CH. 8: Black Families Ingrid L. Cockhren, M.Ed 1 How would you describe the makeup of your family?? We will cover all of that in the next 25 minutes! 2 Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family Estimated 30% of U.S. families conform to traditional structure of father, mother, & child 3 Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family Proportion of AAs who live in heterosexual, married coupled families has declined sharply over the last few decades such that marriage has become a minority lifestyle 34% of African Americans are married 22% are widowed, divorced, or separated 4 out of 10 African American men and women have never been married (highest of any racial group) 4 Do you plan on getting married?? We will cover all of that in the next 25 minutes! 5 Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family Nearly half (48%) of all African American families are maintained by women with no spouse present. 75 percent of all Black children born in the last 2 decades are likely to live for some portion of their childhood with only their mothers. Poverty is highest in families maintained by women with no spouse present. 35% of African American families 17% of White families 6 Which category best fits your parents?? We will cover all of that in the next 25 minutes! 7 Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family AA women have the highest rates of martial separation & are more likely to remain separated without getting a legal divorce. Why? Cohabitation as an alternative to marriage is more common among Blacks Why? Possibly because male income & employment are lowest among minorities; male economic status may be an important determinant as to whether a man feels ready to marry and a woman wants to marry him 8 Characteristics of the Black Family The Black family is an institution that contains “historical traditions” that set them apart from the European American, Middle class family ideal. Billingsley (1968) proposes 5 general statements that characterize families of African descent: They are extended in form Have fictive kin Have supportive family patterns Have flexible family boundaries Have flexible gender roles in child rearing Nobles (1985) emphasizes the communalistic socialization of children & the role of the elderly 9 Characteristics of the Black Family Perspective on the Black Family A deficit perspective has historically been used to characterize African American families as deprived, disadvantaged, and poorly educated. Many of the empirical investigations on Black families have used European American, middle –class families as the standard of comparison. Using Whites as the standard is methodologically limited and often results in the biased interpretation of study findings. 10 Alternative Structures in the Black Family Black Fathers Much of the early research on Black children has been matricentric, or mother-centered AA fathers represent a significant position in the Black fam.

1. CH. 8: Black Families
Ingrid L. Cockhren, M.Ed
1
How would you describe the makeup of your family??
We will cover all of that in the next 25 minutes!
2
Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family
Estimated 30% of U.S. families conform to traditional structure
of father, mother, & child
3
Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family
Proportion of AAs who live in heterosexual, married coupled
families has declined sharply over the last few decades such
that marriage has become a minority lifestyle

2. 34% of African Americans are married
22% are widowed, divorced, or separated
4 out of 10 African American men and women have never been
married (highest of any racial group)
4
Do you plan on getting married??
We will cover all of that in the next 25 minutes!
5
Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family
Nearly half (48%) of all African American families are
maintained by women with no spouse present.
75 percent of all Black children born in the last 2 decades are
likely to live for some portion of their childhood with only their
mothers.
Poverty is highest in families maintained by women with no
spouse present.
35% of African American families
17% of White families
6

3. Which category best fits your parents??
We will cover all of that in the next 25 minutes!
7
Demographic Characteristics of The Black Family
AA women have the highest rates of martial separation & are
more likely to remain separated without getting a legal divorce.
Why?
Cohabitation as an alternative to marriage is more common
among Blacks
Why?
Possibly because male income & employment are lowest among
minorities; male economic status may be an important
determinant as to whether a man feels ready to marry and a
woman wants to marry him
8
Characteristics of the Black Family
The Black family is an institution that contains “historical
traditions” that set them apart from the European American,
Middle class family ideal.
Billingsley (1968) proposes 5 general statements that
characterize families of African descent:
They are extended in form
Have fictive kin
Have supportive family patterns
Have flexible family boundaries
Have flexible gender roles in child rearing
Nobles (1985) emphasizes the communalistic socialization of
children & the role of the elderly

4. 9
Characteristics of the Black Family
Perspective on the Black Family
A deficit perspective has historically been used to characterize
African American families as deprived, disadvantaged, and
poorly educated.
Many of the empirical investigations on Black families have
used European American, middle –class families as the standard
of comparison.
Using Whites as the standard is methodologically limited and
often results in the biased interpretation of study findings.
10
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Black Fathers
Much of the early research on Black children has been
matricentric, or mother-centered
AA fathers represent a significant position in the Black family
despite the fact that in every decade post slavery, Black men
have experienced high rates of unemployment, and lower levels
of education which has influenced their role as providers.
Traditional research on Black fathers has focused on
absenteeism in the home and the resulting problems, including
delinquency, economic hardship, and lack of male role models,
violence, and abuse.

5. 11
Black Fathers
Data from the National Survey of Families suggest Black males
are more likely to be single full-time fathers than males from
other ethnic groups.
Although a significant number of AA children do come from
single-parent homes, a father (or father figure) often is present,
even if he does not reside in the home w/the child on a full-time
basis
The majority of African American men felt that their role in
their children’s lives was important and could not be fulfilled or
replaced by their children’s mother.
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Role of the Extended Family
It is not uncommon for Black families to live within an
intergenerational family network.
Grandparents
Adult children
Grandchildren
Nieces / nephews
Aunts / uncles
Fictive Kin
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Role of the Extended Family
Key adaptive strategy
This type of support is an adaptive strategy that allows for the

6. sharing of resources.
This extended network serves as a support structure in the child
rearing process for African American parents.
Growing body of research also examined benefits to other
family members, particularly the elders
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Elders in the Black Family
A large number of African American grandparents are living in
the same household as their grandchildren (8%) compared to
Whites (2%).
Black are more likely than any other ethnic group to take care
of their elderly family members.
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Elders in the Black Family
Black elders have been found to use familial support &
assistance more than formal support services
Results in a strong, positive relationship between family
involvement & life satisfaction among elders
AA elders have more active support networks than Whites & are
more likely to have live-in support & assistance from distant
relatives & friends
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Grandparent-Headed Households (GPHH)
More than half of grandparents report that they are responsible
for the basic needs of their grandchildren.

7. Cut across SES levels, but they are more likely to exist among
families living in poverty
Majority are African American
Grandparents have a positive impact on their grandchildren’s
psychological well being & social adaptability
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Grandparent-Headed Households (GPHH)
Research on the caregivers has been mixed
Single grandmothers are twice as likely to experience
depressive symptomology
Grandmothers report additional negative health affects,
including increased anxiety, stress, & worry
Caregiving burden & negative affects have been demonstrated
to be greater for European American rather than African
American grandmothers
Some grandmothers report satisfaction, positive affect, & pride
in helping to keep these children out of the foster care system
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Grandparent-Headed Households (GPHH)
Extended family members may not always provide positive
support & benefits
Examples?
Some may be disruptive & act as a burden on the family and,
because of the cultural practice of taking in family members in
need, some Black families may feel conflicted about
withdrawing their support
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Same-Sex Unions and Parenting
Little is known about AA same-sex unions and parenting
practices

8. Why?
Prior to 1973, they were regularly denied the right to adopt,
which limited the number of same sex parents (unless they had a
biological child)
Black same-sex households constituted 14% of all same-sex
households in the U.S.
According to recent U.S. census, Black and Latino same-sex
households are nearly twice as likely as White and non-Hispanic
same-sex households to be parenting
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Same-Sex Unions and Parenting
Black same-sex couples are twice as likely to be living with a
biological child as White male same-sex couples.
Black same-sex couples earn less and are less likely to own a
home than their White and heterosexual Black counterparts.
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Baumrind (1972) found that Black women were more
independent & self-assertive.
When classifying families on the basis of their patterns of
family functioning three types of African Americans Families
were listed (Mandara & Murray, 2002):Cohesive-authoritative
Conflictive-authoritarian
Defensive-neglectful
high level of family cohesion
authoritative disciplinary styles
encouraged to be assertive & practice pro-racial socialization
high internal conflict,
lack of communalism to commitment to other family members
strict authoritarian disciplinary parting style (creates an
environment in which children may not feel comfortable

9. expressing emotion)
high emphasis on achievementneglectful and authoritarian
parental disciplinary practices
defensive racial socialization whereby children are socialized to
dislike other racial groups and are not taught to be proud of
their own racial group
Which has the greatest risk of dysfunction?
Which leads to higher self-esteem for children?Cohesive-
authoritative
Conflictive-authoritarian
Defensive-neglectful
high level of family cohesion
authoritative disciplinary styles
encouraged to be assertive & practice pro-racial socialization
high internal conflict,
lack of communalism to commitment to other family members
strict authoritarian disciplinary parting style (creates an
environment in which children may not feel comfortable
expressing emotion)
high emphasis on achievementneglectful and authoritarian
parental disciplinary practices
defensive racial socialization whereby children are socialized to
dislike other racial groups and are not taught to be proud of
their own racial group
Alternative Structures in the Black Family
Higher self-esteem is likely because parents in cohesive family
types are more likely to express to their children that they are
appreciated & valued the way they are & other family types are
more likely to express unhappiness w/their children’s abilities
& performance
Cohesive type seems to have found a balance between control &

10. nurturance
Racial and Gender Role Socialization
Socialization in Black families has been defined as parents’
“attempt to prepare their children for the realities of being
Black in America.”
African American parents reported giving more frequent
“preparation for bias” message to their children when compared
to Puerto Rican and Dominican parents.
Why?
Racial and Gender Role Socialization
William Cross (1971) developed Nigrescence (process of
becoming Black) model:
Pre-encounter
Encounter
Immersion/emersion
Internalization
In the final stage, Blacks feel more positive & secure about
their Black identity, but also exhibit increased comfort w/and
acceptance of other cultures
This model supports the view that affirmation toward one’s
ethnic group leads to a positive ethnic identity & higher levels
of acceptance toward other out-groups

11. Which stage do you feel you are currently in??
We will cover all of that in the next 25 minutes!
29
Racial and Gender Role Socialization
Socialization of Gender Roles in the Black Family
Gender roles are socially constructed & vary depending on
cultural norms
The disparate proportion of economic deprivation in the African
American community, along with racism, has made it difficult
and impractical for many African Americans to create sharply
defined divisions between male and female gender roles.
There is evidence that African American women have escaped
the narrow confines of the restrictive gender roles assumed by a
Eurocentric worldview.
Racial and Gender Role Socialization
Socialization of Gender Roles in the Black Family
As a result of AA women’s unique experiences in the U.S., a
womanist identity model was developed which closely
resembled Cross’s model
The final stage is characterized by a woman defining her
womanhood in her own terms & not being bound by external
definitions about what it means to be a woman

12. Racial and Gender Role Socialization
Socialization of Gender Roles in the Black Family
African American daughters, from an early age, are taught to
assume strong family roles and to be strong, self-reliant, and
independent individuals who are part of and play an integral
role in a larger group, the family.
Racial and Gender Role Socialization
Socialization of Gender Roles in the Black Family
Other scholars have argued differences in gender specific
parenting:
Some discuss the protective stance that many AA women take
toward their fathers/brothers/husbands/sons
Institutionalized racism has made many AA women reluctant to
hold AA men to a feminist standard of accountability
Thoughts on this?
Black parents support competence & self-reliance more in
daughters than in sons
However, this stance ignores the double burden of sexism &
racism
Disability in the Black Family
According to research Black children were found to have higher
rates of disability from chronic conditions than did White
children.
Services designed to help families that have members with
disabilities, are often underutilized by African Americans

13. (especially economically challenged families).
Caretakers of persons w/disabilities often take full
responsibility of them, relying on professional services only
when deemed absolutely necessary
Disability in the Black Family
One disease that is becoming more prevalent in families is
breast cancer.
Black women are more likely to develop breast cancer before 35
and to die of it before age 35.
84 of 100 non-Blacks survive 5 years after diagnosis, but only
69 of 100 Blacks women do.
Medical researchers do not know whether breast cancer is more
aggressive in young Black women or whether it is caused by
something to which they are more likely to be exposed.
Disability in the Black Family
Too many women wait too long to look for breast cancer; it is
highly recommended that Black women begin mammograms at
the age of 30 (rather than 40) and purchase health insurance
Disability in the Black Family
Disability in the Black Family
The provision of mental health services for African American
individuals and families can be complex because of the great
diversity among families and the lack of clear theoretical

14. approaches for working with this population.
AAs are less likely to attend a family support group
The underlying premise of family therapy is that familial
functioning impacts optimal functioning of an individuals,
whereas individual functioning significantly impacts family
dynamics (systems orientation)
Disability in the Black Family
Among AAs, a person's comfort w/seeking help can serve as
either a barrier to or an asset in his/her ability to access social
supports
Many churches have adopted what they call "outreach services
& activities"
The church can normalize the process of receiving assistance &
possibly act as a bridge to more formal support services
A System Approach to Studying and Working with Black
Families
In Bronfenbrenner’s sociocultural view of development, five
environmental systems act as socialization agents:
Microsystem (family, peers, school, neighborhood)
Mesosystem (family functioning can influence academic
performance)
Exosystem (parental job stress)
Macrosystem (religion)
Chronosystem (environmental events and transitions over time)
A System Approach to Studying and Working with Black
Families

15. The Black family should utilize and promote the preexisting
strengths within the African American community while being
careful not to dismiss, in the name of cultural relativism, the
harmful effects of unhealthy family functioning.
Lavf57.37.101
Lavf57.37.101
Ch. 9: Intimate Relationships of African Americans
Ingrid L. Cockhren, M.Ed
Intimate Relationships of African Americans
Beginning with a mother a child and continuing through same-
sex and early opposite sex friendship, intimate relationships
provide critical training ground for future sexual behavior,
decision making, and romantic relationships.
Intimate Relationships of African Americans
Research suggest that African American intimate relationships
differ greatly from their White counterparts because of:
the influence of oppression on socialization,
identity,
gender roles expectations
high value placed on communalism and strong kinship bonds in
African American culture.
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships

16. Gender Role Socialization
Friendship and Intimacy
Friendship and Sexuality
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Gender Role Socialization
From birth, gender typing begins, and by age 4 or 5, many
gender attitudes and beliefs have been internalized.
Boys are socialized to be independent, hardworking, self-
reliant, and ambitious while girls are socialized to be loving,
interdependent, well mannered, and kind.
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Gender Role Socialization
Although men and women are socialized by the dominant
society in the United states according to patriarchal values that
stress the supremacy of men, African Americans often receive
more equitable messages.
One researcher interviewed 35 African American mothers and
fathers, regardless of sex of parents, sex of child or social class,
parents verbally supported gender equality.
Participants reported communicating messages to their sons
about equitable marital roles & domestic work & stresssing the
importance of independence to both boys & girls
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Gender Role Socialization
African American men are diminished in this society and

17. experience challenges to the traditional patriarchal role.
African American women experience negative stereotypes
suggesting that they are unfeminine and emasculating.
AA men have faced negative stereotypes & images since the
time of slavery, when they were used for hard labor & mating
purposes
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Gender Role Socialization
The effects of the images and stereotypes of African American
men have led to what has been termed the invisibility syndrome:
African American men are both feared and ignored by Whites,
leading men to feel as if others are treating them as if they have
no worth.
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Gender Role Socialization
The invisibility syndrome is the inner struggle that ones
abilities & personality are not valued
While men are socialized to be providers, they may feel
frustrated by sociopolitical constraints.
Because of experiences of racism and oppression, men are
socialized to develop the “cool pose.”

18. What are some messages that Black women receive about
relationships?
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Gender Role Socialization
African American Women are socialized to be independent,
self-sufficient, and strong yet are seen as to overbearing,
controlling, and unfeminine in relationships
Girls are taught that they need to take care of themselves & that
they will be responsible for their families
Example?
They are also taught that men are unreliable or unavailable
This internalized message often makes it difficult for women to
be vulnerable in relationships or to feel comfortable relying on
their partners.
Example?
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Friendship and Intimacy
The study looked at 160 ninth grade African American, Latino,
and Asian Americans.
73% of the participants had predominantly same-race friendship
networks.
More specifically, 63.9% of African Americans’ peer network
was of the same race.
Girls were more likely to have same-race/ethnic peers than

19. boys.
Participants maintained their relationships for an average of 6
years.
Girls report higher levels of friendship support than boys
African Americans reported higher levels of friendship support
than Asian Americans.
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Friendship and Sexuality
According to Christopher (2001), dating and sexual
relationships are formed partly on the basis of socialization
experiences provided by peers, dating partners, and parents.
Researchers found that friends are instrumental in providing
feedback and support regarding dating and sexual experiences
for African Americans in low income situations.
Harper and colleagues (2004) found that girls used relational
terms when describing their sexual activity, whereas boys
discussed it in a more egocentric fashion
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Friendship and Sexuality
O’Sullivan & Meyer-Bahlburg’s interviewed African American
10 to 13 year-old inner-city girls about their romantic and

20. sexual development and found that friendships provide scripts
for appropriate sexual and romantic conduct.
Factors That Influence Intimate Relationships
Friendship and Sexuality
Researchers found that romantic development followed a
sequence of events
7 to 9 – girls first express romantic interest in boys
9 to 11 – they begin having boyfriends
12 to 14 – girls reported more private sexual participation in
dating relationships and that sexual intercourse began
thereafter.
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Mate availability
One area of concern for African Americans is mate availability.
Shortage of available AA men seems to be due to:
High rates of incarceration
Unemployment
Substance use
High mortality rates
Mate availability does not influence women's mental health or
well-being, possibly because they view the issue of mate
availablity as systemic & outside of their control
Men who have stable employment are more likely to marry

21. Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Dating
Today, in the United States, more African American women are
likely to be single than they have at any other time, leaving
more women available in the dating pool.
What are some themes of Black relationships?
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Dating
Issues that have been topics of conversation but not heavily
researched :
Shortage of available African American men
Thoughts?
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Dating
The perception that men find more educated and successful
women to be intimidating
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Dating
Level of distrust for men who have a tendency toward infidelity
in relationships

22. Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Dating
The rise in educational levels and professional/managerial
positions of women
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Sexuality
Researchers found girls based their sexuality and sense of
physical attractiveness on their fathers’ perceptions and
approval and their relationships with women.
Boys relate to sexuality in a depersonalized fashion, seeing
women, body parts, and sexual acts separately as commodities.
Research suggest that African American women develop sexual
scrips based on exposure to music videos that feature images
based on the historical sexualized image of Jezebel.
These images, with their highly sexual connotations, influence
the way others may appreciate & interact w/AA girls
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Sexuality
AA men have also been characterized as sexualized
Enslaved Africans were often described as well-endowed,

23. w/sexual prowess and as potential predators
The stereotype of African American men as violent and highly
sexualized has been transformed into an image of strength,
beginning with gangsta rap and moving to hip hop culture.
Three types of men portrayed:
The tough guy/gangsta
The player
The hustler / baller
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Sexuality
There are two issues within sexuality that African Americans
face:
The prevalence of HIV / AIDS
Down low phenomenon
African American women have the highest prevalence rate of
new HIV cases, particularly girls between ages 15 and 24.
Rise is hypothesized to be a result of sexual victimization,
reluctance of condom use for men, & for men who secretly sleep
w/men
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Marriage and Intimacy
The institution of slavery changed the nature of intimate
relationships because, although slaves were allowed to marry,
they were not allowed the traditional rights afforded a marriage

24. Women were still subject to sexual exploitation by slave
owners, and couples & families were torn apart
Slave owners also had the power to determine who married and
who would be used for breeding purposes
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Marriage and Intimacy
During Reconstruction, AA men often could not find
employment or suitable wages, and AA women were more likely
to work for the necessity of the family
How could this impact a relationship?
Tensions in the relationships often occurred as men felt role
strain (frustration of not being able to provide adequately for
families) and women felt frustrated by the inability to rely on
their spouses for support
A Raisin in the Sun
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Interracial Relationships
Interracial relationships historically have been viewed
negatively in the United States, with prevailing notions that
individuals from mixed racial heritages, particularly White and
Black, would have difficulty being accepted in society.
It was not until 1967 that the Supreme Court ruled that those
laws were unconstitutional
The majority of interracial couples are between:
Black men & White women

25. Many AAs believe that AA men choose to marry White women
because…
a form of status
Some AA women blame White women for decreasing
availability of eligible men in the AA community
Other viewpoints…
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Interracial Relationships
Attitudes toward interracial marriage are beginning to change,
particularly among African American women, who view
interracial marriage as an option because of decreased mate
availability.
Which families are more accepting of interracial couples? White
families or Black families?
Couples in one study indicated that the African American
families were initially more supportive of the relationships
compared to the White American families.
Issues Within Male –Female Relationships
Resilience in African American Couples
Although the marriage rate for African American couples may
be lower than that for other races, many couples do thrive and
succeed.
Women who report higher levels of marital satisfaction also
report emotional health, a sense of trust and equity, physical
health, and feeling of closeness with their in-laws.
Research suggest that African American couples value
collaboration and mutuality in marriage.

26. Extended family & kinship networks are also important for the
functioning of AA couples
Social support provided by families helps couples cope w/stress
& oppression & can be vital for the transition to parenthood
Conclusion and Implications
Clinical implications
Therapists who work w/AA couples need to help couples to
examine & deconstruct the role that oppression & societal
influences have on their functioning
When men do not feel powerful outside of the home, & feel that
their partners are also being disrespectful or invalidating, they
may respond w/inappropriate anger or by withdrawing from the
family
Women who feel abandoned or anxious may respond by exerting
more independence & power & control in the relationship
When AA women feel that they are providing more to the family
& not receiving support from men, and thus not benefiting from
the marriage, they view marriage less favorably & feel less
satisfied
Therapy can be an outlet for couples to construct their roles
together

27. PSYC 3230 Take Home Exam 2 Name:
_______________________________________
1. Why have Black children not improved academically since
school desegregation?
2. How has the Black Church both helped and hurt the African
American community?
3. How does the African American father impact the African
American family and African American community? Be sure to
discuss both the positive and negative impact.
4. How does the African American mother impact the African
American family and African American community? Be sure to
discuss both the positive and negative impact.
5. List and describe the 3 types of African American families.
6. Which of the 3 types of African American families is the
most dysfunctional? Why?
7. Which of the 3 types of African American families leads to

28. higher levels of self-esteem? Why?
8. Why do African American parents promote competence, self-
reliance and independence in girls more than boys?
9. How does the Social Learning theory apply when discussing
racial gender socialization?
10. How has slavery and racism impacted African American
intimate relationships and marriages?