Wire rope slings are composed of steel wires woven together in strands around a core. The document discusses wire rope sling parts like strands, cores, and lays. It also covers factors that can deteriorate ropes like wear, corrosion, abrasion and mechanical damage. Proper inspection, storage, and use are important to maximize a sling's service life.

1. WIRE ROPE SLINGS

2. WIRE ROPE SLINGS
INDEX
-INTRODUCTION WIRE ROPE SLINGS -FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
-PARTS
Normal wear (and tear)-Broken wires
-COMPOSITION
-LAY Corrosion
-PRE-FORMING Abrasion
-PARALLEL/CROSS LAY Mechanical Damage
-CORE
-ROPE CONSTRUCTION Thermal damage (overheating)
-CLASIFICATION Malformations
-DESCRIPTION/DESIGNATION Rotation
-CROSS SECTIONS
-GRADES & FINISH OF WIRE Fatigue
-FACTOR OF SAFETY Termination failures
-CERTIFICATES -WHERE TO EXAMINE-CRITICAL AREAS
-MARKING-COLOUR CODE -EXAMINATION OF ROPES THROUGH SHEAVE
-MEASUREMENT -INTERNAL EXAMINATION AND AT ROPE
-CHARTS TERMINATION OF ROPES
-PARTS -DISCARD CRITERIA WIRE ROPE SLING
-TYPES -MAINTENACE
-EXTREMITY AND LOOPS ACCESORIES -STORAGE/HOUSKEEPING
-INSPECTIONS -SAFE USE (WIRE ROPES SLING/HOOK/ WEDGE
-PRE-USE INSPECTION SOCKET
-DAMAGE -TEST

3. WIRE ROPE SLINGS-INTRODUCTION
Learn the basic of wire rope, including the nomenclature, how it is
constructed, and how diameter and lay measurements are made.
How to choose the right ropes for your needs, how to extend rope service
life, the importance inspection, and how to properly store and handle wire
rope.  For:
 Types: – Strong
– Single leg, two, three or four leg – Flexible
– Wide range available
– Single part or double part
– Resists most chemicals
– Hard eyes or soft eyes
– Resist heat
– With or without fittings
 Against
– 5:1 factor of safety – Non adjustable
– Could damage the load

4. WIRE ROPE SLING-PARTS
Generally speaking, all ropes nowadays are preformed in manufacture.
This is a process where wires and strands are pre-shaped to a helix shape.
There are a great many different rope constructions, each one having its own
particular use.
There are three main things to observe when examining the construction
of wire rope: CENTER WIRE/
KING WIRE
•Number of wires in each strand
•Number of strands in the rope
•Direction in which wires and strands STRAND
•Lay (spiral) in the rope
CORE
The core of a wire rope can be: CORE
•Fibre (FC)
•Wire Strand Core (WSC)
•Independent Wire Rope Core (IWRC)
STRANDS
WIRE ROPE
Depend on classification of rope but usually consists of wires
spiralling around a central core wire.

5. WIRE ROPE SLING-PARTS
Used to hoist materials
Selection considerations:
WIR
E  strength
 ability to bend without cracking
 ability to withstand abrasive wear
 ability to withstand abuse
ROPE STRAND
Outer wire
Centre wire
Inner wire
Outer wire
Centre wire
Inner wire Core wires

6. WIRE ROPE SLING- LAY
REGULAR / ORDINARY LAY (HO)
RIGHT LAY
RHO
ORDINARY LAY
-sZ
LHO
LEFT LAY
ORDINARY LAY -zS
6 and 8 Stranded LANG'S LAY (HL)
RIGHT LAY RHL
LANG‟S LAY
-zZ
LEFT LAY
LHL
LANG‟S LAY -sS
MULTI-STRANDED ROPE Alternate
RIGHT LAY
REVERSE LAY
(CROSS LAY) Lay
(AZ or AS)
Outer- Right hand Right (Z-R)
Inner- Left hand Left (S-L)

7. WIRE ROPE SLING- LAY
REGULAR / ORDINARY LAY LANG LAY
In this construction, wires and strands spiral in the
In this construction, the wires and strands spiral in same direction.
opposite directions. Right-hand lay is usual, but it can be supplied in
left-hand lay:
In right-hand ordinary lay, the wires spiral to the left
and the strands to the right. 6 and 8 stranded Lang's lay rope has better wearing
In left-hand ordinary lay, the wires spiral to the right properties than ordinary lay, but it is harder to handle.
and the strands to the left. Both ends must be secured to prevent twisting or the
load has to be guided (i.e. not free to rotate). Not
These ropes are easily handled, and can be used with normally used for slings
one end left free to rotate, but they wear quickly Has better wear resistance when running over
because only a few crown wires are in contact with the sheaves because a longer part of the wires is in
bearing surfaces at any one time. contac with the sheave.

8. WIRE ROPE SLING- LAY
Multi-Stranded Rope
Both Lang's lay and regular/ordinary lay are used, with a double-layer (or triple layer)
construction.
If the inner rope is left-handed , then the outer covering will be right-handed , or vice versa.
Occasionally used for crane pennants.
It is a rotation-resistant rope- has a steel core which is an independent rope, closed in the
opposite direction to the outer strands. Under load the core tries to twist the rope in the one
direction, the outer strands try to twist it in the opposite direction. The moments in the core and
the outer strands compensate each other. over a wide load-spectrum, so that even with great
lifting heights no rope twist occurs
Multi Strand rope
Outer- Right hand
Inner- Left hand

9. WIRE ROPE SLING- PRE-FORMING
In a pre-formed wire rope during the closing stage the strands are given Pre-formed
a helical shape. This process reduces almost completely the tendency of
the rope to unravel and reduces the elastic stress in the wires forming
the strands.
This process has a few advantages:
• Reducing the stresses in the wires improves their fatigue resistance
and extends the service life of the rope.
• Broken wires don't tend to protrude. In every rope some wires
break during use due to fatigue or wear. In non-preformed ropes, Non-
these tend to protrude from the rope. This may cause damage to preformed
adjacent strands and cause injuries during maintenance.
• Preventing unraveling of the cut ends. When a non-preformed wire
rope is cut, the end tends to unravel. Seizing is still necessary at the
end to ensure that it will not unravel if it is hit by something but
one seizing is enough. See additional information in the Storage,
handling, installation and maintenance section.

10. WIRE ROPE SLING-PARALLEL/CROSS LAY
Cross lay or point contact lay –
Parallel/Equal Lay All wires have different lengths, and
All strands have different lay lengths
(Core and outer were laid independently in separate
work proceses)
Hig stress concentration at the crossover point leads
to an early internal failure
Parallel lay –
All wires have the same lay length and
All strands have the same lay length
Cross Lay (These strands are manufactured in one operation.)
Linear contact leads to an optimal stress distribution
Parallel lay has the advantage that the contact
between layers is along a line, not in a few points,
resulting in a larger contact area which reduces the
stresses and improves the ropes resistance to fatigue
and radial stresses.
Cross lay- Better able to tolerate the more casual
rope handling techiques-multiple bends.
Parallel lay - Better high breaking stregth and
favorable fatigue bending characteristics But can be
susceptibles to untwisting.

11. WIRE ROPE SLING-CORE
WSC
CORE- (ISO 17893)
FC-Fibre - Should not be used at temperatures of more than 100ºC
NFC-Natural Fiber Core
SFC-Synthetic Fiber Core
IWRC
WC-Steel core- Can work at temperatures up to 250ºC
WSC-Wire Strand Core
WRC-Wire Rope Core
IWRC-Independent Wire Rope Core
IWRC (K)-Independient wire rope core with compacted strand
PWRC
EPIWRC-Independient Wire Rope Core covered with a polymer
EFWRC-Wire Rope Core Enveloped with Fibre
ESWRC-Wire Roper Core Enveloped with Solid polymer
PWRC- Parallel Wire Roper Core
PWRC(K)-Parallel Wire Rope Core with compacted strands
KWSC- Compacted Wires Strand Centre
ESWRC

12. WIRE ROPE SLING-ROPE CONSTRUCTION
There are many different rope constructions, each with its different properties,
advantages and disadvantages.
Stranded ropes are divided to two main groups:
Single layer ropes – these ropes have only one layer of strands,
normally 6 or 8 but in some special constructions even as low as 3
strands laid helically around a core. Some 3 or 4 stranded rope
constructions do not have a core at all.
Multiple layer ropes (rotation resistant ropes) – these ropes have
at least two layers of strands laid helically around a core which is
normally WSC. The direction of lay of the outer layer is opposite to the
underlying layer. Under load the torque developed by the outer layer is
counteracted by the torque of the inner layers to reduce the overall
torque and rotation of the rope. Rope constructions with more layers
have better torque balance.
Rope constructions are further divided into classes according to the number of
wires in the strands. For example: a rope of class 6x19 may actually be 6x26
Warrington Seale. Ropes with different constructions within the same class have
similar properties.

13. WIRE ROPE BASICS-CLASIFICATION
Number of strands and construction determine wire rope classification
SINGLE LAYER- the most common example of thes single layer construction is a 7 wire
strand. It has a single-wire center with six wires of the same diameter around it
SEALE- has two layers of wires around a center wire with the same number of wires in each
layer, and all wires in each layer are the same diameter.The strand is designed so that the
larger outer wires rest in the valleys between the smaller inner wires.
FILLER WIRE- has two layer of uniform-size wire around a center wire with the inner layer
having half the number of wires as the outer layer. Small filler wires, equal in number to the
inner layer, are laid in valleys of the inner layer.
WARRINGTON- has two layer with one diameter of wire in the inner layer, and two diameters
of the wire alternating large and small in the outer layer. Ther large outer-layer wire rest in thte
valleys, an teh smaller ones on the crownsm of the inner layer.
COMBINED PATTERNS- is formed in a single operation using two or more of the different
constructions.
Characteristics like fatigue resistance and resitance to abrasion are directly affected by the
design of strands.

14. DESCRIPTION/DESIGNATION
This term refers to the number of strands that form the rope, number of wires in
each strand, the arrangement of the wires in the strands and the arrangement of
strands in the rope. In general ropes constructions are designated by two groups of
digits separated by a multiplication sign “x".
The first group is the number of strands in the rope.
The second group is the number of wires in the strands,
The second group may have additional prefix and/or suffix letters- type of core
18 x 7-WSC= is a wire rope composed of 18 strands of 7 wires each.
Wire Strand Core (WSC)
Example of Rope Description/Designation
22mm dia. 6x36 IWRC 1960 Ung RHO
22mm dia= Size (nominal diameter)
6x36 = Rope Construction- 6 Strands of 36 wires each
IWRC= Core Type
1960= Rope Grade
Ung = Ungalvanised (bright)
RHO= Direction and Type of Lay (Right Hand Ordinary Lay)

15. DESCRIPTION/DESIGNATION
Examples of Rotation Resistant Ropes
Class No. of Strands No. of No.of layers No. of wires
excluding centre outer strands of strands
in outer
strand strand Examples of Single Layer
17-18 2 5-9 Stranded Ropes
18x7 10-12
18x19 17-18 10-12 2 15-26 8x7
3x7 6x7
3x19 6x19 8x19
34(M)x7 34-36 17-18 3 5-9 3x36 6x36 8x36
5-9 6x61 8x61
35(W)x7 27-40 15-18 3
35(W)x19 27-40 15-18 3 15-26 4x7
35(W)x36 27-40 15-18 3 29-57 6x8TS
7-26
4x19 6x19M
35LS 34 16 3
4x36 6x24M 6x25TS
Paragon 15 12 2 6 6x37M
Examples of Parallel Closed Ropes 5x5
Class No. of Strands No. of No.of layers No. of wires 5x7 7x19
excluding centre outer strands of strands in outer
strand strand 7x36
8x7 16 8 2 5-9
8x19 16 8 2 15-26
8x36 16 8 2 29-57
DSC 8 16 8 2 7-36

16. WIRE ROPE -Cross sections
6x25F 6x36WS 6x25TS
IWRC IWRC IWRC
Dyform Dyform
6x26WS IWRC 6x36WS -IWRC

17. WIRE ROPE -Cross sections
Examples of “Single Layer”-6 Strand Ropes
Examples of “Single Layer”- 8 Strand Ropes

18. WIRE ROPE -Cross sections
Examples of Stranded Ropes with Example of a Triangular Strand
Plastic Cushion Core/Centre Solid Polymer Filled Rope Construction
25TS
Typical rope constructions:
6x25TS - FC
Flat Ribbon Strand Construction
Typical Example Compacted Round Strand Construction
6/0
Before compacting After compacting
Typical rope construction:
12x6/3x24 (Paragon) Example is 17S(8/8/1)

19. WIRE ROPE -Cross sections
WIRES IN A SPIRAL ROPE
Spiral Strand Full Locked Coil Half Locked Coil
Typical Example Typical Example Typical rope constructions:
1x108 or 33/27/21/15/9/3 24FL/20FL/12/6/1 9H+9/12/6/1
Future European primary designation: Z2 - 19W
Future European Secondary designation: 24Z:20Z:12/6/1

20. WIRE ROPE -Cross sections
Single layer
Parallel-closed Rotation-resistant

21. WIRE ROPE SLING
Stranded Rope-Round strand construction
Typical rope constructions:
Single lay strand 6x36WS - FC
7(6/1) 6x36WS - IWRC
Typical rope 6x41WS - IWRC
constructions: 8x36WS - IWRC
6x7 - FC Combined
6x7 - WSC parallel lay
36WS(14/7+7/7/1) 41WS(16/8+8/8/1)
Seale construction Filler construction Warrington construction
(parallel lay/equal lay) (parallel lay/equal lay) (parallel lay/equal lay)
19S(9/9/1) 25F(12/6+6/1) 19W(6+6/6/1)
Typical rope
constructions: Typical rope Typical rope
constructions: constructions:
6x19S - FC
6x19S - IWRC 6x25F - FC 6x19W - FC
8x19S - FC 6x25F - IWRC 6x19W - IWRC
8x25F - FC 8x19W - FC
8x19S - IWRC
8x25F - IWRC 8x19W - IWRC
Multi-operation lay strand
Cross Lay(M) Compound
Typical rope
Lay(N) constructions:
6x19M - FC
6x19M – WSC
6x35NW - FC

22. GRADES OF WIRE ROPE & FINISH OF WIRE
GRADES OF WIRE ROPE
Wire rope manufacturers have many different grades to meet the varying demand for strength and
toughness. Tensile strength is the wire rope‟s resistance to breaking under tension. Higher tensile
strength in a wire rope means that it‟s ability to be drawn out or stretched changes with different
grades of steel
Tensile Strength Identifies the level of minimum breaking force (KN) or minimum breaking load (t)
Grades of wire rope are
Plow Steel -1570 Grade------Tensile strength of 1570 N/mm2=160 kp/mm2
Plow Steel wire rope is unusually tough and strong.
Improved Plow Steel (IPS)-1770 Grade- Tensile strength of 1770 N/mm2=180 kp/mm2
Improved Plow Steel wire rope is one of the best grades of rope available, and is the most
commonly used rope. Improved plow steel is stronger, tougher, and more resistant to wear than plow
steel.
Extra Improved Plow Steel(XIP/EIPS)-1960 Grade- Tensile strength of 1960 N/mm2=200 kp/mm2
for special installations, where maximum rope strength is required, and conditions of use permit
some applications such as mine shaft hoisting, where increased tonnages on existing skips and
drums can be tolerated, and where conditions such as sheave and drum diameters are favorable.
Extra Extra Improved Plow Steel Grade (XXIP)-2160 N/mm2 = 220 kp/mm2
FINISH OF FIRE
The surface of these wires is bright , drawn galvanized or heavily galvanized, or stainless steel
wire.
Bright-ropes made with uncoated (bright) wire
Galvanized- to improve corrosion resistance (zinc coated )
Stainless steel wire- special alloy aprox 18% chromium and 8% nickel, high resistiance to many corrosive
conditions.

23. FACTOR OF SAFETY
A FACTOR OF SAFETY is applied to all wire ropes industry wide.
When the manufacturer makes a new wire rope, they remove a sample
piece and test it to destruction.
When the sample piece breaks, we refer to this as MINIMUM BREAKING
LOAD (M.B.L).
The MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD (MBL) is then divided by the FACTOR
OF SAFETY (FoS) relevant to the ropes intended application to achieve a
SAFE WORKING LOAD (SWL).
FoS= MBL ÷ SWL
SWL = MBL ÷ FoS WLL= BREAKING STRENGTH/ DESIGN
FACTOR
MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD = MBL
SAFE WORKING LOAD = SWL
FACTOR OF SAFETY = FoS
SAFE WORKING LOAD NEVER CAN BE OVERRANGE/OVERLOADED

24. FACTOR OF SAFETY
FoS = MBL/SWL
STANDING ROPES (PENDANTS) 3.5:1
RUNNING ROPES 5:1
GENERAL PURPOSE WIRE SLINGS 5:1
WIRE ROPES FOR LIFTING PERSONEL 10:1
SAFE WORKING LOAD
SPECIFIED BREAKING STRENGH
SAFETY FACTOR

25. CERTIFICATES
CERTIFICATE OF TEST OF WIRE ROPE
Employers should hold the Test Certificate Number
sling Certificate of Purchaser Name and Address
Tel:
Supplier Name and Address
Tel:
Fax: Fax:
Conformity and where Purchase Order No
produced a Test Certificate Sales Order Number
DESCRIPTION OF WIRE ROPE
12 mm 8x19(S)FC 1370/1770 BT RHO ZL010005 MBL 6.45t
- not only because the law ________________________________________________________________
______
Rope Number Z45186A
so demands - but because Quantity and Rope Length
Date of Manufacture
1 x 2800 (m)
05/08/96
it may be vital evidence in DETAILS OF TEST
Method of Test IS0 3108
the event of a failure of Date of Test
Breaking Load
05/08/96
> 6.45 (t)
Safe Working Load
equipment while in service. at a Coefficient of Utilisation of 5 * 1.29 (t)
DECLARATION
I certify on behalf of the firm or persons named above that the
The certificate is above particulars are correct.
Name J Bloggs Signed J Bloggs
documentary evidence of Date 26/08/96
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________
the legal SWL of the sling. OTHER INFORMATION
Testing Machine Calibrated to BS EN 10002-2
Product Code : 12.00819AF11RA
Example Test Test Cert * If the rope is to be used at a coefficient of utilisation different from
the example above, it should be re-rated by a competent person.

26. MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR
MARKING OF LIFTING EQUIPMENT
 Safe Working Load
(SWL/WLL)
 Unique Identity
Number/Reference-
Serial number
 Date of inspection
or Colour code

27. WIRE ROPE SLING MARKING
SLING IDENTITY
IDENTIFICATION No.
INSPECTION COLOUR CODE SAFE WORKING LOAD
INSPECTION
SWL 0O to 90O COLOUR CODE
FERRULE
SERIAL NUMBER
DATE MANUFACTURE / LOAD
TEST
SWL (safe working load)
WLL (work load limit)
EYE WITH THIMBLE COLOUR CODED
COLOUR CODE
COLOUR CODE SLING MARKING

28. WIRE ROPE SLINGS- COLOUR CODE

29. MEASUREMENT OF ROPE DIAMETER
ROPE DIMENSIONS
2 measurements at right angles at
two positions spaced approximately
one metre apart.
(Measurements taken over strand
crowns)
Average of the four measurements
is the rope diameter.

30. WIRE ROPE SLING- CHART SWL

31. PARTS WIRE ROPE SLING
Master link
Intermediate links tag
Slings
Hooks/Shackles/Eye with Thimble/Soft Eye

32. PARTS WIRE ROPE SLING
Terminations being formed by mechanical splicing commonly known as talurits or
ferrules.
The eyes of the sling can be fitted with or without thimbles according to its purpose.
For general use , soft eye superloop slings are preferred, the eyes of which are
constructed by splicing the wire and pressing on a steel ferrule to secure the splice,
also known as Flemish eyes.
Transit slings are manufactured using standard talurit fittings.
FLEMMISH EYE
ALUMINIUM HARD EYE
LOOP BACK
SUPERLOOP or FLEMISH EYE SLINGS
With a Flemish eye (Superloop) wire
rope termination, there is no tail due
to the wire being spliced and
ALUMINIUM SOFT EYE terminated within the ferrule.
LOOP BACK

33. TYPES WIRE ROPE SLINGS
SOFT EYE
HARD
EYE
Pressed/Swaged
Wire rope grips

34. TYPES WIRE ROPE SLINGS

35. EXTREMITY AND LOOPS ACCESORIES
WIRE ROPE SLINGS
Location of the locking clamps The length (h) of the loop on a
steel wire rope must be at least 15 times the rope diameter
(d) when ferrules are used, 10 times in case of hand splicing.
The distance between the two ferrules on lifting slings must
not be less than 10 times the rope diameter (d).
The same restriction applies to splicing.
The measurement is taken from the point of each clamp
nearest the other.

36. WIRE ROPE SLING INSPECTION
Initial inspection:
• Prior to use, slings shall be inspected by a
Competent
• Person.
Frequent inspection:
• Visual inspection, not recorded, by user or
designated
• person. Regular inspection while in use.
Periodic inspection:
• Visual inspection recorded, by Competent Person
at defined periodic basis.
EACH DAY BEFORE USE
WHERE SERVICE CONDITION WARRANT
• SWL/WLL
• Expire Date
• Color code
REMOVE THEM FROM SERVICE IF DAMAGE OR
DEFECTIVE

37. WIRE ROPE SLING INSPECTION

38. WIRE ROPE-PRE-USE INSPECTION
Pre-Use Examination
 Ensure the sling has an I.D. number the SWL is adequate.
 Examine each individual leg along its entire length and check for wear, corrosion, abrasion,
mechanical damage and broken wires.
 Examine each ferrule and ensure the correct size of ferrule has been fitted.
 Check that the end of the loop does not terminate inside the ferrule. The ferrule should be free
from cracks or other deformities.
 Examine each thimble and check for correct fitting, snagging damage and elongation.
(stretched thimbles/eyes could indicate possible overload).
 Examine wire rope around thimbles as it is often abraded due to sling being dragged over
rough surfaces.
 If fitted, examine master link/quadruple assembly and check for wear, corrosion and cracking.
 If fitted with hooks, check for wear, corrosion and cracking and ensure safety latch is working
correctly
INSPECTION CRITICAL POINTS
 There are certain points along any given rope that should receive more attention than others,
since some areas will usually be subjected to greater internal stresses or to greater external
forces and hazards.
 Carefully select the most critical points for close inspection - points where failure would be
most likely to occur.
 The same critical points on each installation should be compared at each succeeding
inspection.

39. WIRE ROPE DAMAGE
ABRASION KINKED KINKED
BROKEN WIRES BROKEN STRAND CORRODED

40. WIRE ROPE DAMAGE
Broken wires in the valleys (sometimes calles gussets or Broken wires on the crowns of the strand of the rope
interstices) between the outer strands of the rope
External corrosions Close up of external corrosion Local increase in rope diameter due
core protrusion
Basket deformations
Kink Kink Core protrusion

41. WIRE ROPE DAMAGE
Strand protrusion Strand protrusion
Flattened portion Flattened portion
Local reduction of rope diameter Wavines

42. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
Normal wear (and tear)-Broken wires
Corrosion
Abrasion
Mechanical Damage
Thermal damage (overheating)
Malformations
Rotation
Fatigue
Termination failures

43. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
NORMAL WEAR AND TEAR
BROKEN WIRES
Usually caused by mechanical damage or corrosion. They
reduce the strength or the rope and can cause hand injury to
the user.
Sling must be rejected and replaced if any strands are totally
broken, wire breaks occur very close to each other or the
number of wire breaks exceeds 5% of the total number of
wires
along a length equal to six times the diameter of the rope.
Or the nominal diameter of the rope has worn more than 10%
in any point

44. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
CORROSION
Areas of Wear in a Rope
CROWN
WEAR
STRAND INTER
CORE STRAND
WEAR/ WEAR/
MARKING MARKING
(INTERNAL) (INTERNAL)
This causes loss of flexibility and roughness to the touch.
Withdraw the sling and refer to supervision if necessary.
Wire rope corrosion is caused by:
External
Can normally be seen
 Poor storage
and assessed
 Exposure to the weather/elements
 Exposure to corrosive chemicals
It is recognised by:
Internal
 Discolouration Cannot be seen without opening
 Lack of flexibility ropes up. More difficult to assess
 Roughness to the tough
Can be a major cause of deterioration

45. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
CORROSION
EXTERNAL WEAR INTERNAL WEAR
*Normal wear on strand crowns – Affected by pressure / friction
reasonably easy to see and assess* – Level of rope tension
• Affected by the Appliance / Machine / Duty – Bending ratio
– Rope Tension – Frequency of bending
– Size of drum / sheave – Lack of lubricant
– Number of sheaves – Degree of tension - tension fatigue
– Condition of drum / sheave(s) *Unable to see without opening
rope up*
– Rate of acceleration / deceleration
– Momentum of sheave(s)
– Fleet angle
– Spooling arrangement at drum
• Affected by environmental conditions
– Abrasive dust
– Lack of lubricant / dressing in service

46. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
ABRASION
• Normal - expected due to rope duty
– e.g. drag rope on dragline; trawl warp
• Abnormal - unexpected
– e. g. contact with adjacent structure; seized sheave/pulley/roller/fairlead;
undersized sheaves/pulleys; misaligned sheaves/pulleys
– Abnormal abrasion  Heat generated  Possibility of martensite being
formed
As shown, the majority of abrasion damage is caused by unnecessary chaffing
action against the deck / ground, load or adjacent objects
 Contact with adjacent structure
 Dragging from under a load
 Double choke hitching

47. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
MECHANICAL DAMAGE
• During storage/handling
• During installation - kinks & bends
• Damage from vehicles
• Rope jumping out of sheave
• Rope trapped
• Incorrectly profiled sheave grooves
• Poor spooling at drum
What is the most common reason for Discard?

48. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
THERMAL DAMAGE
• Too high operating temperature - loss in strength
• Electric arcing during welding - localised damage
• Lightening

49. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
MALFORMATIONS
• Resulting From:
– Poor installation technique
– Shock loading
– Unacceptable fleet angle - causing rolling of rope
– Lack of maintenance (equipment and/or rope)
Example of result of shock loading

50. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
ROTATION
• Incorrect handling/installation techniques
• Incorrect use of swivel
• Wrong rope for job
Example of „birdcage‟ due to torsional imbalance

51. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
FATIGUE
• Bending fatigue
• Tension - tension fatigue
• Torsional fatigue
Resulting in Broken Wires
Examples of Broken Wires Due to Fatigue

52. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
TERMINATION FAILURES
END ATTACHMENTS
All end attachments have one characteristic in common,,they all restrict to some degree the free
movement of wires at the end of the rope.
This impairment of the ability of wires to adjust and move at the end can ultimately result in
breakage of wires at the point where restriction occurs, thus broken wires are a primary concern
when inspecting end attachments on a rope.
A single broken wire is usually reason to question continued use of the rope and more than one
is usually sufficient cause for rejection.
Broken wires may be more difficult to locate at end fittings than in other sections of rope.
Another problem frequently encountered at end fittings is corrosion or rust.
Such corrosion can easily conceal broken wires, and if left to accumulate can erode the surface of
wires to weaken them, or can restrict normal wire movement.
Inspection of rope ends should also include the condition of the actual attachment - worn eyes,
missing thimbles, bent or opened hooks, pins, etc.
End termination‟s to some degree restrict the available movement of the wire rope at the
attachment point.
This inevitably can cause the breakage of wires where the restriction is occurs.
Therefore it is important to ensure that a close inspection of the end termination is carried out
prior to use.
A single broken wire within close proximity to the termination is generally enough cause to
question continued use of the wire rope and more then one sufficient cause for rejection.

53. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
TERMINATION FAILURES
Rope Terminations
•Spliced eye Failure may
occur at the base
•Ferrule-secured eye of the swaged
•Metal or Resin filled socket fitting in this area
•Wedge socket HAND SPLICE
•Pressed/Swaged failure may occur
•Wire rope grips Check that the
thimble is not
at the first
tuck splice
biting into the
Termination Failures rope
•Incorrect selection of termination
•Incorrect fitting of termination Look for wear in
•Inadequate inspection/examination the crown
•Failure to maintain in service
What to look for at a rope termination (CHECK):
 Wire breaks Inspect termination, ensure wire rope end is visible.
 Corrosion Dead end must
be flush or
 Reduction in rope diameter protruding
 Unusual rope movement
 Evidence of rope end
 Evidence of any incorrect fitting Dead end tail = Rope dia. (+/-)
 Evidence of any component wear Broken wire near fitting.
 Presence of any interwire pressure/friction marks This is a serious defect !
 State of internal lubrication

54. FACTORS CAUSING ROPE DETERIORATION
TERMINATION FAILURES
END TERMINATION DAMAGE
End termination‟s to some degree restrict the available movement of the wire
rope at the attachment point.
This inevitably can cause the breakage of wires where the restriction is
occurs.
Therefore it is important to ensure that a close inspection of the end
termination is carried out prior to use.
A single broken wire within close proximity to the termination is generally
enough cause to question continued use of the wire rope and more then one
sufficient cause for rejection.
Examples of possible termination failures

55. WHERE TO EXAMINE-CRITICAL AREAS
Typical but not exhaustive list:
Sheave
• Points of attachment - outboard and inboard
• Rope at compensating sheave(s)
• Dead laps and cross-over points at drum
• Rope running through sheave(s)
Drum
• Rope spooling on/off drum Terminations
• Areas exposed to abnormal environmental conditions
• Areas subject to damage or likely to be damaged Sheave
Block
Principal modes of deterioration- At drum 10 t
• At drum anchorage-corrosion/evidence of rope movement, (e.g. slip)
• Portion entering and exiting drum -corrosion/wear/broken wires
• In dead wraps -corrosion/localised damage Principal modes of deterioration- Sheave block
• At cross-over points-localised damage • Rope running through sheave :wear/wire
breaks/corrosion
• At pick up point-corrosion/wear/broken wires • Ability of sheave to freely rotate
• Any malfunctions/deformations in the rope • Suitability of groove profile
• Any damage to sheave block
Sheave Groove Profile
Areas of Deterioration Simple two fall reeving system
Wrong
• Witness passage of rope through complete operating cycle Wrong
• Determining areas where greatest deterioration is likely to
occur (e. g. coinciding with pick-up of load)

56. WHERE TO EXAMINE-CRITICAL AREAS
INSPECTION
Critical points that should be considered for careful inspection on most installations would include
the following:
PICK-UP POINTS - Sections of rope which are repeatedly placed under stress when the initial load
of each lift is applied, such as sections in contact with Sheaves
END ATTACHMENTS - At each end of the rope two things must be inspected, the fitting that is
attached to the rope, or to which the rope is attached and the condition of the rope itself, where it
enters the attachment
EQUALIZING SHEAVES - The section of a rope that is in contact with and adjacent to such
sheaves as on boom hoist lines should receive careful inspection.
DRUMS - The general condition of the drum and condition of grooves if drum is grooved, should
receive careful inspection - as should the manner in which the rope “spools” onto the drum.
SHEAVES - Every sheave in the rope system must be inspected and checked with a groove gauge.
HEAT EXPOSURE – Be especially watchful for signs that a rope that has been subjected to
extreme heat or to repetitive Heat exposure.
ABUSE POINTS - Frequently ropes are subjected to abnormal scuffing and scraping, such as
contact with ross - members of a boom. Look for “bright” spots.
It must be kept in mind that minor - and frequently major - differences exist between installations,
even on machines of a similar design.
Therefore, points on each rope selected for close examination will necessarily require the best
judgement of the Inspector.

57. EXAMINATION OF ROPES
THROUGH SHEAVE
INSPECTING SHEAVES

58. INTERNAL EXAMINATION AND AT ROPE
TERMINATIONS OF ROPES
– Rope MUST NOT be under any tension
– Attach clamps approximately 100-200m apart
– Contra-rotate clamps to unlay outer strands
– Ensure strands are not excessively moved -
avoiding any permanent deformation
– Manipulate strands with probe to facilitate
examination
– Check -
 presence of any interwire pressure
 presence of any broken wires Proper Method of Installing Cable Clips
 degree of corrosion
 state of internal lubrication
– Apply dressing
– Apply additional reverse torque to
re-bed strands on core

59. DISCARD CRITERIA
WIRE ROPE SLING
Assessment and Discard Criteria
• BROKEN WIRES
– These can cause
• Injury to user‟s hands. ·Loss of Strength
– Randomly distributed wire breaks
• Not to exceed 5% of the total in any length of 10d.
– Localised breaks
• 3 broken wires in a close group or in any one strand within a length of 6d - withdraw from service.
• EXCESSIVE WEAR
– Rope loss of diameter must not exceed 10% from nominal.
• CORROSION
– This causes loss of flexibility and roughness to the touch. Withdraw the sling and refer to supervision if necessary.
• SIGNIFICANT DISTORTION
– This appears as kinking, crushing, core collapse, knotting or other permanent deformation. Withdraw the sling and
refer to supervision if necessary.
• HEAT DAMAGE
– Look for evidence of discoloration, loss of lubricant, pitting and the presence of weld blobs.
• DEFECTIVE OR DAMAGES FITTINGS, FERRULES OR SPLICES
– Opening up or cracking of hooks,
– The effect of friction on the bearing surface of a soft eye
– Fractured wires on the outside surface of the eye, for instance where a soft eye has been used with a very small pin
– The effect of bursting stress at the throat of any eye due to the use of a pin of excessive diameter or certain types of thimble
– Concentrations of broken wires near to terminations (to the ferrule or splice or in the spice)
– Pulling out of the splice or ferrule
– Severe crushing or abrasion of the ferrule or hand splice
– Cracks in any ferrules
– Closing of the thimble
– Distortion and wear of links

60. MAINTAINANCE OF WIRE ROPE SLING
PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION FREQUENCY OF LUBRICATION
 Initial factory will not last  Recommended at least quarterly
 Depend on the usage
GOOD LUBRICATION CHARACTERISTIC  Working environment
 Corrosion resistance
 Water repellent
 Penetrating ability
 Temperature stability

61. POOR HOUSEKEEPING

62. SLINGS-STORAGE

63. SAFE USE OF WIRE ROPE SLINGS
DO NOT JOIN SLINGS
BY THREADING THE EYES
ALWAYS USE A SHACKLE OF AT LEAST
THE SAME SWL TO JOIN SLINGS TOGETHER
MAIN LIFTING RING
(Min dimensions FERRULE (STAMPED WITH DATA)
270mm by 140mm)
MASTER ASSEMBLY
ALL WIRE ROPES TO BS 302
THIMBLES TO
BS 464
PERMANENTLY
MOUSED SHACKLES
OPTIONAL ANTI-THEFT RING SPLIT
(PERMANENTLY MOUSED) PIN
SHACKLES TO BS 3551
OR PR-C-271B
PINS TO BE SECURE
PLASTIC OR WIRE TIE-WRAP

64. SAFE USE OF WIRE ROPE SLINGS
Never use a sling that is knotted or kinked.
Never drag a sling from under a load.
The minimum radius around which a sling can be
bent is 3 times the diameter of the sling wire rope.
Never overload a sling.
Never lift a container on two slings only.
Keep slings away from welding and cutting
operations.

65. SAFE USE OF WIRE ROPE SLINGS
IF A LOOP
IS PULLED
THIS IS THE RESULT

66. SAFE USE OF WIRE ROPE SLINGS
NEVER TIE KNOTS IN SLING
LEGS
TO REDUCE
THEIR LENGTH

67. SAFE USE OF WIRE ROPE SLINGS
NO -Dragging slings from under a load

68. SAFE USE OF WIRE ROPE SLINGS
SLINGING TUBULARS
Tubulars include items, such as, Drilling tubulars, Scaffold Tubes, Construction pipe work, etc.
It is DANGEROUS PRACTICE to bundle tube with steel angle, channel, etc. Small bore tube
could lay loose in the gaps between differently shaped items of steel, with the possibility of it
sliding out when lifted. If falling from height, it would then become a potential spear - with
possible serious consequences !
GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
Only Tubulars of the same diameter should be bundled together.
The number of tubes in each bundle should be such, that the middle tubes are gripped and will
not slip out of the bundle.
Tubulars should always be slung with two slings, each of which has a SWL at least equal to
the gross weight of the Load.
Slings should be placed at equal distance, [approximately 25% from the ends of the load.
They should be wrapped around the load twice (DOUBLE WRAPPED)
Excessively long tubular bundles should have a tag line attached to one sling.
Clamps/ Bulldog clips should be used on the reeved wire, to prevent loosening. A tie wrap
should be used on the reeved eye of the sling to prevent it from slipping over the bulldog.
Transportation frames are considered best practice

69. SAFE USE OF WIRE ROPE SLINGS
DOUBLE WRAP AND SECURE WITH TUBING BUNDLE SMALL DIAMETER TUBING
CLAMP
SLINGS OF EQUAL LENGTHG
SECURE METHOD OF STORAGE/ TRANSPORTATION OF
BATTENING DOWN TUBING
It is sometimes imagined that slings in
choke hitch can be made more secure
by striking the eye of a sling in an
attempt to force the bight into closer
contact with the load.
This dangerous malpractice is often
called „battening down‟.
The bight should be allowed to assume
its natural angle which will be about
120

70. SAFE USE OF SLINGS- HOOK

71. SAFE USE OF SLINGS- WEDGE SOCKET
Wedge sockets are among the simplest devices for anchoring a wire rope for any purpose. They
are intented for on-the-job attachment and for quick rope replacement. However, the efficiency of a
wedge socket is low- only 70 percent of the strength of the rope
The wedge socket must be properly set up as per the relevant Standard BS 7166, or equivalent
Protruding rope shall be a length of 6xdiameter of the rope
Wedge-type rope sockets should be inspected for damage to rope, wedge and socket
The wedge should be removed with a punch
Correct methods of fitting rope to wedge and use rope grips.
.

72. WIRE ROPE SLING- TEST
1. Name a defect found in wire rope 4. Name each part of the diagram
sling ? below:-
a. Broken wire 1)
b. Bird caging
c. Loosed pin
2)
d. Corroded/Rusty
2. Can you use sling with 5% of
broken wires. 3)
a. Yes
b. No
3. Can you use damage wire rope
sling?
a. No 4)
b. Yes