1. INTRODUCTION:
I n d i a , w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 9 8 9 mi l l i o n , i s t h e w or l d ' s
s e c o n d m o s t p o p u l o u s c o u n t r y . O f t h a t n u mb e r , 1 2 0 mi l l i o n
a r e w o me n w h o l i v e i n p o v e r t y .
India has 16 percent of the world's population, but only
2.4 percent of its land, resulting in great pressures on its
natural resources.
O v e r 7 0 p e r c e n t o f I n d i a ' s p o p u l a t i o n c u r r e n t l y d er i v e s
their livelihood from land resources, which includes 84
p e r c e n t o f t h e e c o n o mi c a l l y - a c t i v e w o me n .
India is one of the few countries where males
s i g n i f i c a n t l y o u t n u mb e r f e ma l e s , a n d t h i s i mb a l a n c e h a s
i n c r e a s e d o v e r t i me . I n d i a ' s m a t e r n a l mo r t a l i t y r a t e s i n r u r a l
areas are a mo n g the world's highest. Fr o m a global
perspective, Indian accounts for 19 percent of all lives
births and 27 percent of all maternal deaths.
"There seems to be a consensus that higher female
mortality between ages one and five and high maternal
mortality rates result in a deficit of f e ma l e s in the
p o p u l a t i o n . C h a t t e r j e e ( 1 9 9 0 ) e s t i m a t e s t h a t d e a t h s o f y ou n g
girls in India exceed those of young boys by over 300,000
e a c h y e ar , a n d e v e r y s i x t h i n f a n t d e a t h i s s p e c i f i c a l l y d u e t o
g e n d e r d i s c r i mi n a t i o n . " O f t h e 1 5 mi l l i o n b a by g i r l s b or n i n
1

2. I n d i a e a c h y e ar , n e a r l y 2 5 p e r c e n t w i l l n o t l i v e t o s e e t h e i r
1 5 t h b i r t h d ay .
"Although India was the first country to announce an
official family planning program in 1952, its population
g r e w f r o m 3 6 1 mi l l i o n i n 1 9 5 1 t o 8 4 4 mi l l i o n i n 1 9 9 1 .
I n d i a ' s t o t a l f e r t i l i t y r a t e o f 3 . 8 b i r t h s p er w o m a n c a n b e
c o n s i d e r e d mo d e r a t e by w or l d s t a n d a r d s , b u t t h e s h e e r
magnitude of population increase has resulted in such a
f e e l i n g o f ur g e n c y t h a t c o n t a i n m e n t o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h i s
l i s t e d a s o n e o f t h e s i x mo s t i mp o r t a n t o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e
Eighth Five-Year Plan."
S i n c e 1 9 7 0 , t h e u s e o f mo d e r n c o n t r a c e p t i v e me t h o d s
has risen from 10 percent to 40 percent, with great variance
b e t w e e n n or t h e r n a n d s o u t h e r n I n d i a . T h e mo s t s t r i k i n g
a s p e c t o f c o n t r a c e p t i v e u s e i n I n d i a i s t h e pr e d o mi n a n c e o f
s t e r i l i z a t i o n , w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r mo r e t h a n 8 5 p e r c e n t o f
t o t a l m o d e r n c o n t r a c e p t i o n u s e , w i t h f e ma l e s t e r i l i z a t i o n
accounting for 90 percent of all sterilizations.
T h e I n d i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n g r a n t s w o me n e q u a l r i g h t s w i t h
m e n , b u t s t r o n g p a t r i a r c h a l t r a d i t i o n s p e r s i s t , w i t h w o me n ' s
l i v e s s h a p e d by c u s t o m s t h a t ar e c e n t ur i e s o l d . I n mo s t
I n d i a n f a mi l i e s , a d a u g h t e r i s v i e w e d a s a l i a b i l i t y , a n d s h e
is conditioned to believe that she is inferior and subordinate
t o m e n . S o n s ar e i d o l i z e d a n d c e l e b r a t e d . M a y y o u b e t h e
2

3. m o t h e r o f a h u n dr e d s o n s i s a c o mm o n H i n d u w e d d i n g
blessing.
T h e o r i gi n o f t h e I n d i a n i d e a o f a p p r o pr i a t e f e ma l e
behavior can be traced to the rules laid down by Manu in
2 0 0 B . C . : " b y a y o u n g gi r l , by a y ou n g w o ma n , o r e v e n b y
a n a g e d o n e , n o t h i n g mu s t b e d o n e i n d e p e n d e n t l y , e v e n i n
her own house". "In childhood a female must be subject to
h e r f a t h e r , i n y o ut h t o h e r h u s b a n d , w h e n h e r l or d i s d e a d t o
h e r s o n s ; a w o ma n m u s t n e v e r b e i n d e p e n d e n t . "
A s t u d y o f w o me n i n t h e S w ay a m S h i k s h a n P r ay o g
(SSP), based in 20 villages in four districts in Maharashtra
s t a t e w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h i s w ay :
T h e p r i ma r y i s s u e a l l w o me n i n t h e SS P w e r e s t r u g g l i n g
w i t h w a s t h a t o f e v e r y d ay s u r v i v a l . I n s u f f i c i e n t i n c o me s a n d
t h e l a c k o f e mp l o y me n t w e r e r e p or t e d t o b e t h e i r mo s t
pressing concerns. Survival is a constant preoccupation and
a t i t s mo s t b a s i c , s u r v i v a l me a n s f o o d ( C h a mb e r s 1 9 8 3) . T h e
m o s t c o m mo n pr o b l e ms w e r e t h e l a c k o f b a s i c a me n i t i e s
such as food, water, fuel, fodder and health facilities. In
a d d i t i o n , t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n me n t a n d
the fact that many of their traditional occupations were no
longer viable were conditions that were ma k i n g it
i n c r e a s i n g l y h ar d f o r w o me n t o c o n t i n u e s u s t a i n i n g t h e i r
f a mi l i e s , a s t h e y h a d d o n e i n t h e p a s t
3

4. What is rural?
This definition of rural has several pr o b l e ms . F or
s t a r t e r s , t h e r e a r e 1 3 , 0 0 0 v i l l a g e s w i t h a p o p ul a t i o n s i z e
between 5,000 to 10,000. Ar e t h ey rural or ur b a n ?
M o r e o v e r , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o i s g e t t i n g bl u r r e d
a s t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u u m o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y b e t w e e n t h e m.
I n t e r me d i a t e s e t t l e me n t s s u c h a s i mp o r t a n t v i l l a g e s , k a s b a s
a n d t e h s i l s p l a y a k ey r ol e i n t h e pr o c e s s o f i n t e g r a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e r u r a l a n d u r b a n ar e a s o f I n d i a . T h i s i s i n d e e d a n
i mp o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e Fi c c i - I N G r e p o r t w h i c h g o e s o n
t o r e c o m me n d a s r u r a l a l l v i l l a g e s a n d t o w n s u p t o a
p o p u l a t i o n s i z e o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 w h er e t h e ma j o r i t y o f t h e w o r k e r s
a r e e n g a g e d i n a g r i c u l t ur a l a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s i s
i n d e e d t h e p o p u l a t i o n s t r a t a w h e r e t h e ma j o r i t y o f r ur a l
institutions, agricultural markets and rural banking facilities
are concentrated. The observation of the e c o n o mi c
continuum between town and country, however, transcends
t h e l i mi t e d p u r p o s e o f t h e i n s u r a n c e i n d u s t r y a s i t i n di c a t e s
a q u i c k e n i n g t e mp o o f e c o n o mi c d e v e l o p me n t . T i l l r e c e n t l y ,
such a continuum was associated with only the likes of
K e r a l a b e c a u s e o f i t s d e n s e p a t t e r n o f s e t t l e me n t . T h a t i t
e x i s t s e l s e w h e r e i s a s u r e s i g n o f e c o n o m i c p r o gr e s s .
4

5. Current Status of Women in Rural
A c c o r d i n g I n d i a’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n , w o me n a r e l e g a l c i t i z e n s
of the country and have equal rights with men (Indian
P a r l i a me n t ) . B e c a u s e o f l a c k o f a c c e p t a n c e f r o m t h e ma l e
d o mi n a n t s o c i e t y , I n di a n w o me n s u f f e r i m me n s e l y . W o m e n
are responsible for baring c h i l dr e n , yet t h ey are
malnourished and in poor health. W o me n are also
o v e r w o r k e d i n t h e f i e l d a n d c o mp l e t e t h e a l l o f t h e d o me s t i c
w o r k . M o s t I n d i a n w o me n ar e u n e d u c a t e d . Although the
c o u n t r y ’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n s a y s w o me n h a v e e q u a l s t a t u s t o m e n ,
w o me n a r e p o w e r l e s s a n d a r e m i s t r e a t e d i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e
t h e h o me .
I n d i a i s a s o c i e t y w h e r e t h e m a l e i s g r e a t l y r e v er e d .
T h e r e f o r e w o me n , e s p e c i a l l y t h e y o u n g g i r l s , g e t v e r y l i t t l e
r e s p e c t a n d s t a n d i n g i n t h i s c o u n t r y . T h e w o me n o f t h e
h o u s e h o l d a r e r e q ui r e d t o p r e p a r e t h e me a l f o r t h e m e n , w h o
e a t mo s t o f t h e f o o d . O n l y a f t e r t h e ma l e s a r e f i n i s h e d
e a t i n g , c a n t h e f e m a l e s e a t . Ty p i c a l l y t h e l e f t o v e r f o o d i s
m e a g e r , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f a m i l i e s a r e p o or a n d h a v e l i t t l e t o
b e g i n w i t h . T h i s c r e a t e s a ma j o r pr o b l e m w i t h m a l n u t r i t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y f o r pr e g n a n t or n u r s i n g w o me n . V e r y f e w w o m e n
s e e k m e d i c a l c a r e w h i l e pr e g n a n t b e c a u s e i t i s t h o u g h t o f a s
a t e mp o r a r y c o n d i t i o n . T h i s i s o n e m a i n r e a s o n w hy I n di a ’ s
maternal and infant mortality rates are so high. Starting
from birth, girls do not receive as mu c h care and
5

6. c o mm i t m e n t f r o m t h e i r p a r e n t s a n d s o c i e t y a s a b oy w o u l d .
F o r e x a mp l e a n e w b a b y g i r l w o u l d o n l y b e br e a s t f e d f o r a
s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i me , b ar e l y s u p p l y i n g h e r w i t h t h e n u t r i e n t s
s h e n e e d s . T h i s i s s o t h a t t h e mo t h e r c a n g e t pr e g n a n t a s
s o o n a s p o s s i b l e i n h o p e s o f a s o n t h e n e x t t i me ( C o o n r o d ) .
Even though the constitution guarantees free primary
schooling to everyone up to 14 years of age (Indian
P a r l i a me n t ) , v e r y f e w f e ma l e s a t t e n d s c h o o l . O n l y a b o u t 3 9
p e r c e n t o f a l l w o me n i n I n d i a a c t u a l l y a t t e n d p r i ma r y
s c h o o l s . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s w hy f a mi l i e s c h o o s e n o t
to educate their daughters. One reason is that parents get
n o t h i n g i n r e t ur n f o r e d u c a t i n g t h e i r d a u g h t e r s . A n o t h e r
reason is that all the females in a household have the
responsibility of the housework. So even though education
d o e s n o t f i n a n c i a l l y b u r d e n t h e f a mi l y , i t c o s t s t h e m t h e
t i me s h e s p e n d s a t s c h o o l w h e n s h e c o u l d b e d o i n g c h o r e s .
I n a d d i t i o n , e v e n i f a w o ma n i s e d u c a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e
p o o r e r r e g i o n s , t h er e i s n o h o p e f o r a j o b . M o s t j o b s w o me n
p e r f o r m ar e a g r i c u l t ur a l o r d o m e s t i c w h i c h d o n o t r e q u i r e a
f o r ma l e d u c a t i o n . A n o t h e r r e a s o n g i r l s a r e n o t e d u c a t e d i s
b e c a u s e f a mi l i e s ar e r e q u i r e d t o s u p p l y a c h a s t e d a u g h t e r t o
t h e f a mi l y o f h er f u t u r e h u s b a n d . W i t h o v e r t w o - t h i r d s o f
t e a c h e r s i n I n d i a b e i n g me n a n d s t u d e n t s pr e d o mi n a t e l y
m a l e , p u t t i n g d a u g h t e r s i n s c h o o l , w h er e m a l e s s u r r o u n d
t h e m a l l d a y c o u l d p o s e a p o s s i b l e t hr e a t t o t h e i r v i r g i n i t y
( C o o n r o d) .
6

7. B e c a u s e w o me n a r e n o t e d u c a t e d a n d c a n n o t h o l d a
p r e s t i g i o u s j o b , t h ey t a k e o n t h e m o s t p hy s i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t
a n d u n d e s i r a b l e j o b s . A t y p i c a l d ay f o r a w o ma n i n a n
agricultural position lasts from 4am to 8pm with only an
h o u r b r e a k i n t h e mi d d l e . C o mp a r e d t o a m a n ’ s d ay , w h i c h
i s f r o m 5 a m t o 1 0 a m a n d t h e n f r o m 3 p m t o 5 p m. M o s t
w o me n a r e o v e r w o r k e d w i t h n o m a t e r n i t y l e a v e o r s p e c i a l
b r e a k s f o r t h o s e w h o ar e p r e g n a n t . P l u s w o me n d o t h e
m a j o r i t y o f t h e ma n u a l l a b or t h a t u s e s a l o t o f e n e r g y
c o mp a r e d t o t h e me n w h o d o m o s t l y m a c h i n e o p e r a t i n g
( C o o n r o d) . E v e n t h o u g h w o me n w o r k t w i c e a s ma n y h o u r s
a s me n , t h e m e n s a y t h a t “ w o m e n e a t f o o d a n d d o n o t h i n g . ”
T h i s i s ma i n l y b e c a u s e t h e w o r k t h e w o me n p e r f o r m d o e s
n o t r e q u i r e a l o t o f s k i l l a n d ar e s m a l l e r t a s k s .
7

8. Reasons for the above:
• Wom en developm ent issues in India.
G e n d e r d i s c r i mi n a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o b e a n e n o r mo u s
p r o b l e m w i t h i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y . T r a d i t i o n a l p a t r i a r c h a l n or ms
have relegated w o me n to secondary status within the
h o u s e h o l d a n d w o r k p l a c e . T h i s d r a s t i c a l l y a f f e c t s w o me n ' s
health, financial status, education, and political
i n v o l v e me n t . W o me n a r e c o mm o n l y m a r r i e d y o u n g , q u i c k l y
b e c o me mo t h e r s , and are then burdened by stringent
d o me s t i c a n d f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T h e y ar e f r e q u e n t l y
m a l n o u r i s h e d s i n c e w o me n t y p i c a l l y ar e t h e l a s t m e m b e r o f
a household to eat and the last to receive medical attention.
A d d i t i o n a l l y , o n l y 5 4 p er c e n t o f I n d i a n w o me n a r e l i t e r a t e
a s c o m p a r e d t o 7 6 p e r c e n t o f me n . W o me n r e c e i v e l i t t l e
schooling, and suffer from unfair and biased inheritance and
d i v o r c e l a w s . T h e s e l a w s pr e v e n t w o me n f r o m a c c u mu l a t i n g
s u b s t a n t i a l f i n a n c i a l a s s e t s , ma k i n g i t d i f f i c u l t f o r w o me n t o
e s t a b l i s h t h e i r o w n s e c u r i t y a n d a u t o n o my .
I n R a j a s t h a n , a l l o f t h e s e pr o b l e ms ar e a g gr a v a t e d by
high levels of seasonal mi g r a t i o n . For ma n y me n in
Rajasthan, mi g r a t i o n is required since rural parts of
R a j a s t h a n o f t e n l a c k a s u f f i c i e n t e c o n o my t o p r o v i d e i n c o me
f o r a f a m i l y y e ar - r o u n d . W o me n ar e c o m mo n l y l e f t b e h i n d
t o c a r e a n d p r o vi d e f o r t h e e n t i r e h o u s e h o l d . T h i s i s
8

9. increasingly difficult because it is estimated that an average
w o ma n ' s w a g e i s 3 0 p e r c e n t l o w e r t h a n a m a n ' s w a g e
w o r k i n g i n a s i mi l a r p o s i t i o n . W h i l e t h e s e m o t h e r s w o r k ,
t h e y mu s t a l s o t e n d t o d o me s t i c responsibilities. This
f o r mu l a f o r s u p p o r t i n g R a j a s t h a n i f a mi l i e s l e a v e s l i t t l e
r e s o u r c e f o r t h e gr o w t h a n d d e v e l o p me n t o f w o me n ' s r i g h t s
and education levels.
A strong "son preference" exists in the region, as it does
throughout the country, and high rates of female infanticide
a n d f e ma l e f e t i c i d e p l a g u e t h e ar e a . I n 2 0 0 1 , f o r e v e r y 1 , 0 0 0
m a l e s l i v i n g i n R a j a s t h a n t h e r e w e r e o n l y 9 2 2 w o me n
(Marthur et. al., 2 0 0 4) . Having sons is economically
a d v a n t a g e o u s t o f a mi l i e s d u e t o c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ; t h e s e
i n s t i t u t i o n s s e r v e t o dr a s t i c a l l y d e v a l u e t h e r ol e s w o me n
p l a y i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y . W o me n c o n t i n u e t o s t r u g g l e
to achieve equal status to men, making w o me n ' s
e mp o w e r me n t an issue of particular i mp o r t a n c e for
Rajasthan.
In Rajasthan several NGOs that have hosted FS D
p a r t i c i p a n t s ar e i n s t r u me n t a l i n p r o v i d i n g o p p or t u n i t i e s f o r
w o me n . T h e s e or g a n i z a t i o n s h e l p t o b u i l d n e t w o r k s a mo n g
w o me n t o c r e a t e f i n a n c i a l s e l f - h e l p gr o u p s . T h e y i n t r o d u c e
i d e a s a b o u t mi c r o f i n a n c e , a l l o w i n g w o me n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n
m a n a g e me n t activities. Other local NGOs i mp l e me n t
p r o j e c t s t h a t e x p or t t h e s k i l l s o f w o me n a b r o a d t o g e n e r a t e
9

10. s i g n i f i c a n t i n c o me . I n 2 0 0 6 , O l e n C r a n e , a n F S D i nt e r n ,
h e l p e d n e ar l y 4 0 0 w o me n ar t i s a n s i n t h e U d a i p u r a r e a by
collecting samples of their textile products and shipping
t h e m a b r o a d t o s e l l t o A me r i c a n c o mp a n i e s . S i mi l a r pr o j e c t s
h a v e e n o r mo u s p o t e n t i a l t o i mp r o v e t h e f i n a n c i a l a n d s o c i a l
s t a t u s o f R a j a s t h a n i w o me n . O r g a n i z i n g c h a n g e a t a l o c a l
level and planning p a r t i c i p a t or y action will help to
e l i mi n a t e b i a s a n d s t e r e o t y p e s , a n d g e n e r a t e a w a r e n e s s o f
t h e s i g n i f i c a n t g e n d er d i v i d e t h a t e x i s t s w i t h i n I n d i a n
society.
• C h r o n i c H u n g e r a n d t h e S t at u s of W o me n i n I n d i a
Malnutrition:
I n d i a h a s e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h r a t e s o f c h i l d ma l n u t r i t i o n ,
b e c a u s e t r a d i t i o n i n I n d i a r e q u i r e s t h a t w o me n e a t l a s t a n d
least throughout their lives, even when pregnant and
l a c t a t i n g . M a l n o u r i s h e d w o me n g i v e b i r t h t o ma l n o u r i s h e d
c h i l d r e n , p e r p e t u a t i n g t h e cy c l e .
U n s ki l l e d :
I n w o m e n ' s pr i ma r y e mp l o y m e n t s e c t o r - a g r i c u l t ur e -
e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s o v e r l o o k w o me n .
10

11. M i s t r e a t me n t :
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e h a s b e e n a n a l a r mi n g r i s e i n
a t r o c i t i e s a g a i n s t w o me n i n I n d i a , i n t e r ms o f r a p e s , a s s a u l t s
a n d d o w r y - r el a t e d mu r d e r s . F e a r o f v i o l e n c e s u p p r e s s e s t h e
a s p i r a t i o n s o f a l l w o me n . F e ma l e i n f a n t i c i d e a n d s e x -
s e l e c t i v e a b o r t i o n s a r e a d d i t i o n a l f o r ms o f vi o l e n c e t h a t
reflect the devaluing of females in Indian society.
Poor Health:
F e ma l e s r e c e i v e l e s s h e a l t h c a r e t h a n m a l e s . M a n y
w o me n d i e i n c h i l d b i r t h o f e a s i l y p r e v e n t e d c o mp l i c a t i o n s .
W o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d e n v i r o n me n t a l p o l l u t i o n f u r t h e r
i mp a i r s w o me n ' s h e a l t h .
• Marriage:
W o me n a r e s u b o r d i n a t e i n mo s t ma r r i a g e s .
Exposure to and interactions with the outside world are
i n s t r u me n t a l i n d e t e r mi n i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e t o
w o me n i n t h e i r d a i l y l i v e s . T h e s i t u a t i o n o f w o me n i s
a f f e c t e d b y t h e d e g r e e o f t h e i r a u t o n o my or c a p a c i t y t o
make decisions both inside and outside their own household.
" T h e p o s i t i o n o f w o me n i n n or t h e r n I n d i a i s n ot a b l y
p o o r . T r a d i t i o n a l H i n d u s o c i e t y i n n or t h e r n r ur a l a r e a s i s
11

12. hierarchical and d o mi n a t e d by men, as evidenced by
m a r r i a g e c u s t o m s . N or t h I n d i a n H i n d u s ar e e x p e c t e d t o
m a r r y w i t hi n p r e s c r i b e d b o u n d ar i e s : t h e br i d e a n d gr o o m
m u s t n o t b e r e l a t e d , t h ey h a v e n o s a y i n t h e ma t t e r , a n d t h e
m a n m u s t l i v e o u t s i d e t h e w o ma n ' s n a t a l v i l l a g e .
" W i f e g i v er s " ar e s o c i a l l y a n d r i t u a l l y i n f e r i o r t o " w i f e
t a k e r s " , t h u s n e c e s s i t a t i n g t h e pr o v i s i o n o f a d o w r y . A f t e r
m a r r i a g e , t h e br i d e mo v e s i n w i t h h e r h u s b a n d ' s f a mi l y .
Such a bride is "a stranger in a strange place." They are
c o n t r o l l e d by t h e o l d e r f e m a l e s i n t h e h o u s e h o l d , a n d t h e i r
behavior reflects on the honor of their husbands. Because
e mo t i o n a l t i e s b e t w e e n s p o u s e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a p ot e n t i a l
t h r e a t t o t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e ma t r i l i n e a l gr o u p , t h e n or t h e r n
s y s t e m t e n d s t o s e g r e g a t e t h e s e x e s a n d l i mi t c o m mu n i c a t i o n
between spouses - a circumstance that has di r e c t
c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r f a mi l y p l a n n i n g a n d s i mi l a r " mo d e r n "
b e h a v i o r s t h a t a f f e c t h e a l t h . A y ou n g I n d i a n br i d e i s
brought up to believe that her own wishes and interests are
s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h o s e o f h er h u s b a n d a n d h i s f a m i l y . T h e
p r i ma r y d ut y of a newly ma r r i e d young w o ma n , and
v i r t u a l l y h e r o nl y m e a n s o f i mp r o v i n g h e r p o s i t i o n i n t h e
h i e r a r c hy o f h er h u s b a n d ' s h o u s e h o l d , i s t o b e a r s o n s . "
S o n a l d e D e s a i p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e p er c e p t i o n t h a t s o n s
a r e t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y i n ol d a g e i s s o
s t r o n g i n t h e n or t h t h a t " ma n y p a r e n t s , w h i l e vi s i t i n g t h e i r
12

13. married daughters, do not accept food or other hospitality
from t h e m. However, gi v e n w o me n ' s low independent
i n c o me s a n d l a c k o f c o n t r o l o v er t h e i r e a r n i n g s , f e w c a n
p r o v i d e e c o n o mi c s u p p o r t t o t h e i r p a r e n t s e v e n i f p a r e n t s
were willing to accept it."
In the south, in contrast, a daughter traditionally marries
h e r mo t h e r ' s b r o t h e r o r h e r m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r ' s s o n ( h e r f i r s t
c o u s i n ) . S u c h a n ar r a n g e m e n t h a s a d r a ma t i c i mp a c t o n
w o me n . " I n s o u t h e r n I n d i a , m e n a r e l i k e l y t o ma r r y w o me n
to whom they are related, so that the strict distinction found
in the north between matrilineal and marital relatives is
absent. W o me n are likely to be married into f a mi l y
h o u s e h o l d s n e a r t h e i r n a t a l h o m e s , a n d a r e mo r e l i k e l y t o
r e t a i n c l o s e r el a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r n a t a l k i n . "
"Over the past several decades, however, ma r r i a g e
p a t t e r n s h a v e c h a n g e d m a r k e d l y . S o c i a l , e c o n o mi c , a n d
d e mo g r a p h i c d e v e l o p me n t s h a v e m a d e ma r r i a g e s b e t w e e n
c l o s e r e l a t i v e s l e s s c o m mo n , a n d t h e br i d e pr i c e h a s g i v e n
way to a d o wr y system akin to that in the n or t h .
Nevertheless, as long as the underlying ethic of marriage in
t h e s o u t h r e ma i n s t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f e x i s t i n g k i n s h i p t i e s ,
t h e r e l a t i v e l y f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n o f s o u t h e r n I n d i a n w o me n
i s u n l i k e l y t o b e t hr e a t e n e d . "
• Divorce:
13

14. Divorce is not a viable option.
D i v o r c e i s r a r e - i t i s a c o n s i d e r e d a s h a me f u l a d mi s s i o n
o f a w o ma n ' s f a i l u r e a s a w i f e a n d d a u g h t e r - i n- l a w . I n 1 9 9 0 ,
d i v o r c e d w o me n m a d e u p a m i n i s c u l e 0 . 0 8 p er c e n t o f t h e
t o t a l f e ma l e p o p u l a t i o n .
M a i n t e n a n c e r i g h t s o f w o me n i n t h e c a s e o f d i v or c e ar e
weak. Although both Hindu and Muslim law recognize the
r i g h t s o f w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n t o ma i n t e n a n c e , i n p r a c t i c e ,
m a i n t e n a n c e i s r a r e l y s e t a t a s u f f i c i e n t a mo u n t a n d i s
frequently violated.
B o t h H i n d u a n d M u s l i m p er s o n a l l a w s f a i l t o r e c o g n i z e
m a t r i m o n i a l p r o p e r t y . U p o n d i v or c e , w o m e n h a v e n o r i g h t s
t o t h e i r h o me o r t o o t h e r p r o p er t y a c c u m u l a t e d d u r i n g
m a r r i a g e ; i n e f f e c t , t h e i r c o n t r i b ut i o n s t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e
of the f a mi l y and accumulation of family assets go
u n r e c o g n i z e d a n d u nr e w a r d e d .
• J o b I mp a c t o n M at e r n a l H e a l t h :
W o r ki n g c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t i n p r e ma t u r e a n d
stillbirths
T h e t a s k s p e r f o r m e d by w o me n a r e u s u a l l y t h o s e t h a t
r e q u i r e t h e m t o b e i n o n e p o s i t i o n f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i me ,
which can adversely affect their reproductive health. A
s t u d y i n a r i c e - gr o w i n g b e l t o f c o a s t a l M a h a r a s h t r a f o u n d
14

15. t h a t 4 0 p e r c e n t o f a l l i n f a n t d e a t h s o c c u r r e d i n t h e mo n t h s
o f J u l y t o O c t o b e r . T h e s t u dy a l s o f o u n d t h a t a ma j o r i t y o f
births were either p r e ma t u r e or stillbirths. The study
attributed this to the squatting position that had to be
a s s u me d d ur i n g J u l y a n d A u g u s t , t h e r i c e t r a n s p l a n t i n g
months.
• I mp a c t o f P o l l u t i o n o n W o me n :
W o me n ' s h e a l t h i s f u r t h e r h ar me d b y a i r a n d w a t e r
pollution and lack of sanitation.
T h e i mp a c t o f p o l l u t i o n a n d i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s o n h e a l t h
is considerable. In E n v i r o n me n t , Development and the
G e n d e r G a p , S a n d hy a V e n k a t e s w a r a n a s s e r t s t h a t " t h e h i g h
i n c i d e n c e o f m a l n u t r i t i o n p r e s e n t a mo n g s t w o me n a n d t h e i r
l o w me t a b o l i s m a n d o t h e r h e a l t h p r o b l e m s a f f e c t t h e i r
c a p a c i t y t o d e a l w i t h c h e m i c a l s t r e s s . T h e s mo k e f r o m
h o u s e h o l d b i o ma s s ( ma d e u p o f w o o d , d u n g a n d cr o p
r e s i d u e s ) s t o v e s w i t h i n a t hr e e - h o u r p e r i o d i s e q u i v a l e n t t o
s mo k i n g 2 0 p a c k s o f c i g a r e t t e s . F o r w o me n w h o s p e n d a t
l e a s t t h r e e h o ur s p e r d ay c o o k i n g , o f t e n i n a p o o r l y
ventilated area, the i mp a c t includes eye pr o b l e ms ,
r e s p i r a t o r y pr o b l e ms , c h r o n i c br o n c h i t i s a n d l u n g c a n c e r .
O n e s t u dy q u o t e d b y W H O i n 1 9 9 1 f o u n d t h a t p r e g n a n t
w o me n c o o k i n g o v er o p e n b i o ma s s s t o v e s h a d a l mo s t a 5 0
percent higher chance of stillbirth.
15

16. A n e mi a ma k e s a p e r s o n mo r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o c ar b o n
m o n o x i d e t o x i c i t y , w h i c h i s o n e o f t h e ma i n p o l l ut a n t s i n
t h e b i o ma s s s mo k e . G i v e n t h e n u mb e r o f I n d i a n w o me n w h o
a r e a n e mi c - 2 5 t o 3 0 p e r c e n t i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e a g e g r o u p
a n d a l mo s t 5 0 p e r c e n t i n t h e t h i r d t r i me s t e r - t h i s a d d s t o
their vulnerability to carbon monoxide toxicity.
A d d i t i o n a l l y , w i t h a n i n cr e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n , d i s e a s e s
c a u s e d by w a s t e d i s p o s a l , s u c h a s h o o k w or m, ar e r a mp a n t .
P e o p l e w h o w o r k b ar e f o o t e d a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u s c e p t i b l e ,
and it has been found that hookworm is directly responsible
f o r t h e h i g h p er c e n t a g e o f a n e mi a a mo n g r ur a l w o me n .
• W o me n A r e U n e d u c a t e d:
W o me n a n d g i r l s r e c e i v e f a r l e s s e d u c a t i o n t h a n me n ,
d u e b o t h t o s o c i a l n o r ms a n d f e a r s o f v i o l e n c e .
I n d i a h a s t h e l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n o f n o n- s c h o o l - g o i n g
working girls.
India's constitution guarantees free p r i ma r y school
e d u c a t i o n f o r b o t h b oy s a n d gi r l s u p t o a g e 1 4 . T h i s g o a l h a s
b e e n r e p e a t e d l y r e c o n f i r me d , b u t pr i ma r y e d u c a t i o n i n I n d i a
i s n o t u n i v er s a l . O v e r a l l , t h e l i t er a c y r a t e f o r w o me n i s 3 9
p e r c e n t v e r s u s 6 4 p e r c e n t f o r m e n . T h e r a t e f o r w o me n i n
t h e f o u r l ar g e n o r t h e r n s t a t e s - B i h a r , U t t a r P r a d e s h ,
R a j a s t h a n a n d M a d hy a Pr a d e s h - i s l o w e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l
average: it was 25 percent in 1991. Attendance rates from
16

17. t h e 1 9 8 1 c e n s u s s u g g e s t t h a t n o mo r e t h a n 1/ 3 o f a l l g i r l s
( a n d a l o w e r p r o p or t i o n o f r u r a l g i r l s ) a g e d 5- 1 4 a r e
attending school.
A l t h o u g h s u b s t a n t i a l p r o gr e s s h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d s i n c e
India won its independence in 1947, when less than 8
percent of females were literate, the gains have not been
r a p i d e n o u g h t o k e e p p a c e w i t h p o p u l a t i o n gr o w t h : t h e r e
were 16 million more illiterate females in 1991 than in
1981.
S o n a l d e D e s a i i n G e n d e r I n e q u a l i t i e s a n d D e mo g r a p h i c
Behavior asserts that "parents' reluctance to educate
d a u g h t e r s h a s i t s r o o t s i n t h e s i t u a t i o n o f w o me n . P a r e n t s
have several incentives for not educating their daughters.
F o r e mo s t i s t h e v i e w t h a t e d u c a t i o n o f g i r l s br i n g s n o
returns to parents and that their future roles, being mainly
reproductive and perhaps including agricultural labor,
require no formal education. As more and more boys are
engaged in education, there is a growing reliance on the
l a b o r o f g i r l s . G i r l s ar e i n c r e a s i n g l y r e p l a c i n g t h e i r b r o t h e r s
on the farm while carrying on their usual responsibilities in
h o u s e w o r k . A l ar g e p r o p or t i o n o f t h e r o u g h l y 4 0 mi l l i o n
" n o n w o r k i n g " g i r l s w h o a r e n o t i n s c h o o l ar e k e p t a t h o me
because of responsibilities in housework."
The role of parents is to deliver a chaste daughter to her
husband's family. Sonalde Desai goes on to point out that
17

18. "another disincentive for sending daughters to school is a
concern for the protection of their virginity. When schools
a r e l o c a t e d a t a d i s t a n c e , w h e n t e a c h e r s ar e m a l e , a n d w h e n
g i r l s ar e e x p e c t e d t o s t u dy a l o n g w i t h b oy s , p ar e n t s ar e
o f t e n u n w i l l i n g t o e x p o s e t h e i r d a u g h t er s t o t h e p o t e n t i a l
a s s a u l t o n t h e i r v i r gi n i t y . "
There is little response to counter these obstacles:
s c h o o l h o ur s r e ma i n i n f l e x i b l e t o t h e l a b o r d e ma n d s o f g i r l s ;
many villages do not have a school; and fewer than 1/3 of
I n d i a ' s pr i ma r y a n d mi d d l e - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a r e w o me n .
A c c o r d i n g t o M a p p i n g Pr o g r e s s , " e d u c a t i o n a l f u n d s w er e
c u t by 8 0 1 . 3 mi l l i o n r u p e e s i n t h e 1 9 9 1 - 9 2 b u d g e t . Fu n d s
f o r t h e ma s s l i t e r a c y mo v e me n t , i n w h i c h w o me n p a r t i c i p a t e
enthusiastically, have been reduced by 5 percent from the
previous year. Budgetary provisions for n o n - f o r ma l
education have been cut by 17 percent, leading to closure of
m a n y n i g h t s c h o o l s a n d a d u l t e d u c a t i o n pr o g r a ms i n w h i c h
w o r k i n g- c l a s s w o me n p a r t i c i p a t e . R e d u c t i o n i n g o v e r n me n t
e x p e n d i t u r e s o n h i g h er e d u c a t i o n a n d e n c o u r a g e me n t t o
private colleges will reduce w o me n ' s opportunities for
h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n s i n c e pr i v a t i z a t i o n i n e d u c a t i o n p r o mo t e s
o n l y m a l e - d o mi n a t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d t e c h n i c a l c o u r s e s , a s
they are lucrative."
18

19. • W o me n A r e O v e r w o r ke d :
W o me n w o r k l o n g e r h o ur s a n d t h e i r w or k i s mo r e
a r d u o u s t h a n me n ' s . S t i l l , me n r e p or t t h a t " w o me n , l i k e
children, eat and do nothing."
• H o u r s w o r ke d
W o me n w o r k r o u g h l y t w i c e a s m a n y a s ma n y h o ur s a s
men.
19

20. W o me n ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a g r i c u l t ur e - w h e t h e r i t b e
subsistence f a r mi n g or c o m me r c i a l a g r i c u l t ur e - when
m e a s u r e d i n t er ms o f t h e n u mb e r o f t a s k s p e r f o r m e d a n d
t i me s p e n t , i s g r e a t e r t h a n me n . " T h e e x t e n t o f w o me n ' s
contribution is aptly highlighted by a micro study conducted
in the Indian Himalayas which found that on a one-hectare
f a r m, a p a i r o f b u l l o c k s w o r k s 1 , 0 6 4 h o u r s , a ma n 1 , 2 1 2
h o u r s a n d a w o ma n 3 , 4 8 5 h o ur s i n a y ea r . "
I n A n d h r a P r a d e s h , ( M i e s 1 9 8 6) f o u n d t h a t t h e w o r k d ay
o f a n w o ma n a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o ur e r d ur i n g t h e a g r i c u l t ur a l
s e a s o n l a s t s f o r 1 5 h o ur s , f r o m 4 a m t o 8 p m, w i t h a n h o u r ' s
r e s t i n b e t w e e n . H e r ma l e c o u n t e r p a r t w o r k s f o r s e v e n t o
e i g h t h o u r s , f r o m 5 a m t o 1 0 a m or 1 1 a m a n d f r o m 3 p m t o
5 p m.
A n o t h e r s t u d y o n t i me a n d e n e r gy s p e n t b y m e n a n d
w o me n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l w or k ( B a t l i w a l a 1 9 8 2) f o u n d t h a t 5 3
percent of the total human h o ur s per household are
c o n t r i b u t e d by w o me n a s c o mp a r e d t o 3 1 p e r c e n t by me n .
T h e r e ma i n i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n c o me s f r o m c h i l d r e n .
T h e l i n k i n g o f a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s t o m a l e d o mi n a n c e
i s d e s c r i b e d b y R o y B u r ma n ( i n M e n o n 1 9 9 1 ) :
T h e a n x i e t y o f ma n t o mo n o p o l i z e h i s s k i l l i n p l o u g h
c u l t u r e i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e t a b o o t h a t i s o b s e r v e d a l mo s t a l l
20

21. o v e r I n d i a , a g a i n s t t h e w o me n ' s h a n d l i n g t h e p l o u g h . I n
many societies, she is not even allowed to touch it.
Mies further observed that "whereas o p er a t i o n s
p e r f o r me d b y m e n w er e t h o s e t h a t e n t a i l e d t h e u s e o f
machinery and draught a n i ma l s , t h er e b y using a n i ma l ,
h y d r a u l i c , m e c h a n i c a l or e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y , w o me n a l mo s t
always relied on manual labour, using only their own
e n e r g y . " R i c e t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n s , t h e mo s t a r d u o u s a n d l a b o ur
i n t e n s i v e t a s k i n r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n , i s c ar r i e d o u t e n t i r e l y by
w o me n w i t h o u t t h e h e l p o f a n y t o o l s .
" G i r l s l e a r n t o a s s i s t t h e i r m o t h e r s i n a l mo s t a l l t a s k s ,
and from the age of 10 years participate fully in the
a g r i c u l t u r a l w or k d o n e b y w o me n . M i e s c i t e s t h e c a s e o f
L a x mi , a t hr e e - y e ar - o l d i n f a n t w h o , a l o n g w i t h h e r m o t h e r ,
p u l l e d s e e d l i n g s f o r t r a n s p l a n t i n g . B oy s o n t h e o t h e r h a n d
w e r e s e l d o m s e e n t r a n s p l a n t i n g or w e e d i n g t h o u g h t h e y d i d
help out in ploughing or watering the fields."
" N o t o n l y d o w o me n p er f o r m mo r e t a s k s , t h e i r w o r k i s
a l s o m o r e ar d u o u s t h a n t h a t u n d e r t a k e n by m e n . B o t h
t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n a n d w e e d i n g r e q u i r e w o me n t o s p e n d t h e
whole day and work in muddy soil with their hands.
M o r e o v e r , t h e y w o r k t h e e n t i r e d ay u n d e r t h e i n t e n s e l y h o t
s u n w h i l e me n ' s w o r k , s u c h a s p l o u g h i n g a n d w a t e r i n g t h e
f i e l d s , i s i n v a r i a b l y c a r r i e d o u t e a r l y i n t h e mo r n i n g b e f o r e
the sun gets too hot. Mies argues that because women's
21

22. w o r k , u n l i k e me n ' s , d o e s n o t i n v o l v e i mp l e m e n t s a n d i s
b a s e d l a r g e l y o n h u m a n e n e r gy , i t i s c o n s i d e r e d u n s k i l l e d
and hence less productive. On this basis, w o me n are
invariably paid lower wages, despite the fact that they work
h a r d e r a n d f o r l o n g e r h o ur s t h a n d o m e n . "
I n c o n t r a s t , a s t u d y i n U t t ar P r a d e s h r e p o r t s t h a t m e n
" o n l y r e l u c t a n t l y c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e i r w o me n f o l k r e a l l y
w o r k . T h e r e s e a r c h e r s i n t h i s ar e a w er e r e p e a t e d l y t o l d t h a t
w o me n , l i k e c h i l d r e n , s i mp l y e a t f o o d a n d d o n o t hi n g . "
• T h e i mp a c t o f t e c h n o l o g y o n w o me n :
T h e s h i f t f r o m s u b s i s t e n c e t o a m a r k e t e c o n o my h a s a
d r a m a t i c n e g a t i v e i mp a c t o n w o me n .
According to Sandhya Venkateswaran, citing Shiva, the
G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h f o c u s e d o n i n cr e a s i n g y i e l d s o f
rice and wheat, entailed a shift in inputs from human to
t e c h n i c a l . W o me n ' s p ar t i c i p a t i o n , k n o w l e d g e a n d i n p u t s
w e r e ma r g i n a l i z e d , a n d t h e i r r ol e s h i f t f r o m b e i n g " p r i ma r y
p r o d u c e r s t o s u b s i d i a r y w o r k er s . "
W h e r e t e c h n o l o gy h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n a r e a s w h e r e
w o me n w o r k e d , w o me n l a b o u r er s h a v e o f t e n b e e n d i s p l a c e d
b y me n . T h r e s h i n g o f gr a i n w a s a l mo s t e x c l u s i v e l y a f e ma l e
t a s k , a n d w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a u t o ma t i c g r a i n t hr e s h e r s
- w h i c h a r e o n l y o p e r a t e d by m e n - w o me n h a v e l o s t a n
i mp o r t a n t s o u r c e o f i n c o me .
22

23. C o mb i n e h a r v e s t e r s l e a v e v i r t u a l l y n o r e s i d u e . T h i s
means that this source of fodder is no longer available to
w o me n , w h i c h h a s a d r a ma t i c i mp a c t o n w o m e n ' s w o r k l o a d .
S o t o o , a s c a t t l e d u n g i s b e i n g u s e d a s f e r t i l i z e r , t h er e i s
less available for fuel for cooking.
• D o mi n a t i o n b y M e n :
E mp o w e r me n t w i l l n o t b e e f f e c t i v e u n t i l w o me n e n j oy
t h e s a m e r i g h t s a s me n . G e n d e r i n e q u i t i e s a n d p o w e r
d y n a mi c s i n h e r e n t l y i n v o l v e b o t h g e n d e r s , s o i t i s i mp o r t a n t
t h a t m e n a r e n o t e x c l u d e d w h e n i s s u e s a f f e c t i n g w o me n a r e
addressed. Sensitizing females and males to these issues at a
y ou n g a g e ma y r e d u c e r i s k y b e h a v i or s a n d v i o l e n c e w h i l e
enhancing i n f o r ma t i o n - s e e k i n g behavior and f e ma l e
a u t o n o my . The United Nations Population Fu n d , The
P o p u l a t i o n C o u n c i l , t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t Fu n d
f o r W o me n a n d o t h e r or g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e s t a r t e d s e v e r a l
p r o gr a ms i n I n di a a n d t hr o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d t o pr o mo t e
constructive and
Healthy relationships these programs encourage men to
b e s u p p o r t i v e p ar t n e r s a n d t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n i s s u e s o f
sexual and reproductive health.
I n I n d i a , t h e s e pr o g r a m s mu s t pr o mo t e t h e v a l u e o f w o me n
23

24. a s p e o p l e a n d r e v er s e t h e c o n c e p t o f w o me n a s p r o p er t y
t r a n s f e r r e d a l o n g w i t h d o wr y f r o m f a t h e r s t o h u s b a n d s .
M o r e mu s t b e d o n e t o e x a mi n e t h e e f f e c t o f p l a c i n g
responsibility and blame for sexual activity, marriage and
r e p r o d u c t i o n s o l e l y o n t h e s h o u l d e r s o f w o me n , w h i l e
relieving men of responsibility of sexual risk behaviors and
violence.
C o u p l e s ' c o u n s e l i n g , f a mi l y p l a n n i n g , a n d m e d i c a l t e s t i n g
and care pr o v i d e another outlet to pr o mo t e open
c o mm u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n g e n d e r s . S u c h p r o gr a ms c a n h e l p
reduce the practice of b l a mi n g w o me n for infections,
infertility and other sexual and family issues, while
e n c o u r a g i n g b o t h p a r t n e r s ' i n v o l v e me n t i n d e c i s i o n - ma k i n g .
• C r i me a g a i n s t w o me n
24

25. P o l i c e r e c o r d s s h o w h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f c r i me s a g a i n s t
w o me n in India. The National C r i me Records Bureau
r e p o r t e d i n 1 9 9 8 t h a t t h e gr o w t h r a t e o f c r i me s a g a i n s t
w o me n w o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n t h e p o p u l a t i o n gr o w t h r a t e b y
2 0 1 0 e a r l i er ; ma n y c a s e s w e r e n o t r e g i s t e r e d w i t h t h e p o l i c e
d u e t o t h e s o c i a l s t i g ma a t t a c h e d t o r a p e a n d mo l e s t a t i o n
c a s e s . O f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s s h o w t h a t t h er e h a s b e e n a dr a ma t i c
i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u mb e r o f r e p o r t e d cr i me s a g a i n s t w o me n .
S e x u a l H a r a s s me n t :
H a l f o f t h e t o t a l n u mb e r o f c r i me s a g a i n s t w o me n
reported related to mo l e s t a t i o n and h ar a s s me n t at the
w o r k p l a c e . E v e t e a s i n g i s a e u p h e mi s m u s e d f o r s e x u a l
h a r a s s me n t o r mo l e s t a t i o n o f w o m e n b y m e n . M a n y a c t i v i s t s
b l a me t h e r i s i n g i n c i d e n t s o f s e x u a l h a r a s s me n t a g a i n s t
w o me n o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f " W e s t e r n c u l t ur e " . I n 1 9 8 7 , T h e
I n d e c e n t R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f W o m e n ( Pr o h i b i t i o n) A c t w a s
25

26. p a s s e d t o pr o h i b i t i n d e c e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f w o m e n t hr o u g h
a d v e r t i s e me n t s or in publications, writings, paintings,
f i g u r e s o r i n a ny o t h e r ma n n e r .
I n 1 9 9 7 , i n a l a n d m a r k j u d g e me n t , t h e S u pr e me C o u r t o f
I n d i a t o o k a s t r o n g s t a n d a g a i n s t s e x u a l h ar a s s me n t o f
w o me n i n t h e w o r k p l a c e . T h e C o u r t a l s o l a i d d o w n d e t a i l e d
g u i d e l i n e s f o r p r e v e n t i o n a n d r e dr e s s a l o f g r i e v a n c e s . T h e
N a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n f o r W o me n s u b s e q u e n t l y e l a b o r a t e d
t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s i nt o a C o d e o f C o n d u c t f o r e mp l o y e r s .
D o w ry
D e f i n i t i o n o f D ow r y : - D o w r y o r D a h e j i s t h e p ay m e n t
in cash or/and kind by the br i d e ' s f a mi l y to the
b r i d e g r o o m’ s f a mi l y a l o n g w i t h t h e g i v i n g a w a y o f t h e br i d e
( c a l l e d K a n y a d a a n ) i n I n d i a n ma r r i a g e . Kanyadanam is an
i mp o r t a n t part of Hindu marital rites. K a ny a means
d a u g h t e r , a n d d a n a me a n s g i f t .
D o w r y or i g i n a t e d i n u p p e r c a s t e f a m i l i e s a s t h e w e d d i n g
g i f t t o t h e br i d e f r o m h er f a mi l y . T h e d o wr y w a s l a t e r g i v e n
t o h e l p w i t h m a r r i a g e e x p e n s e s a n d b e c a me a f o r m o f
insurance in the case that her in-laws mistreated her.
A l t h o u g h t h e d o wr y w a s l e g a l l y p r o hi b i t e d i n 1 9 6 1 , i t
continues to be highly institutionalized. T h e gr o o m o f t e n
d e ma n d s a d o w r y c o n s i s t i n g o f a l ar g e s u m o f mo n e y , f a r m
a n i ma l s , f u r n i t u r e , a n d e l e c t r o n i c s .
26

27. I n 1 9 6 1 , t h e G o v e r n me n t o f I n di a p a s s e d t h e D o wr y
P r o h i b i t i o n A c t , ma k i n g t h e d o wr y d e m a n d s i n w e d d i n g
arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related
d o me s t i c v i o l e n c e , s u i c i d e s a n d mu r d e r s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d .
I n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , n u me r o u s s u c h c a s e s w e r e r e p or t e d .
I n 1 9 8 5 , t h e D o w r y Pr o h i b i t i o n ( m a i n t e n a n c e o f l i s t s o f
p r e s e n t s t o t h e b r i d e a n d b r i d e g r o o m) r u l e s w e r e f r a m e d .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e r u l e s , a s i g n e d l i s t o f pr e s e n t s gi v e n a t
t h e t i me o f t h e m a r r i a g e t o t h e b r i d e a n d t h e b r i d e g r o o m
s h o u l d b e ma i n t a i n e d . T h e l i s t s h o u l d c o n t a i n a br i e f
d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a c h p r e s e n t , i t s a p p r o xi ma t e v a l u e , t h e n a me
o f w h o e v e r h a s g i v e n t h e pr e s e n t a n d h i s / h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o
t h e p e r s o n . H o w e v e r , s u c h r u l e s ar e h a r d l y e n f o r c e d .
A 1 9 9 7 r e p o r t , c l a i me d t h a t a t l e a s t 5 , 0 0 0 w o me n d i e
e a c h y e a r b e c a u s e o f d o wr y d e a t h s , a n d a t l e a s t a d o z e n di e
each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional. The
t e r m f o r t h i s i s " b r i d e b u r ni n g " a n d i s c r i t i c i z e d w i t h i n
I n d i a i t s e l f . A mo n g s t t h e ur b a n e d u c a t e d , s u c h d o wr y a b u s e
has reduced considerably.
Sati in India:
27

28. Sati-the Burning of The Widow -Sati is the practice
t h r o u g h w h i c h w i d o w s ar e v o l u n t a r i l y o r f o r c i b l y b ur n e d
a l i v e o n t h e i r h u s b a n d ' s f u n e r a l py r e . I t w a s b a n n e d i n 1 8 2 9 ,
but had to be banned again in 1956 after a resurgence. There
was another revival of the practice in 1981 with another
prevention ordinance passed in 1987 (Morgan 1984). The
idea justifying sati is that women have worth only in
r e l a t i o n t o me n . T h i s i l l u s t r a t e s w o m e n ' s l a c k o f s t a t u s a s
individuals in India
Neglect during Early Childhood :
T h e n e g l e c t o f t h e g i r l c h i l d s t a r t s v er y e a r l y i n l i f e .
The extent of neglect varies from family to f a mi l y
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i r e c o n o mi c p o s i t i o n . B u t i n c o mp a r i s o n t o
her male counterpart a female child is relatively neglected
i n m o s t o f t h e s o c i o e c o n o mi c s t r a t a . T h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y
it has been noticed that when the girl child depends on
b r e a s t - f e e d i n g t h e c h a n c e s o f h e r s u r v i v a l a r e r el a t i v e l y
more. Data from various sources shows that from infancy
28

29. till the age of 15 the death rate for female child far exceeds
t h e m o r t a l i t y r at e f o r ma l e c h i l d . T h e r e ar e s e v e r a l c a u s e s
u n d e r l y i n g t h i s . F i r s t l y , t h e f e ma l e c h i l d r e n a r e br e a s t f e d
f o r a f a r s h o r t er p e r i o d t h a n t h e i r ma l e c o u n t e r p a r t s .
Secondly, during illness parents show a greater concern
t o w a r d s ma l e c h i l dr e n .
T h i s n e g l e c t i s q ui t e o f t e n e n f o r c e d by p o o r e c o n o mi c
condition. Finally, in addition to the intake of insufficient
and non-nutritious food the female child is exposed to a
g r e a t e r w o r k l o a d v er y e a r l y i n l i f e . O f t e n i n f a m i l i e s o f
w e a k e r e c o n o mi c s t r e n g t h t h e g i r l c h i l d i s f o u n d a t t e n d i n g
t h e h o u s e h o l d c h o r e s a s w e l l a s t a k i n g c a r e o f h er y ou n g e r
brothers and sisters.
D e a t h d u r i n g Ch i l d b i r t h :
Early marriage exposes women to longer childbearing
p e r i o d . T h i s me a n s g r e a t e r h e a l t h h a z a r d s t o w o me n a n d
c h i l d r e n . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s s h o w t h a t t e e n a g e d mo t h e r s r i s k t o
h e a l t h f o r b o t h t h e ms e l v e s a n d t h e i r c h i l dr e n . T h i s r i s k i s
f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d by p o o r n ut r i t i o n . V a r i o u s s u r v e y s i n d i c a t e
t h a t w o me n ' s c a l o r i c c o n t e n t i s a b o u t 1 0 0 c a l o r i e s ( p e r
w o me n p e r d a y ) l e s s t h a n t h e y s p e n d , w h e r e a s me n s h o w a n
800 caloric surplus intake. Women expend a great deal of
e n e r g y w or k i n g i n s i d e a n d o ut s i d e t h e h o u s e , w h e r e a s t h e y
often have
29

30. I n s u f f i c i e n t f o o d . C u s t o ma r i l y t h e y o f t e n e a t a f t e r t h e me n
a n d o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e f a mi l y h a v e e a t e n . T h e l a c k o f
k n o w l e d g e a n d i mp r o p e r c a r e d u r i n g p o s t n a t a l p e r i o d , a n d
f r e q u e n t p r e g n a n c i e s l e a d t o l ar g e r f e t a l w a s t a g e , b i r t h o f
l a r g e r n u mb e r o f l o w e i g h t b a b i e s , a n d d e a t h o f y o u n g
w o me n .
F e ma l e I n f a n t i c i d e a n d F e t a l K i l l i n g
This refers to killing the infant soon after its birth or at
t h e f e t u s s t a g e . F e t a l k i l l i n g h a s b e e n a c r u c i a l pr o b l e m i s
s o me u r b a n ar e a s . A m e d i c a l d i a g n o s t i c p r o c e s s c a l l e d
A mn i o c e n t e s i s i s u s e d i n t h e U . S . A . t o c h e c k p o s s i b l e
d e f o r mi t i e s o f t h e u n b o r n c h i l d . H o w e v e r , t h i s i s f a s t b e i n g
used by parents to select the sex of their child. Misuse of
t h e s e x d e t e r mi n a t i o n t e s t h a s b e e n a c r u c i a l i s s u e i n s o me
urban places in India. This has resulted in a new type
f e ma l e i n f a n t i c i d e i . e . a b o r t i o n o f f e ma l e f e t u s e s .
C h i l d ma r r i a g e :
Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India
and continues to this day. Historically, young girls would
l i v e w i t h t h e i r p a r e n t s t i l l t h e y r e a c h e d p u b er t y . I n t h e p a s t ,
t h e c h i l d w i d o w s w e r e c o n d e m n e d t o a l i f e o f g r e a t a g o ny ,
s h a v i n g h e a d s , l i vi n g i n i s o l a t i o n , a n d s h u n n e d b y t h e
society. Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is
s t i l l a c o m mo n pr a c t i c e .
30

31. A c c o r d i n g t o U N I C E F’ s “ S t a t e o f t h e W or l d ’ s C h i l d r e n -
2 0 0 9 ” r e p or t , 4 7% o f I n di a ' s w o m e n a g e d 2 0 – 2 4 w e r e
married before the legal age of 18, with 56% in rural areas
The report also showed that 40% of the world's child
marriages occur in India.
F e ma l e i n f a n t i c i d e s a n d s e x s e l e c t i v e a b o rt i o n s :
According to a recent report by the United Nations
C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d ( U NI C E F ) u p t o 5 0 m i l l i o n gi r l s a n d w o me n
a r e m i s s i n g f r o m I n d i a’ s p o p u l a t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f s y s t e m a t i c
g e n d e r d i s c r i mi n a t i o n i n I n d i a . I n mo s t c o u n t r i e s i n t h e
w o r l d , t h e r e ar e a p p r o x i ma t e l y 1 0 5 f e m a l e b i r t h s f o r e v e r y
100 males.
I n d i a h a s a h i g h l y ma s c u l i n e s e x r a t i o , t h e c h i e f r e a s o n
b e i n g t h a t m a n y w o me n d i e b e f o r e r e a c h i n g a d u l t h o o d
T r i b a l s o c i e t i e s i n I n d i a h a v e a l e s s m a s c u l i n e s e x r at i o t h a n
a l l o t h er c a s t e gr o u p s . T h i s , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t r i b a l
c o mm u n i t i e s h a v e f a r l o w e r l e v e l s o f i n c o me , l i t e r a cy a n d
h e a l t h f a c i l i t i e s . I t i s t h er e f o r e s u g g e s t e d b y ma n y e x p e r t s ,
t h a t t h e h i g h l y ma s c u l i n e s e x r a t i o i n I n d i a c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d
t o f e ma l e i n f a n t i c i d e s a n d s e x - s e l e c t i v e a b o r t i o n s .
A l l me d i c a l t e s t s t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o d e t er mi n e t h e s e x
o f t h e c h i l d h a v e b e e n b a n n e d i n I n di a , d u e t o i n c i d e n t s o f
these tests being used to get rid of unwanted female
c h i l d r e n b e f o r e b i r t h . F e ma l e i n f a n t i c i d e ( k i l l i n g o f g i r l
31

32. i n f a n t s ) i s s t i l l pr e v a l e n t i n s o me r ur a l a r e a s T h e a b u s e o f
the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for
s e x - s e l e c t i v e a b o r t i o n s a n d f e m a l e i n f a n t i c i d e s i n I n di a .
T e a c h e r s D i s c r i mi n a t e A g a i n s t G i r l s :
In developing countries teachers are mostly male. They
p e r c e i v e g i r l s a s l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t . T h e y g i v e b oy s m o r e
attention. Boys have mo r e opportunity to talk and
participate. Girls are expected to be obedient—to be quiet
a n d s i t a t t h e b a c k o f t h e c l a s s r o o m.
I n s o me c o u n t r i e s , g i r l s ar e e v e n g i v e n j a n i t o r i a l w o r k
w h i l e i n s c h o o l , w h i l e b oy s pl a y a n d s t u dy .
32

33. Health:
T h e a v e r a g e f e ma l e l i f e e x p e c t a n c y t o d ay i n I n d i a i s l o w
c o mp a r e d t o m a n y c o u n t r i e s , b u t i t h a s s h o w n gr a d u a l
i mp r o v e m e n t o v e r t h e y e ar s . I n m a n y f a m i l i e s , e s p e c i a l l y
r ur a l ones, the girls and w o me n face nutritional
d i s c r i mi n a t i o n within the f a mi l y , and are anemic and
malnourished
T h e ma t e r n a l mo r t a l i t y i n I n d i a i s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n
t h e w o r l d . O n l y 4 2% o f b i r t h s i n t h e c o u n t r y a r e s u p e r v i s e d
b y h e a l t h pr o f e s s i o n a l s . M o s t w o me n d e l i v er w i t h h e l p f r o m
w o me n i n t h e f a mi l y w h o o f t e n l a c k t h e s k i l l s a n d r e s o u r c e s
to save the mother's life if it is in danger. According to
U N D P H u ma n D e v e l o p me n t R e p o r t ( 1 9 9 7) , 8 8 % o f p r e g n a n t
w o me n ( a g e 1 5 - 4 9 ) w er e f o u n d t o b e s u f f e r i n g f r o m a n e m i a .
• W a y s t o O v e r c o me D i s c r i mi n a t i o n :
1 . H i r i n g mo r e f e m a l e t e a c h e r s w o u l d h e l p o v er c o me
t h i s b i a s , s a y s M e r c y T e m b o n , t h e W or l d B a n k ' s l e a d
education specialist in gender equity. This would also
e n c o u r a g e mo r e p a r e n t s t o s e n d t h e i r g i r l s t o s c h o o l .
For e x a mp l e , the G a mb i a relaxed r e q u i r e me n t s for
w o me n t o q u a l i f y a s t e a c h e r s t o i n c r e a s e t h e n u mb e r o f
33

34. f e ma l e t e a c h e r s . B u t t h e s e f e ma l e t e a c h e r s t r a i n e e s d i d e x t r a
studying to get up to the level of their male counterparts.
2 . T r a i n t e a c h e r s t o b e c o me a w a r e o f g e n d e r i s s u e s .
G u i n e a s e n s i t i z e s t e a c h e r s a b o u t g e n d e r t o ma k e t h e m
aware of "issues that girls face, culturally and in the
c l a s s r o o m, "
G u i n e a n t e x t b o o k s w e r e a l s o r e - w r i t t e n t o r e mo v e a l l
g e n d e r s t e r e o t y p e s . " T e x t b o o k s p or t r ay e d w o me n a s o n l y
c l e a n i n g a n d c o o k i n g w h i l e me n w e r e s h o w n pr o f e s s i o n a l s ,
l i k e e n g i n e e r s or d o c t o r s , "
While Guinea is a poor African country, girls' education
h a s s t e a d i l y gr o w n o v e r t h e l a s t d e c a d e .
3 . B u r k i n a F a s o s e t u p s p e c i a l t u t o r i n g p r o gr a ms f o r
g i r l s t o h e l p t h e m i mp r o v e t h e i r g r a d e s .
• W h y D o G i r l s D r o p O u t i n D e v e l o p i n g C o un t r i e s ?
G i r l s d o b e t t e r i n t h e c l a s s r o o m t h a n b oy s i n t h e
developed world. But in developing countries, girls lag
behind boys, according to the latest research.
B o y s a n d g i r l s e n r o l l i n e l e me n t a r y s c h o o l a t t h e s a me
r a t e i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . B u t ma n y mo r e g i r l s dr o p o u t
a l o n g t h e w a y t h a n b oy s .
34

35. T o o f e w g i r l s i n p o or c o u n t r i e s g o t o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l
a n d e v e n f e w e r r e a c h u ni v e r s i t y . O f a l l g i r l s w h o e n r o l l i n
p r i ma r y s c h o o l , o n l y 1 0 % r e a c h u n i v er s i t y .
T h e a v e r a g e w o ma n i n r u r a l ar e a s o f I n d i a h a s l i t t l e o r
n o c o n t r o l o v e r h er r e p r o d u c t i v e l y . W o m e n , p a r t i c u l ar l y
w o me n i n r u r a l a r e a s , d o n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o s a f e a n d s e l f -
controlled methods of contraception. The public health
s y s t e m e mp h a s i z e s p e r ma n e n t me t h o d s l i k e s t e r i l i z a t i o n , o r
l o n g - t er m m e t h o d s l i k e I U D s t h a t d o n o t n e e d f o l l o w - u p .
Sterilization accounts for more than 75% of total
contraception, with f e ma l e sterilization accounting for
a l mo s t 9 5% o f a l l s t e r i l i z a t i o n s .
35

36. Action taken by Government to uplift women
T h e f i r s t f e w pl a n s f o l l o w e d a w e l f a r e s a p p r o a c h a n d t r e a t e d
w o me n a s r e c i p i e n t s o f a i d . T h e f i r s t f i v e y e ar p l a n f o c u s e d i t s
attention on the problem of high infant and maternal mortality
a n d t h e n u n d er t o o k s t e p s t o d e v e l o p s c h o o l f e e d i n g s c h e m e s f o r
children and creation of nutrition sections in the public health
d e p a r t me n t s a n d ma t e r n i t y a n d c h i l d h e a l t h c e n t e r s . T h e f o c u s o f
s e c o n d p l a n w a s o n t h e pr o b l e ms o f w o me n w o r k er s . H e n c e
p o l i c i e s w e r e i n i t i a t e d f o r e q u a l p ay f o r e q u a l w o r k , p r o v i s i o n o f
f a c i l i t i e s f o r t r a i n i n g t o e n a b l e w o me n t o c o mp e t e f o r h i g h e r j o b s
a n d e x p a n s i o n o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p ar t t i me e mp l o y m e n t . T h e
main thrust of the third plan was the expansion of girls
education. On the social welfare side the largest share was
p r o v i d e d f o r e x p a n d i n g r ur a l w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s a n d c o n d e n s e d
c o u r s e s o f e d u c a t i o n f o r a d u l t w o me n . T h e f o u r t h pl a n c o n t i n u e d
t o e mp h a s i z e w o me n ' s e d u c a t i o n . T h e f i f t h p l a n g a v e pr i o r i t y f o r
t r a i n i n g o f w o me n i n n e e d o f c ar e a n d pr o t e c t i o n , w o m e n f r o m
l o w i n c o me f a mi l y ' s n e e dy w o me n w i t h d e p e n d e n t c h i l dr e n a n d
working women.
It is only during the fifth plan a separate Bureau of
W o me n ' s W e l f a r e a n d D e v e l o p me n t ( W W D ) w a s s e t u p i n
1 9 7 6 a s p a r t o f t h e e r s t w h i l e D e p a r t me n t o f S o c i a l W e l f a r e
i n or d e r t o i n t e n s i t y t h e c o u n t r y - w i d e e f f o r t s l a u n c h e d
during the International Year of the Women. The Bureau
w a s e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e m a j o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f i mp l e m e n t i n g
36

37. t h e N a t i o n a l P l a n o f A c t i o n f o r W o me n b e s i d e s c o o r d i n a t i n g
t h e a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o w o me n ' s w e l f a r e a n d d e v e l o p me n t .
T h e s i x t h p l a n f o r t h e f i r s t t i me i n I n d i a ' s p l a n n i n g
history contained a separate chapter on W o me n and
D e v e l o p me n t . T o m a k e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o me n ' s D e c a d e a
s u c c e s s i t e mp h a s i z e d o n t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s v i a e c o n o m i c
i n d e p e n d e n c e , e d u c a t i o n a l a d v a n c e me n t a n d a c c e s s t o h e a l t h
c a r e a n d f a m i l y p l a n n i n g . H e n c e v a r i e t i e s o f pr o g r a m me s
w e r e t a k e n u p u n d er d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s o f d e v e l o p m e n t t o
a me l i o r a t e t h e s o c i o e c o n o mi c s t a t u s o f w o m e n . I n t h e r ur a l
d e v e l o p me n t s e c t o r t h e I R D P g a v e p r i or i t y t o w o me n h e a d s
of households and about 35% of total n u mb e r of
b e n e f i c i a r i e s u n d e r T R Y S E M w a s w o me n . A n e w s c h e me v i z
D e v e l o p me n t o f W o me n a n d C h i l dr e n ( D W C R A ) w a s s t a r t e d
i n 1 9 8 2- 8 3 a s a p i l o t pr o j e c t i n t h e b l o c k s o f t h e c o u n t r y .
M a n y v o l u n t a r y or g a n i z a t i o n s w e r e r e q u e s t e d t o a v a i l f u n d s
f r o m t h e g o v er n me n t f o r t h e a b o v e s c h e m e s a n d b e n e f i t
w o me n . A n o t h e r P r o gr a m S . G . S . Y . w a s l a u n c h e d i n t h e Y e a r
1999. Which provided that 50% of S.G.S.Y. groups should
b e f o r w o me n ? T h e y w e r e p r o v i d e d f a c i l i t i e s o f l o a n &
subsidy from the Govt. & Banks. U n d er Science and
T e c h n o l o g y f o r W o me n v ar i e t i e s o f a c t i v i t i e s w e r e t a k e n u p .
P r o j e c t s w e r e s p o n s o r e d f o r d e v e l o p me n t o f s mo k e l e s s
c h u l l a h s u s e o f s o l a r c o o k e r s s e t t i n g u p o f b i o- g a s p l a n t s
a n d d e v i c e s f o r i mp r o v i n g t h e w a t er p u r i f i c a t i o n sy s t e m. A
n u mb e r o f t e c h n o l o gy d e mo n s t r a t i o n c u m t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s a t
37

38. s e l e c t e d f o c a l p o i n t s a l l o v er t h e c o u n t r y w e r e s e t u p by t h e
National Research Development Corporation (NRDC) to
p r o v i d e e x p e r t i s e a n d r e s o u r c e s t o w o me n e n t r e p r e n e u r s .
During the seventh f i v e - y ea r plan an integrated
multidisciplinary a p pr o a c h was adopted covering
e mp l o y m e n t education health nutrition application of
s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o gy a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d a s p e c t s i n a r e a s o f
i n t e r e s t t o w o me n . I t i s o n l y d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t h p l a n
' W o me n D e v e l o p me n t C o r p o r a t i o n s ' w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r
p r o mo t i n g e mp l o y me n t g e n e r a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s f o r w o me n .
Thus with the beginning of International W o me n ' s
D e c a d e i n 1 9 7 5 a n u mb e r o f s c h e me s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d a n d
e a r n e s t e f f o r t s w e r e m a d e by t h e g o v er n me n t t o i mp r o v e t h e
s t a t u s o f w o m e n . I n s p i t e o f i mp l e me n t a t i o n l o o p h o l e s
t h e s e s p o l i c i e s s t r i v e t h e i r b e s t t o i n t e g r a t e w o me n i n t o t h e
m a i n s t r e a m o f s o c i e t y . T h u s t h e D e p a r t me n t o f W o me n a n d
C h i l d D e v e l o p me n t b e i n g t h e n a t i o n a l ma c h i n e r y f o r t h e
d e v e l o p me n t o f w o me n p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e a s s i s t e d b y t h e
Central Social Welfare Board and the National Institute of
P u b l i c c o - o p e r a t i o n a n d C h i l d D e v e l o p me n t . W h i l e t h e
Central Social Welfare Board is an apex body with state
level branches to encourage voluntary effort in the field of
w o me n ' s d e v e l o p me n t N I P C I D i s a n a d v i s o r y – c u m- r e s e a r c h
– cum national level training institute in the field of child
d e v e l o p me n t w i t h a s e p a r a t e d i v i s i o n f o r w o me n ' s r e s e a r c h
38

39. and development. In India legislations and p r o gr a ms
f a v o r i n g w o me n h a d n e v e r b e e n w a n t i n g . B u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y
the spirit behind these policies is hardly appreciated by the
i mp l e m e n t i n g a u t h o r i t i e s .
T h e s e w a r ni n g s o f g l o o m a n d d o o m t h a t a w a i t t h e p o or
in India, particularly its w o me n , with the onset of
liberalization and globalization, need to be me t with
d e c l a r a t i o n o f g o v e r n me n t i n t e n t t o t a k e me a s u r e s t o l o o k
a f t e r e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f r u i t s o f e c o n o mi c g r o w t h .
W h i l e i t s r o l e i n d i r e c t i o n , o w n e r s h i p a n d pr o d u c t i o n w i l l
d i mi n i s h , G o v e r n me n t ' s r o l e m u s t c o n t i n u e t o i n t e n s i v e l y
i n t e r v e n e o n b e h a l f o f t h e w e a k a n d t h e p o or , s o a s t o
i mp r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r l i v e s .
39

40. Action Taken by Law
JUSTICE FOR THE WOMEN AND CHILDREN
UNDER THE BASIC LAW OF THE COUNTRY:
I n d i a h a s ma d e g i g a n t i c e f f o r t s t o h e r a l d a b e t t e r
t o mo r r o w f o r w o me n . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f I n d i a g u a r a n t e e d
f u n d a me n t a l n i g h t s w i t h o u t a n y b ar o n c o u n t o f s e x . T h e
Constitution frames were quite alive and fully aware to the
problems of the weaker section of the society. Protective
legislation to give them social security was considered to be
j u d g e d by t h e s t a n d a r d s b y w h i c h i t t r e a t s t h e w e a k e r
section of its polity. Equalitarian a p pr o a c h of the
C o n s t i t u t i o n f r a me r s r e s u l t e d i n i n t e n s i v e l e g i s l a t i v e f i a t i n
t h e p o s t i n d e p e n d e n c e e r a . W h a t w o ma n h a s a c h i e v e d a f t e r
g r e a t s t r u g g l e i n E u r o p e w a s w e l l i n c o r p or a t e d i n t h e
provisions of the Constitution itself.
Marriage Legislation
I n M a r c h 1 9 6 1 , w h e n t h e b i l l o n u n e q u a l ma r r i a g e s w a s
b e i n g d i s c u s s e d i n t h e R a j y a S a b h a , o n e me mb e r q u o t e d e p i c
against its inclusion in the institution of Hindu marriage.
D r . R a d h a k r i s h n a n , t h e t h e n c h a i r ma n o f t h e R a j y a S a b h a ,
h a d r e ma r k e d : t h e a n c i e n t h i s t o r y c a n n o t s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m s
o f mo d e r n s o c i e t y . T h i s i s a n a n s w e r i n o n e s e n t e n c e t o
t h o s e c r i t i c s w h o w a n t t o ma i n t a i n a g a p b e t w e e n s o c i a l
opinion and social legislation.
40

41. The laws enacted in India relate to: (i) age at marriage
( i i ) f i e l d o f m a t e s e l e c t i o n , ( i i i ) n u mb e r o f s p o u s e s i n
m a r r i a g e , ( i v ) br e a k i n g o f m a r r i a g e , ( v ) d o w r y t o b e g i v e n
a n d t a k e n , a n d ( v i ) r e ma r r i a g e . T h e i mp o r t a n t l e g i s l a t i o n s
relating to these six aspects of marriage passed from time to
t i me ar e : ( i ) T h e C h i l d M a r r i a g e R e s t r a i n t A c t , 1 9 2 9
(dealing with age at marriage), (ii) The Hindu Marriage
Disabilities R e mo v a l Act 1946 and Hindu Marriage
V a l i d i t y A c t , 1 9 4 9 ( d e a l i n g w i t h f i e l d o f ma t e s e l e c t i o n ) ,
(iii) The Special Act. 1954 (dealing with age at marriage,
f r e e d o m t o c h i l dr e n i n m a r r i a g e w i t h o u t p ar e n t a l c o n s e n t ,
b i g a my , a n d br e a k i n g u p o f m a r r i a g e ) , ( i v) t h e H i n d u
Marriage Act, 1955 (dealing with age at marriage with the
c o n s e n t o f p ar e n t s b i g a my , a n d b r e a k i n g u p o f ma r r i a g e ) ( v )
T h e D o wr y A c t 1 9 6 1 , a n d ( v i ) T h e W i d o w R e ma r r i a g e A c t ,
1856
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929
I t c a me i n t o f o r c e o n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 3 0 . I t r e s t r a i n s t h e
m a r r i a g e o f a c h i l d , t h o u g h t h e ma r r i a g e i t s e l f i s n o t
d e c l a r e d v o i d . A c c o r d i n g l y , c o n t r a c t i n g , p e r f o r mi n g a n d
facilitating the marriage of boys under eighteen and girls
less than fourteen years of age were an offence. The age of
g i r l s w a s l a t e r o n r a i s e d t o f i f t e e n y e ar s . T h e a me n d me n t
made in 1978 further rose the age for boys to twenty-one
y e ar s a n d f o r g i r l s t o e i g h t e e n y e ar s .
41

42. T h e vi o l a t i o n o f t h e A c t p r e s c r i b e s p e n a l t y b u t t h e
m a r r i a g e i t s e l f r e ma i n s v a l i d . T h e o f f e n c e u n d er t h e A c t i s
n o n - c o g n i z a b l e a n d pr o v i d e s p u n i s h m e n t f o r t h e b r i d e g r o o m,
parent, guardian, and the priest, which are three months of
s i mp l e i mp r i s o n me n t a n d a f i n e o f u p t o R s . 1 0 0 0 .
N o w o m a n i s , h o w e v e r , p u n i s h a b l e w i t h i mp r i s o n m e n t
under this Act. The Act also provides for the issue of
i n j u n c t i o n or d e r p r o h i b i t i n g t h e c h i l d m a r r i a g e .
But no action can be taken for the offence if a period of
m o r e t h a n o n e y e ar h a s e x p i r e d f r o m t h e d a t e o f t h e a l l e g e d
marriage
T h e H i n d u M a r r i a g e D i s a b i l i t i e s R e mo v a l A c t , 1 9 4 6
A mo n g H i n d u s , n o ma r r i a g e i s v a l i d b e t w e e n p e r s o n s
related to each other within the prohibited degrees, unless
s u c h m a r r i a g e i s s a n c t i o n e d by c u s t o m. H o w e v e r , t h i s A c t
v a l i d a t e d m a r r i a g e s b e t w e e n p er s o n s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s a me
g o t r a o r p a r i v a r a ( a g n a t i c gr o u p s ) . T h i s A c t n o w s t a n d s
repealed after the passing of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
The Hindu Marriage Validity Act, 1949
P r a t i l o ma ( h y p o g a my ) marriage a mo n g Hindus was
i n v a l i d w h i l e a n u l o ma ( hy p er g a my ) m a r r i a g e w a s p e r mi t t e d
t i l l l a t e 1 9 4 0 s . H o w e v e r t h er e w e r e j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n s
against the validity of such marriage. The 1949 Act
v a l i d a t e d a l l ma r r i a g e b e t w e e n p ar t i e s b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t
42

43. religions, castes sub-castes or sects. But it did not validate
marriage between a Hindu and a Muslim. This Act also
stands repealed after the 1955 Act
T h e H i n d u M a r r i a g e A ct , 1 9 5 5
T h i s A c t c a me i n t o f o r c e f r o m M a y 1 8 , 1 9 5 5 a n d a p p l i e s
t o w h o l e o f I n d i a , e x c e p t J a m m u a n d K a s h mi r . T h e w o r d
Hindu in the Act includes Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists and the
Scheduled Castes.
T h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r ma r r i a g e b e t w e e n a ny t w o H i n d u s a s
provided in the Act are: (i) neither party has a spouse
l i v i n g ; ( i i ) n e i t h e r p ar t y i s a n i d i o t or l u n a t i c ; ( i i i ) t h e
g r o o m mu s t h a v e c o mp l e t e d e i g h t e e n y ea r s a g e a n d t h e b r i d e
f i f t e e n y e a r s a g e . T h e a me n d me n t i n t h e A c t ma d e i n 1 9 7 8
h a s r a i s e d t h i s a g e t o t w e n t y - o n e y e a r s f o r b oy s a n d
e i g h t e e n y e a r s f o r g i r l s ( i v) t h e p a r t i e s s h o u l d n o t b e w i t h i n
the degrees of prohibited relationships, unless the custom
p e r mi t s t h e m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n t h e t w o ; ( v ) t h e p ar t i e s s h o u l d
n o t b e s p e n d s o f e a c h o t h er u n l e s s t h e c u s t o m p e r mi t s t h e
marriage between the two; (vi) where the bride is under
e i g h t e e n y e ar s o f a g e a n d t h e g r o o m i s u n d e r t w e n t y - o n e
y e ar s o f a g e t h e c o n s e n t o f h e r / h i s g u a r d i a n i n m a r r i a g e
must have been obtained.
43

44. E i t h er p a r t y c a n s e e k j u d i c i a l s e p a r a t i o n o n a ny o n e o f
t h e f o u r gr o u n d s ; d e s e r t i o n f o r a c o n t i n u o u s o f t w o y e ar s ,
c r u e l t r e a t me n t , l e p r o sy , a n d a d u l t e r y . T h e a n n u l m e n t o f
marriage may be on any one of the following four grounds:
( i ) t h e s p o u s e m u s t h a v e b e e n i mp o t e n t a t t h e t i m e o f
marriage and continues to be so until the institution of the
proceedings, (ii) party to the marriage was an
i d i o t or l u n a t i c a t t h e t i me o f ma r r i a g e , ( i i i ) c o n s e n t o f t h e
petitioner or of the guardian was obtained by force or fraud.
H o w e v e r , t h e p e t i t i o n pr e s e n t e d o n t h i s g r o u n d w i l l n ot b e
entertained after one years of marriage, and (iv) the wife
w a s p r e g n a n t by s o m e p er s o n o t h er t h a n t h e p e t i t i o n e r a t t h e
t i me o f ma r r i a g e . .
T h i s p e r i o d h a s , h o w e v e r , b e e n r e d u c e d t o o n e y e ar a f t e r
t h e 1 9 8 6 a me n d me n t . T h e d i v o r c e e s c a n n o t r e ma r r y t i l l o n e
y e ar e l a p s e s s i n c e t h e d e cr e e o f d i v o r c e . T h e A c t a l s o
p r o v i d e s f o r t h e ma i n t e n a n c e a l l o w a n c e d u r i n g j u d i c i a l
s e p a r a t i o n a n d a l i mo n y a f t e r d i v o r c e . N o t o n l y w i f e b u t a l s o
husband can also claim the maintenance allowances.
44

45. The Special Marriage Act, 1954
T h i s A c t c a me i n t o f o r c e o n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 5 5 . I t r e p e a l e d
t h e S p e c i a l M a r r i a g e A c t , 1 8 7 2 w h i c h p r o vi d e d a f o r m o f
marriage for those who did not wish to conform to the
e x i s t i n g f o r ms . T h e 1 8 7 2 A c t pr o v i d e d t h a t p e r s o n s w i s h i n g
t o m a r r y ( u n d e r t h e A c t ) h a d t o d e c l a r e t h a t t h ey d i d n o t
p r o f e s s H i n d u , J a i n , S i k h , M u s l i m, P a r s i s , C h r i s t i a n o r a n y
o t h e r r e l i gi o n . I n 1 9 2 3 , a n a me n d m e n t w a s m a d e i n t h e A c t
u n d e r w h i c h a p e r s o n w a n t i n g t o ma r r y ( u n d er t h e A c t ) h a d
n o t t o g i v e a n y s u c h d e c l a r a t i o n . E a c h p a r t y w a s s i mp l y
r e q u i r e d t o ma k e a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t i t p r o f e s s e d o n e o r o t h e r
religion.
T h e A c t , t h u s , r e c o g n i z e d i n t er - r e l i gi o n ma r r i a g e s . T h e
conditions p er t a i n i n g to age, living spouse, pr o h i b i t e d
r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d me n t a l s t a t e a s p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e 1 9 5 4 A c t
f o r ma r r i a g e a r e t h e s a me a s p r o v i d e d i n t h e 1 9 5 5 A c t .
U n d e r t h e 1 9 5 4 A c t , a ma r r i a g e o f f i c e r s o l e mn i z e s t h e
m a r r i a g e . T h e p ar t i e s h a v e t o n o t i f y h i m a t l e a s t a m o n t h
b e f o r e t h e ma r r i a g e d a t e . O n e o f t h e p a r t i e s mu s t h a v e
resided in the district in which the marriage officer's office
is located.
During this one month, any person can raise objection
a g a i n s t t h e m a r r i a g e . I f t h e ma r r i a g e i s n o t
s o l e mn i z e d w i t h i n t hr e e mo n t h s f r o m t h e d a t e o f
n o t i c e , a f r e s h n ot i c e i s r e q u i r e d . Pr e s e n c e o f t w o w i t n e s s e s
45

46. i s n e c e s s a r y a t t h e t i m e o f ma r r i a g e . T h i s A c t a l s o p r o v i d e s
f o r t h e a n n u l me n t o f m a r r i a g e , j u d i c i a l s e p a r a t i o n , a s w e l l
a s d i v or c e a n d a l i mo n y . T h e gr o u n d s f o r t h e s e a r e t h e s a m e
a s p r o vi d e d i n t h e H i n d u M a r r i a g e A c t , 1 9 5 5 .
T h e H i n d u W i d ow s R e ma r r i a g e A ct , 1 8 5 6
F r o m S mr i t i p er i o d o n w a r d s , w i d o w s w e r e n o t p e r mi t t e d
t o r e ma r r y . A c c o r d i n g t o M a n u , a w i d o w w h o m a r r i e s a g a i n
brings disgrace on herself; she should, t h er e f o r e , be
e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e s e a t o f h e r l o r d . T h e 1 8 5 6 A c t r e mo v e d
a l l l e g a l o b s t a c l e s t o t h e ma r r i a g e o f H i n d u w i d o w s .
T h e o bj e c t w a s t o pr o mo t e g o o d m o r a l s a n d p u b l i c
w e l f a r e . T h e A c t d e c l a r e s t h a t t h e r e ma r r i a g e o f a w i d o w
w h o s e h u s b a n d i s d e a d a t t h e t i me o f h e r s e c o n d ma r r i a g e i s
v a l i d a n d n o i s s u e o f s u c h ma r r i a g e w i l l b e i l l e g i t i m a t e . I n
c a s e t h e r e ma r r y i n g w i d o w i s a mi n o r w h o s e m a r r i a g e h a s
n o t b e e n c o n s u m m a t e d , t h e c o n s e n t o f f a t h e r , mo t h e r ,
g r a n d f a t h e r , a n d e l d e r br o t h e r or n e a r e s t ma l e r e l a t i v e i s
required.
Any marriage contracted without such consent is void.
H o w e v e r , i f t h e ma r r i a g e h a s b e e n c o n s u m m a t e d ,
it will not be declared void. The Act forfeits the
widow her right of maintenance out of the estate of her first
husband.
46

47. T h e D ow ry P r oh i b i t i on A c t , 1 9 6 1
T h i s A c t w a s p a s s e d o n M ay 2 0 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e A c t d o e s n o t
a p p l y t o M u s l i ms . I t p e r mi t s e x c h a n g e o f g i f t s f o r n o t mo r e
t h a n R s . 2 , 0 0 0 . I t pr e s c r i b e s t h e p e n a l t y o f s i x m o n t h ' s
i mp r i s o n m e n t o r a f i n e u p t o R s . 5 , 0 0 0 o r b o t h f o r i t s
v i o l a t i o n . T h e p o l i c e , o n i t s o w n , c a n n o t t a k e a ny a c t i o n f o r
t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h e A c t u n l e s s s o me c o mp l a i n t i s l o d g e d
with it. No action can be taken after one year of marriage .
Indira Mahila Yojna
T h e I n d i r a M a h i l a Y o j a n a ( I M Y ) a i ms a t or g a n i z i n g a t
the gr a s s - r o o t level to facilitate their participation in
d e c i s i o n - ma k i n g a n d t h e i r e mp o w e r m e n t w a s l a u n c h e d o n 2 0
A u g u s t 1 9 9 5 , t o s t a r t w i t h , i n 2 0 0 I C D S bl o c k s . T h e
strength of the scheme lies in the strength of gr o u p
d y n a mi c s . T h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s c h e me a r e : c o n v e r g e n c e o f
the s c h e me s of every sectoral d e p a r t me n t ; awareness
g e n e r a t i o n a mo n g t h e w o me n f r o m r u r a l a r e a s a n d ur b a n
s l u ms ; a n d e c o n o mi c e mp o w e r me n t o f w o me n .
B a l i ka S a mr i d d h i Y o j a n a
T h e B a l i k a S a mr i d d h i Y o j a n a ( B S Y ) i s a s c h e m e t o r a i s e
t h e s t a t u s o f t h e g i r l c h i l d . T h e f i r s t c o mp o n e n t o f t h e
s c h e me o f B S Y w a s l a u n c h e d w i t h e f f e c t f r o m 2 O c t o b e r
47

48. 1 9 9 7 . U n d e r t h i s , t h e mo t h e r o f a g i r l c h i l d b o r n o n o r a f t e r
15 August 1997 in family living below the poverty line was
g i v e n a gr a n t o f R s . 5 0 0 . T h e b e n e f i t s a n d me a n s o f d e l i v e r y
h a v e b e e n r e d e s i g n e d i n t h e c u r r e n t f i n a n c i a l y e ar s . T h e
post-delivery grant of Rs. 500 per girl child (up to two girls
i n a f a mi l y l i v i n g b e l o w t h e p o v e r t y l i n e ) w i l l b e d e p o s i t e d
i n b a n k a c c o u n t i n t h e n a me o f t h e g i r l c h i l d o r i n a p o s t
o f f i c e i f t h e r e i s n o b a n k n e a r by . I n t h e s a me a c c o u n t w i l l
be deposited annual scholarships ranging from Rs. 300 for
class I to Rs. 1,000 for class X when the girl starts going to
s c h o o l . T h e ma t u r e d v a l u e o f t h e d e p o s i t s ( a l o n g w i t h
i n t e r e s t ) w i l l b e r e p a y a b l e t o t h e g i r l o n h er a t t a i n i n g t h e
a g e o f 1 8 y e ar s a n d h a v i n g r e ma i n e d u n m a r r i e d t i l l t h e n .
48

49. Action Taken by NGO’s to Empower Women
Nam e of Organisation : Act-Kalpana
O n e L i n e D e s c r i p t i v e S l o g a n : a n N G O w or k i n g a mo n g
d i s a d v a n t a g e d w o me n
About us: Kalpana is one of the projects of ACT, a
registered charitable Trust. It creates designs with real
p e t a l s a n d l e a v e s o n v a r i o u s me d i u ms l i k e h a n d ma d e p a p e r ,
c a n d l e , e t c . T h r o u g h t h e s e d e s i g n s , m o r e t h a n t h e pr o d u c t s
t h e l i v e s o f t h e s e w o me n a r e t r a n s f o r m e d .
Mission: To provide e mp l o y m e n t o p p or t u n i t y to
u n s k i l l e d u n d er p r i v i l e g e d w o me n o f s o c i e t y a n d dr a w t h e m
t o ma i n s t r e a m b y e mp o w e r i n g t h e m w i t h k n o w l e d g e , s k i l l ,
s e l f r e l i a n c e a n d pr o s p e r i t y .
K A L P A N A i s o n e o f t h e p r oj e c t s o f A C T , a r e g i s t e r e d
charitable Trust (No. F 5727, B o mb a y 2 2 - 9 - 7 9) .
KALPANA
Was started in 1998 with an ai m to provide
e mp l o y me n t opportunity to u n s ki l l e d underprivileged
w o me n o f s o c i e t y a n d
49

50. D r a w t h e m t o ma i n s t r e a m by e mp o w e r i n g t h e m w i t h
kn o w l e d g e , s ki l l , s e l f r e l i a n c e a nd p r o s p e r i t y .
We create designs with real petals & leaves on
v a r i o u s me d i u ms l i k e ha n d ma d e p a p e r , C a n dl e , B a mb o o
etc.
T h r o u g h t h e s e d e s i g n s , mo r e t h a n t h e p r o d u c t s t h e
l i v e s of t h e s e w o me n a r e t r a n s f o r me d .
Tel.: 9 1- 2 2 - 2 6 1 0 9 8 6 3 J 30948517 E ma i l :
ma i l @ a c t k a l p a n a . o r g w w w .a c t ka l p a n a . o r g B-203, Nani
Niwas, Near LIC
B u i l d i n g , O f f S . V R o a d , V i l e P a r l e ( W ) , M u mb a i 4 0 0
056, India.
I n i t i a t i v e s : W o me n i n D e v e l o p me n t . - M u mb a i b r an c h
NGO.
L o c a t i o n : M a h a r a s h t r a » M u mb a i ( M M R )
T h e vi s i o n o f I W I D i s t o w or k t o w a r d s e q u a l i t y , j u s t i c e
a n d e mp o w e r me n t o f w o me n . T o w or k t o w a r d s g e n d e r
j u s t i c e i n a l l a r e a s o f c o n c e r n .F o c u s s i n g a t A g e d , C o n s u me r
i s s u e s , D e v e l o p m e n t ( G e n e r a l ) , d i s a d v a n t a g e d c o mm u n i t i e s ,
E n v i r o n me n t , F o o d a n d N u t r i t i o n , H e a l t h , H u m a n R i g h t s ,
L a w , M e d i a , P o p u l a t i o n , Po v e r t y , R u r a l D e v e l o p me n t .
50

51. Instance Where women have Succeeded
EXTRACTS FROM PH.D. STUDY ON “SOCIO-
ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION OF
W O M E N M I C R O - E N T R E P R E N E U R S I N SE W A R B L O C K
OF BHARATPUR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN ”:
Kiron Wadhera
T h e s t u d y f o c u s e s o n s o c i o - e c o n o mi c a l l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d
w o me n i n v i l l a g e s o f B h a r a t p ur d i s t r i c t , w h o h a v e v e n t ur e d
and set up a micro-enterprise, in an effort to alleviate their
f a mi l y ’ s p o v e r t y .
O b j e c t i v e s o f t h e S t ud y
 T o i d e n t i fy w h e t h e r t h e n e e d f o r a c h i e v e me n t w a s
p r e s e n t i n t h e pr o f i l e s o f t h e w o me n m i c r o - e n t r e p r e n e u r s ;
 To analyze the relationship between the presence of
t h e n e e d f o r a c h i e v e me n t , a n d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s u s t a i n t h e i r
m i c r o - e n t e r p r i s e o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i me ( 5 y e ar s ) ; a n d
 T o s t u dy t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e
need for achievement and their inability to maintain their
micro-enterprises.
51

52.  R o l e o f f a mi l y s u p p o r t a n d s o c i a l e f f e c t a n d i mp a c t o f
t h e e n t e r pr i s e o n t h e i r e m p o w e r m e n t , s o c i a l c o n f i d e n c e ,
f a mi l y d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d s t a t u s i n t h e c o mm u n i t y .
R e s e a r c h M e t h o d o l o gy
T h e s a mp l e h a s b e e n dr a w n f r o m a t o t a l o f 7 8 6 w o me n
micro-entrepreneurs in the area. Only 29 percent of them
have reported success in their first activity. The sample for
t h e s t u d y c o n s i s t s o f 9 3 w o me n f r o m s u c c e s s f u l c a t e g o r y
( C a t e g o r y A) a n d 9 0 w o me n f r o m u n s u c c e s s f u l c a t e g o r y
(Category B) totaling 183. In addition, their husbands or
other male members (183) and 4 NGO workers were
i n t e r v i e w e d ( T o t a l s a mp l e – 3 7 0 ) .
T h e p r i ma r y d a t a f o r t h e s t u dy h a v e b e e n c o l l e c t e d u s i n g
s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e s f o r ( a ) r u r a l w o me n m i c r o -
e n t r e p r e n e u r s r e s p o n d e n t s ; ( b ) t h e h u s b a n d s o r a ny o t h e r
male f a mi l y member; ( c) an observation checklist of
r e s p o n d e n t s ’ h o u s e s ; ( d ) T h e T h e m a t i c A p p er c e p t i o n T e s t
( a d mi n i s t e r e d t o 4 5 r e s p o n d e n t s ) ; ( e ) t h e s c o r i n g m a n u a l f o r
a c h i e v e me n t - m o t i v a t i o n ; ( f ) i n t e r vi e w - g u i d e f o r q u a l i t a t i v e
i n f o r ma t i o n f r o m 4 5 T A T r e s p o n d e n t s ; a n d ( g ) d i s c u s s i o n
g u i d e u s e d w i t h N G O w o r k e r s . T h e d a t a w a s pr o c e s s e d
t h r o u g h t h e S P S S c o mp u t e r s o f t w a r e p a c k a g e .
52

53. Findings
Most respondents are below 40 years of age, 69 percent
l e a d i n g a ma r r i e d l i f e , 6 6 p e r c e n t h a v e 3 t o 5 c h i l dr e n , a n d
t h r e e - f o u r t h o f t h e r u r a l w o m e n e n t r e pr e n e u r s a r e i l l i t e r a t e .
Most are Hindus, and 78 percent belong to socially deprived
c a s t e s . M a j o r i t y w e r e m a r r i e d b e l o w 1 7 y e ar s o f a g e , a n d 4 6
p e r c e n t l i v e i n n u c l e a r f a mi l i e s .
More than t w o- t h i r d s of the w o me n r e p or t their
h u s b a n d ’ s i n c o me t o b e l e s s t h a n R s . 2 5 0 0 / - a mo n t h , a n d
o v e r t w o- t h i r d s r e p o r t t h e i r f a mi l y i n c o me a s g o i n g u p t o
R s . 4 0 0 0 a m o n t h , o n a c c o u n t o f h e r e n t e r pr i s e .
W o me n h a v e s p e n t t h e i r i n c o m e f r o m t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e o n
( 1) c o n v e r t i n g a m u d h o u s e i n t o a b r i c k h o u s e ; ( 2) b u y i n g a
b i c y c l e ; ( 3 ) p ur c h a s i n g c a t t l e ; a n d ( 4 ) p ur c h a s i n g u t e n s i l s ,
after spending on better food and c h i l d r e n’ s school
education. 2
T h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e i n t h e mo v e me n t o f t h e
w o me n o u t s i d e o f t h e f o u r w a l l s o f t h e i r h o me s ; a n d t h e w a y
the me n now accept w o me n ’ s ability to do things
i n d e p e n d e n t l y . A n i n cr e a s e i n w o me n ’ s c o n f i d e n c e , w h e t h e r
their enterprise was successful or not, enhanced status, and
53

54. e mp o w e r me n t t h r o u g h r o l e i n d e c i s i o n ma k i n g , i s r e p o r t e d
b y a ma j o r i t y o f t h e m. I t i s s e e n t h a t 5 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e 1 8 3
w o me n c l e a r l y d i s p l a y t h e n e e d f o r a c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e i r
profile.
Of those who ar e successful in their v er y first
e n t e r p r i s e , 9 1 p e r c e n t d i s p l ay t h e n e e d f o r a c h i e v e me n t i n
t h e i r pr o f i l e . O f t h o s e w h o f a i l e d i n s u s t a i n i n g t h e i r mi c r o -
enterprise, 89 percent do not d i s p l ay a ny need for
a c h i e v e me n t i n t h e i r p r o f i l e .
I n a d d i t i o n , w h i l e a l a r g e ma j o r i t y o f t h o s e w h o c h o s e
p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s , ( 6 9 p e r c e n t ) d i s p l ay n o n e e d f o r
a c h i e v e me n t i n t h e i r pr o f i l e s , a ma j o r i t y o f t h e s u c c e s s f u l
w o me n e n t r e pr e n e u r s u s u a l l y h a v e o p t e d f o r t r a d i n g a n d
s e l l i n g , r a t h e r t h a n p r o d u c t i o n a s t h e mi c r o - e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l
activity.
T h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e pr e s e n t s t u d y o f r ur a l w o me n
entrepreneurs br o a d l y corroborate with the findings of
studies on urban male entrepreneurs (McClelland, 1961;
M c C l e l l a n d a n d W i n t er , 1 9 6 9) . T h e n e e d f o r a c h i e v e m e n t i n
t h e mo t i v a t i o n p r o f i l e o f t h e e n t r e p r e n e u r s a p p e a r s t o m a k e
the difference between their success in sustaining their
e n t e r p r i s e f o r 5 y e a r s , a n d f a i l u r e i n d oi n g s o .
F a mi l y s u p p o r t , s p e c i a l l y f r o m h u s b a n d s , i s a n i mp o r t a n t
f a c t o r i n h er a t t e mp t t o b e a n e n t r e p r e n e u r .
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55. C o m mo n characteristics of successful mi c r o -
e n t r e p r e n e u r s t h a t e me r g e f r o m t h e f i n d i n g s a r e : A b i l i t y t o
take a calculated risk, to assess on the feasibility of a
micro-enterprise, to choose an enterprise which best
matches their background and skills, to utilize the
e x p e r i e n c e o f a s u c c e s s f u l a c t i v i t y t o s t a r t a n e w o n e or
e x p a n d t h e e x i s t i n g o n e , a n d t o c o mp e t e i n t h e o p e n ma r k e t .
Suggestions
I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s t u d y f i n d i n g s , a f e w s u g g e s t i o n s ma y
be offered:
 F or a holistic social d e v e l o p me n t and w o me n ’ s
e mp o w e r me n t , f e m a l e m i c r o - e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p ma y b e ma d e
a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p me n t a p p r o a c h .
 S e l f - e mp l o y me n t a n d e n t r e p r e n e ur s h i p a mo n g w o m e n
may be encouraged, particularly in rural areas, and its
p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s ma y b e e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h m i c r o -
entrepreneurial training, and a c h i e v e m e n t - mo t i v a t i o n
training.
 W o me n , w h o h a v e t h e n e e d f o r a c h i e v e me n t i n t h e i r
profile, may be given a concerted attention, and be provided
t r a i n i n g , ma t e r i a l a n d f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t .
 P o l i cy - ma k e r s ma y p r o v i d e g u i d e l i n e s f o r s e t t i n g u p
m i c r o - e n t e r p r i s e s , p a r t i c u l ar l y i n r ur a l ar e a s .
55