properties and classifications of monosaccharides, including that they are reducing sugars, contain asymmetric carbons, and often exist as cyclic structures called pyranoses and furanoses. Examples of important monosaccharides are glucose, galactose, and fructose. Glucose is a critical energy source, while mannose and derivatives have biological roles.
This document discusses the nomenclature and classification of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the structural features of common monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and mannose. It also discusses stereoisomers, anomers, mutarotation, and the reactions of monosaccharides like reduction, oxidation, ester formation, and glycoside formation. Important carbohydrate derivatives like amino sugars are also introduced.
This document discusses the nomenclature and classification of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the structural features of common monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and mannose. It also discusses stereoisomers, anomers, mutarotation, and the reactions of monosaccharides like reduction, oxidation, ester formation, and glycoside formation. Important carbohydrate derivatives like amino sugars are also introduced.
Carbohydrates range in size from small monosaccharides like glyceraldehyde to large polysaccharides such as amylopectin. They serve important functions like energy storage, structural components of cell walls, and cell signaling. Monosaccharides can exist as linear or cyclic structures, with cyclic forms predominating in solution. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose, which differ in stereochemistry and functional groups. Glucose is frequently used to test for reducing sugars through colorimetric or electrochemical methods.
Carbohydrates range widely in size and structure, and serve important functions in living organisms. They are produced from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis in plants. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and include sugars like glucose, galactose, and fructose. In solution, monosaccharides typically form ring structures called pyranoses or furanoses with intramolecular bonds. The cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with linear forms, and reducing sugars can be detected through chemical tests involving oxidation-reduction reactions. Modern methods for quantifying sugars like glucose use enzyme-based colorimetric or electrochemical assays.
Carbohydrates are an important class of biological molecules. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form and include glucose, fructose, and ribose. Many monosaccharides exist as ring structures in aqueous solution through hemiacetal or hemiketal linkages. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units and include maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides serve important structural and storage functions and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates play critical roles in energy storage, structure, and numerous biological processes.
WHAT IS CARBOHYDRATE? CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE? WHAT IS MONOSACCHARIDE? CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE. PHYSICAL PROPERTY. CHEMICAL PROPERTY. ATRUCTURAL FORMULA. METABOLISM . IMPORTANCE OF MONOSACCHARIDE. IMPORTANT FACT RELATED TO MONOSACCHARIDE. DISORDER OF MONOSACCHARIDE CONCLUSION. REFRANCES
Lecture notes on Chemistry of carbohydratesneha sheth
Carbohydrates are an important class of biological molecules that serve as energy sources and structural components. They are classified based on their structure as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose are the simplest units and cannot be further broken down. Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides join, such as sucrose from glucose and fructose or maltose from two glucose units. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and provide structure and energy storage. Carbohydrates play key roles in biology through their various forms and reactions.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses and commonly exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers. Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, which serve structural roles like cellulose and chitin or storage roles like starch and glycogen. Carbohydrates play key roles through their diverse structures and functions.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starch (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides are single sugars that cannot be broken down further. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides bond together, such as sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Plants and animals use carbohydrates for energy storage and structural support.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can be aldoses or ketoses and exist as cyclic structures in solution. Disaccharides like sucrose are formed through glycosidic bond formation between two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides vary in composition and function, with starch and glycogen serving as energy storage and cellulose providing structural support. Glycoconjugates are carbohydrates bound to proteins or lipids that play important roles in cell signaling and recognition.
Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are sugars. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like maltose and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight carbohydrates that yield monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Examples are starch, glycogen, and inulin which store glucose in plants and animals. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin, glycogen resembles amylopectin, and inulin links fructose units. They differ in structure, properties, and hydrolysis products.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions such as energy storage, structural support, and cell signaling.
- There are three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that can join together to form larger carbohydrates.
- Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose are composed of two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides form structural components of cell walls and connective tissues.
This document discusses monosaccharides, which are the simplest form of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides as sugars that cannot be broken down further through hydrolysis. The key types are discussed as well as their physical and chemical properties. Monosaccharides play important roles as energy sources and in building other biomolecules. While necessary in moderation, disorders can arise from too much consumption like obesity and diabetes. A balanced diet incorporating complex carbohydrates is recommended for health.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate structures and functions. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single sugar units that exist as both open-chain and ring forms. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides are long sugar polymers that can be linear or branched. The document discusses the structures and properties of common monosaccharides like glucose and discusses cyclic and linear forms. It also covers carbohydrate naming conventions and stereochemistry.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Monosaccharides are aldoses or ketoses that exist as cyclic or linear structures. Polysaccharides function as energy storage molecules like starch and glycogen or provide structure to plant cell walls and insect exoskeletons like cellulose and chitin. Carbohydrates undergo oxidation reactions and form glycosidic bonds between monosaccharide units.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate classification and structure. It discusses that there are three main classes of carbohydrates based on size: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can exist as open-chain or cyclic structures and include important examples like glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, with examples being maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight polymers of monosaccharides and include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
CARBOHYDRATES in animals uses and functions.pdfTatendaMageja
This document discusses carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates as carbon compounds with aldehyde or ketone functional groups that are made up of polyhydroxy alcohols. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structural support, and participation in cellular processes. They are then classified and the document focuses on discussing monosaccharides in detail, including their structures, properties, examples like glucose and fructose, and derivatives. Disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose are also introduced.
This document discusses carbohydrate biochemistry. It begins by stating the learning objectives, which are to classify and illustrate carbohydrates, understand stereoisomerism, and differentiate projection formulas. It then describes the key functions of carbohydrates in energy storage, structure, and cell processes. The main types of carbohydrates are defined as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose, fructose, galactose and ribose are highlighted as biologically important monosaccharides. The document also explains stereoisomers, chiral centers, and projection formulas used to depict carbohydrate structures.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are polymers of many monosaccharide units and serve structural or energy storage functions. Carbohydrates play important roles in energy storage, structure, and various cellular functions through their participation in glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth and serve as the central energy source for most cells. There are three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form and include glucose and fructose. They contain hydroxyl and carbonyl groups and exist as either aldoses or ketoses. Carbohydrates serve important structural and energy storage functions and are involved in many biological processes like cell interactions and immune response modulation.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
includes- Definition, classification, examples, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, D and L isomers, ozasone testing, reducing and non reducing sugars, chemical tests and disease.
Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides and its qualitative tests - Part 1Mohamed Mukthar Ali
Discusses about monosaccharides definition, classification, structure and reactions of glucose, galactose, and fructose. Qualitative tests for carbohydrates with reaction scheme. Terminologies in carbohydrates such as epimeris, anomers and mutarotation.
WHAT IS CARBOHYDRATE? CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE? WHAT IS MONOSACCHARIDE? CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE. PHYSICAL PROPERTY. CHEMICAL PROPERTY. ATRUCTURAL FORMULA. METABOLISM . IMPORTANCE OF MONOSACCHARIDE. IMPORTANT FACT RELATED TO MONOSACCHARIDE. DISORDER OF MONOSACCHARIDE CONCLUSION. REFRANCES
Lecture notes on Chemistry of carbohydratesneha sheth
Carbohydrates are an important class of biological molecules that serve as energy sources and structural components. They are classified based on their structure as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose are the simplest units and cannot be further broken down. Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides join, such as sucrose from glucose and fructose or maltose from two glucose units. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and provide structure and energy storage. Carbohydrates play key roles in biology through their various forms and reactions.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses and commonly exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers. Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, which serve structural roles like cellulose and chitin or storage roles like starch and glycogen. Carbohydrates play key roles through their diverse structures and functions.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starch (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides are single sugars that cannot be broken down further. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides bond together, such as sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Plants and animals use carbohydrates for energy storage and structural support.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can be aldoses or ketoses and exist as cyclic structures in solution. Disaccharides like sucrose are formed through glycosidic bond formation between two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides vary in composition and function, with starch and glycogen serving as energy storage and cellulose providing structural support. Glycoconjugates are carbohydrates bound to proteins or lipids that play important roles in cell signaling and recognition.
Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are sugars. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like maltose and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight carbohydrates that yield monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Examples are starch, glycogen, and inulin which store glucose in plants and animals. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin, glycogen resembles amylopectin, and inulin links fructose units. They differ in structure, properties, and hydrolysis products.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions such as energy storage, structural support, and cell signaling.
- There are three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that can join together to form larger carbohydrates.
- Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose are composed of two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides form structural components of cell walls and connective tissues.
This document discusses monosaccharides, which are the simplest form of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides as sugars that cannot be broken down further through hydrolysis. The key types are discussed as well as their physical and chemical properties. Monosaccharides play important roles as energy sources and in building other biomolecules. While necessary in moderation, disorders can arise from too much consumption like obesity and diabetes. A balanced diet incorporating complex carbohydrates is recommended for health.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate structures and functions. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single sugar units that exist as both open-chain and ring forms. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides are long sugar polymers that can be linear or branched. The document discusses the structures and properties of common monosaccharides like glucose and discusses cyclic and linear forms. It also covers carbohydrate naming conventions and stereochemistry.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Monosaccharides are aldoses or ketoses that exist as cyclic or linear structures. Polysaccharides function as energy storage molecules like starch and glycogen or provide structure to plant cell walls and insect exoskeletons like cellulose and chitin. Carbohydrates undergo oxidation reactions and form glycosidic bonds between monosaccharide units.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate classification and structure. It discusses that there are three main classes of carbohydrates based on size: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can exist as open-chain or cyclic structures and include important examples like glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, with examples being maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight polymers of monosaccharides and include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
CARBOHYDRATES in animals uses and functions.pdfTatendaMageja
This document discusses carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates as carbon compounds with aldehyde or ketone functional groups that are made up of polyhydroxy alcohols. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structural support, and participation in cellular processes. They are then classified and the document focuses on discussing monosaccharides in detail, including their structures, properties, examples like glucose and fructose, and derivatives. Disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose are also introduced.
This document discusses carbohydrate biochemistry. It begins by stating the learning objectives, which are to classify and illustrate carbohydrates, understand stereoisomerism, and differentiate projection formulas. It then describes the key functions of carbohydrates in energy storage, structure, and cell processes. The main types of carbohydrates are defined as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose, fructose, galactose and ribose are highlighted as biologically important monosaccharides. The document also explains stereoisomers, chiral centers, and projection formulas used to depict carbohydrate structures.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are polymers of many monosaccharide units and serve structural or energy storage functions. Carbohydrates play important roles in energy storage, structure, and various cellular functions through their participation in glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth and serve as the central energy source for most cells. There are three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form and include glucose and fructose. They contain hydroxyl and carbonyl groups and exist as either aldoses or ketoses. Carbohydrates serve important structural and energy storage functions and are involved in many biological processes like cell interactions and immune response modulation.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
includes- Definition, classification, examples, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, D and L isomers, ozasone testing, reducing and non reducing sugars, chemical tests and disease.
Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides and its qualitative tests - Part 1Mohamed Mukthar Ali
Discusses about monosaccharides definition, classification, structure and reactions of glucose, galactose, and fructose. Qualitative tests for carbohydrates with reaction scheme. Terminologies in carbohydrates such as epimeris, anomers and mutarotation.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
TEST BANK For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition by...Donc Test
TEST BANK For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition by Stamler, Verified Chapters 1 - 33, Complete Newest Version Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition by Stamler, Verified Chapters 1 - 33, Complete Newest Version Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition by Stamler Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition TEST BANK by Stamler Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Pdf Chapters Download Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Pdf Download Stuvia Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Study Guide Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Ebook Download Stuvia Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Questions and Answers Quizlet Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Studocu Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Quizlet Test Bank For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Stuvia Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Pdf Chapters Download Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Pdf Download Course Hero Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Answers Quizlet Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Ebook Download Course hero Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Questions and Answers Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Studocu Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Quizlet Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Stuvia Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Pdf Chapters Download Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Pdf Download Stuvia Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Study Guide Questions and Answers Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Ebook Download Stuvia Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Questions Quizlet Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Studocu Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Quizlet Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition Test Bank Stuvia
2. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates- Carbon hydrates ( C- H20)
• Polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones
• Many, but not all, carbohydrates have the empirical formula (C- H20)n
• Most abundant biomolecules on the earth
• Three major classes of carbohydrates:
• Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides
• (The word “saccharide” is derived from the Greek sakcharon, meaning
“sugar”).
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3. Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates
• They are colorless, crystalline solids that are freely soluble in water but insoluble
in nonpolar solvents.
• The simplest monosaccharides are the two three-carbon trioses: glyceraldehyde
and dihydroxyacetone.
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5. Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides with four, five, six, and seven carbon atoms in their backbones
are called, respectively, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses.
• The D-glucose and D-fructose are the most common monosaccharides in
nature.
• The aldopentoses, D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose are components of nucleotides
and nucleic acids.
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7. Asymmetric or Chiral Centers
• Carbon to which four different atoms or groups are attached is called
asymmetric.
• All the monosaccharides except dihydroxyacetone contain one or more
asymmetric (chiral) carbon atoms and thus occur in optically active isomeric
forms- Enantiomers or Mirror images.
• To represent three-dimensional sugar structures on paper, we often use Fischer
projection formulas.
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Khyber Medical University Institute of Paramedical Sciences
8. Epimers
• Two sugars that differ only in the configuration around one carbon atom are
called epimers.
• D-glucose and D-mannose, which differ only at C-2 and D-glucose and D-
galactose (which differ at C-4) .
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Khyber Medical University Institute of Paramedical Sciences
10. Hemiacetals and hemiketals
• They are formed when an alcohol oxygen
atom adds to the carbonyl carbon of an
aldehyde or a ketone.
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Khyber Medical University Institute of Paramedical Sciences
11. Cyclization of glucose to its hemiacetal form
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Khyber Medical University Institute of Paramedical Sciences
13. Anomers and ring structure
• Isomeric forms of monosaccharides that differ only in their configuration about
the hemiacetal or hemiketal carbon atom are called anomers, and the carbonyl
carbon atom is called the anomeric carbon.
• Pyranose is a six-membered ring with Oxygen bridge between C no.1 and 5.
• Furanose is a five-membered ring with oxygen bridge between C no.1 and 4.
• The systematic names for the two ring forms of D-glucose are therefore alpha-D-
glucopyranose and beta-D-glucopyranose.
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Khyber Medical University Institute of Paramedical Sciences
14. Pyranose and Furanose ring structure
Pyranoses and furanoses. The pyranose forms of D-glucose and the furanose forms of D-fructose are shown
here as Haworth perspective formulas. The edges of the ring nearest the reader are represented by bold lines.
Pyran and furan are shown for comparison.
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15. Anomers—mutarotation
• Mutarotation- the change in the specific optical rotation representing the
interconversion of α and β forms of D-glucose to an equilibrium mixture
• The α and β anomers of glucose have different optical rotations
• The specific optical rotation of a freshly prepared glucose (α anomer) solution in
water is +112.2° which gradually changes and attains an equilibrium with a
constant value of +52.7°
• In the presence of alkali, the decrease in optical rotation is rapid
• The optical rotation of β-glucose is +18.7°
• α-D-Glucose (+112.2°) ↔Equilibrium mixture (+52.7°) ↔ β-D-Glucose(+18.7°)
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16. Reactions of monosaccharides- Tautomerism
• The process of shifting a hydrogen
atom from one carbon atom to
another to produce enediols is known
as tautomerization
• Sugars possessing anomeric carbon
atom undergo tautomerization in
alkaline solutions
• When glucose is kept in alkaline
solution for several hours, it undergoes
isomerization to form D-fructose and
D-mannose through a common
intermediate- enediol- two OH groups
are attached to the double bonded
carbon
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17. Reducing Sugars
• All sugars having a free aldehyde or keto group of
anomeric carbon are reducing
• All Monosaccharides such as Glucose, fructose,
glyceraldehyde, galactose etc. and disaccharides
lactose and maltose reduce cupric ions (Cu2+) of
copper sulphate to cuprous ions (Cu+), which form
a yellow precipitate of cuprous hydroxide or a red
precipitate of cuprous oxide
• Basis of Benedict’s test, Fehling’s test, Barfoed’s
test
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18. Oxidation
• The terminal aldehyde (or keto) or the terminal alcohol or both the groups may
be oxidized
• Oxidation of aldehyde group (CHO→COOH) results in the formation of gluconic
acid
• Oxidation of terminal alcohol group(CH2OH → COOH) leads to the production of
glucuronic acid
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19. Reduction
• When treated with reducing agents such as sodium amalgam, the aldehyde or
keto group of monosaccharide is reduced to corresponding alcohols
• D-Glucose → D-Sorbitol
• D-Galactose → D-Dulcitol
• D-Mannose → D-Mannitol
• D-Fructose → D-Mannitol + D-Sorbitol
• D-Ribose → D-Ribitol
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20. Dehydration
• When treated with concentrated sulfuric acid,
monosaccharides undergo dehydration with
an elimination of 3 water molecules
• Thus hexoses give hydroxymethyl furfural
while pentoses give furfural on dehydration
• These furfurals can condense with phenolic
compounds (α -naphthol) to form colored
products
• Chemical basis of Molisch test
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21. Glycosides
• When the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide reacts with the hydroxyl group
of another monosaccharide, it forms glycosidic linkage.
• Glycosides are compounds in which a monosaccharide is attached at the
anomeric carbon to an alcohol residue of non-carbohydrate.
• The non-carbohydrate residue is called aglycon.
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22. Physiologically important glycosides
1. Glucovanillin (vanillin-D-glucoside) is a natural substance that imparts vanilla
flavor.
2. Cardiac glycosides (steroidal glycosides): Digoxin and digitoxin contain the
aglycone steroid and they stimulate muscle contraction.
3. Streptomycin, an antibiotic used in the treatment of tuberculosis is a glycoside.
4. Ouabain inhibits Na+ –K+ ATPase and blocks the active transport of Na+.
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24. Ring structure- Haworth formula
• Cyclic structures of sugars are more accurately represented in Haworth
perspective formulas than in the Fischer projection commonly used for linear
sugar structures.
• In Haworth projections the six-membered ring is tilted to make its plane almost
perpendicular to that of the paper, with the bonds closest to the reader drawn
thicker than those farther away and numbering of the carbons is done in a
clockwise direction beginning with the anomeric carbon.
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26. Disaccharides
• Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides joined covalently by an O-
glycosidic bond, which is formed when a hydroxyl group of one sugar molecule,
typically cyclic, reacts with the anomeric carbon of the other .
• Because maltose has a free OH group at C-1 of glucose, it is a reducing sugar
• Maltose, lactose, and sucrose
• Isomaltose, Cellobiose
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28. Disaccharides
• In isomaltose, the glucose units are held
together by α (1 → 6) glycosidic linkage
• Cellobiose is a disaccharide, identical in
structure with maltose, except it has β(1
→ 4) glycosidic linkage
• Cellobiose is formed during the hydrolysis
of cellulose
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29. Sucrose
• Sucrose (cane sugar) is the sugar of commerce, mostly produced by sugar cane
and sugar beets
• Sucrose is made up of α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose
• The two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic bond (α1 β2),
between C1 of α-glucose and C2 of β-fructose
• Non-reducing-the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in
glycosidic bond
• It is sweeter than glucose, lactose and maltose
• Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose which are absorbed
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30. Inversion of sucrose
• The process of change in optical rotation from dextrorotatory (+) to levorotatory
(–) is referred to as inversion
• Sucrose is dextrorotatory (+66.5°)
• Invert sugar- The hydrolyzed mixture of sucrose (glucose and fructose)
• Sucrase (invertase) or dilute acids hydrolyze sucrose to glucose and fructose
• When hydrolyzed, sucrose is first split into α-D-glucopyranose (+52.5°) and β-D-
fructofuranose- both are dextrorotatory
• However, β-D-fructofuranose is less stable and immediately gets converted to α-
D-fructopyranose which is strongly levorotatory (–92°)
• The overall effect is that dextro sucrose (+66.5°) on inversion is converted to
levo form (–28.2°).
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32. Polysaccharides
• Most carbohydrates found in nature occur as polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides, also called glycans, differ from each other in the identity of their
recurring monosaccharide units, in the length of their chains, in the types of
bonds linking the units, and in the degree of branching.
• Homopolysaccharides contain only a single monomeric species
• Heteropolysaccharides contain two or more different kinds
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35. Glycogen
branches every
8-12 glucose units
Amylopectin
branches about every
24-30 linear linkages
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36. Heteropolysaccharides
• These heteropolysaccharides, the glycosaminoglycans, are a family of linear
polymers composed of repeating disaccharide units. They are unique to animals
and bacteria and are not found in plants.
• Hyaluronic acid forms clear, highly viscous solutions that serve as lubricants in
the synovial fluid of joints and give the vitreous humor of the vertebrate eye its
jellylike consistency (the Greek hyalos means “glass”.
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37. Heteropolysaccharides
• Hyaluronan is also a component of the extracellular matrix of cartilage and
tendons, to which it contributes tensile strength and elasticity.
• Hyaluronidase, an enzyme secreted by some pathogenic bacteria, can hydrolyze
the glycosidic linkages of hyaluronan, rendering tissues more susceptible to
bacterial invasion.
• Hyaluronidase is also present in high concentration in testes, seminal fluid, and
in certain snake and insect venoms.
• Hyaluronidase of semen is assigned an important role in fertilization as this
enzyme clears the gel (hyaluronic acid) around the ovum allowing a better
penetration of sperm into the ovum.
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38. Chondroitin Sulfate
• Chondroitin sulfate (Greek chondros, “cartilage”) contributes to the tensile
strength of cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and the walls of the aorta.
• Dermatan sulfate (Greek derma, “skin”) contributes to the pliability of skin and is
also present in blood vessels and heart valves.
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40. Agar
• Agar is a complex mixture of polysaccharides.
• The remarkable gel-forming property of agarose makes it useful in the
biochemistry laboratory.
• Agarose gels are used as inert supports for the electrophoretic separation of
nucleic acids, an essential part of the DNA-sequencing process.
• Agar is also used to form a surface for the growth of bacterial colonies.
• Another commercial use of agar is for the capsules in which some vitamins and
drugs are packaged.
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41. Glycoproteins
• Proteins covalently bound to carbohydrates- glycoproteins
• The carbohydrate fraction varies from 1% to 90% by weight
• Mucoproteins- glycoprotein with > 4% carbohydrate contents
• Widely distributed in the cells and perform variety of functions
• Role as enzymes, hormones, transport proteins, structural proteins and
receptors
• The carbohydrates found in glycoproteins include mannose, galactose, N-acetyl-
glucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine, xylose, L-fucose and N-acetylneuraminic
acid (NANA)
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43. Antifreeze glycoproteins
• The Antarctic fish live below –2°C, a temperature at which the blood would
freeze
• These fish contain antifreeze glycoprotein which lower the freezing point of water
and interfere with the crystal formation of ice
• Antifreeze glycoproteins consist of 50 repeating units of the tripeptide- alanine-
alanine-threonine
• Each threonine residue is bound to β-galactosyl (1→3) α N-acetylgalactosamine
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44. Blood group substances
• The blood group antigens on RBCs contain carbohydrates as glycoproteins or
glycolipids
• N-Acetylgalactosamine, galactose, fucose, sialic acid etc. are found in the blood
group antigens
• The carbohydrate content also plays a determinant role in blood grouping
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45. Biomedical Importance of Carbohydrates
• Chief source of energy.
• Constituents of compound lipids and conjugated proteins.
• Certain carbohydrate derivatives are used as drugs like cardiac
glycosides/antibiotics.
• Lactose principal sugar of milk—in lactating mammary gland.
• Degradation products utilized for synthesis of other substances such as fatty
acids, cholesterol, amino acid, etc.
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46. Biomedical Importance of Carbohydrates
• Constituents of mucopolysaccharides which form the ground substance of
mesenchymal tissues.
• Inherited deficiency of certain enzymes in metabolic pathways of different
carbohydrates can cause diseases, e.g. galactosemia, glycogen storage diseases
(GSDs), lactose intolerance, etc.
• Derangement of glucose metabolism is seen in diabetes mellitus.
• Seminal fluid is rich in fructose and sperms utilise fructose for energy. Fructose is
formed in the seminiferous tubular epithelial cells from glucose.
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47. Biomedical Importance of Carbohydrates
• Various food preparations, such as baby are produced by hydrolysis of grains and
contain large amounts of maltose.
• From nutritional point of view they are thus easily digestible.
• In lactating mammary gland, the lactose is synthesized from glucose by the duct
epithelium and lactose present in breast milk is a good source of energy for the
newborn baby.
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48. Biomedical Importance of Carbohydrates
• Glycosides are found in many drugs, spices and in the constituents of animal
tissues.
• Cardiac glycosides- digitalis
• Agar
• In human: Used as laxative in constipation. Like cellulose, it is not digested, hence
add bulk to the faces (“roughage” value) and helps in its propulsion.
• In microbiology: Agar is available in purified form. It dissolves in hot water and on
cooling it sets like gel. It is used in agar plate for culture of bacteria.
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