Mayans5

The Maya were one of the most
advanced civilizations in the western
hemisphere before the arrival of
Europeans. They originated in the
Yucatán in Mexico around 2600 B.C. and
spread over an area of 250,000 square
miles. They lived in the region that is
now eastern and southern Mexico,
Guatemala, northern Belize, and western
Honduras. The Maya culture reached its
highest development from about 300-
900 A.D..

http://www.kstrom.net/isk/maya/mayamap.html

These innovative people developed a calendar
superior in accuracy to any other of the time
including the European or Georgian calendar,
which is still used today. They developed a
hieroglyphic writing system using codices
(books made of tree bark paper) that was the
only true writing system native to the Americas.
They developed astrology, possessed wide
astronomical knowledge about the celestial
cycles of Venus and the moon, and created
precise tables on the movement of the sun, the
moon and the stars. The Mayas were also
masters of mathematics, creating a base 20
mathematical system upon inventing the zero.

The Maya were also noted for their
elaborate and highly decorated
ceremonial architecture, including
massive stone temple-pyramids,
palaces and observatories, all built
without metal tools. They were also
skilled farmers, as well as skilled
weavers and potters. Finally, they
developed the arts - including painting,
sculpture and jade carving - the
sciences, and medicine.
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mminteng.html#menu
http://www.artfaces.com/artkids/middleart3.htm
http://www.mayaventure.com/MayanCulture.html
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mmc01eng.html

The Mayan empire was divided into many
city-states. Each city-state had its own
ruler. His name was halach uinic. This
meant “the true or real man.” The Mayas
believed halach uinic was a living god. He
ruled until his death. When the halach
uinic died the throne was passed to his
oldest son. If he did not have a son it was
passed to another man in his family.
Some historians believe that the halach
uinic also served as the high priest
during religious ceremonies.

http://mx.greetings.yahoo.com/greet/send?.id=362033794&.catu=/cards/Mexico_Desconocido/
The halach uinic
dressed in
elaborate and
colorful clothes.
He also wore a
very large
headdress.
Temple wall
paintings show
him with large
ear decorations,
crossed eyes,
and many
tattoos.

Maya society was divided into three distinct
classes: Nobles, rulers & priests,
Commoners, and Slaves.
A Nobleman is shown being carried in a litter (portable
bed).
Maya Art Design, Editorial San Fernando,Mexico 1988.

Regardless of the class they fell
into, all Maya had a practice of
deforming the head at birth to give
the appearance of a deeply sloped
forehead. Infants were tied on a
board to which another board was
attached at an angle, thereby
gradually increasing the pressure
on the head until the skull was
suitably deformed. It was a
common occurrence to have a
child die from this deformation,
but it was considered an attractive
and desired trait.
http://www.isourcecom.com/maya/themaya/people.htm

The process would have no effect on
intelligence because the brain has a great deal
of plasticity in infancy, and would simply
accommodate itself to the new shape. It is
thought that this was done to make the head
resemble an ear of corn, the Maya staple crop,
and the substance from which all humankind
was believed to be originally created. The corn
god himself was often depicted with this sort of
elongated head, with a husk attached to it.
http://www.halfmoon.org/beauty.html

The Maya also found a slight degree of
cross-eyedness attractive. To achieve this
they would hang a piece of thread with a
stone attached to it between the child’s eyes,
causing the eyes to focus on the stone.

They were also fond of personal adornment.
They pierced their ears, nose, and lips to
accommodate jewelry made from jade, shells,
wood, etc. They also filed their teeth into
points and sometimes covered them with
plates of what were to them precious stones,
such as obsidian, iron pyrites, and, most
valuable of all, jade. Both sexes plaited their
hair, in two or four plaits, which were
sometimes coiled around their nape and
sometimes hung down their back. On their
forehead the hair was cut into a fringe. The
males tattooed their bodies and faces.
http://www.pacaritambo.com/copan.html

Body painting was also popular. Paint
was used lavishly on their bodies, and
was applied by means of pottery shards
dipped in the paint pot. The colors had a
significance. Warriors wore red and
black; priests, blue; adolescents, black;
slaves were striped black and white.
Color had important religious and
calendric associations. The blue worn by
priests was associated with sacrifice, and
so the victims themselves and the
instruments with which they were killed
were also painted blue.

Since the Maya lived in a tropical, there was little need of
protection from the cold. Therefore, Maya peasants wore very
little. The men had a simple loincloth and some had deerskin
moccasins. Their wardrobe often included a kind of cloak
called a pati, which was thrown over their shoulders. The
women had two garments - a length of decorated cloth with
holes cut for head and arms, known as a kub; and a similar
under-garment, which could be termed a slip or petticoat, of
lighter material. When not at work they often draped a stole
over their shoulders. Both sexes also made use of a heavier
square of cloth known as a manta, which served as an
overwrap on cold days, and as a nighttime blanket. It was a
manta, too, which was often hung as a curtain across the
doorway. While the dress of the peasants was simple, that of
the nobility was much more colorful and elaborate. The
clothes and decorations worn by the noblemen precluded
any possibility of the wearer ever doing any manual work.

Cotton and sisal were cultivated on a
considerable scale. Some authorities
think, however, that cotton was reserved
for use by the nobility and priests, and
that common people made do with bark
cloth. Weaving was one of the main
occupations of Mayan women. They
prepared fibers for weaving in their own
homes, but it seems that the weaving
itself was sometimes done on looms in
purpose-built weaving houses and was
a communal operation.

Mayan weavers made extensive use of
dyes, dyeing the thread before starting to
weave. They used both alum and urine to
prepare dyes. Some colors were obtained
from vegetable sources, such as red from
brazil wood, green from avocado fruit, and
blackish-purple from a kind of blackberry.
Others had an animal origin, such as red
from the cochineal insect, and a deep
purple, highly prized by the Maya, from a
mollusk. Yet others were obtained directly
from minerals. Carbon yielded black; iron
oxide, red; another oxide of iron produced
yellow.

The Maya were long-thought to have been peaceful
worshippers of the gods; however it is now known that
they were almost constantly in a state of war with one or
another of their neighbors. Warriors had to prove their
bravery in battle and capture lots of prisoners for
sacrifice. Those who succeeded were invited to join
special fighting brotherhoods of jaguar and eagle
knights. They wore costumes made of real feathers and
skins.
Macdanald, Fiona, Step into the Aztec & Mayan World Anness Publishing, London, 1998.

The Mayas developed an advanced system of
astronomy to study the movements of the Sun, Moon,
planets, and stars. They observed cyclical changes in
climate and seasons without telescopes or other
technology. To predict the changes they relied on their
study of the sun's movement. Most of the Maya cities
were located where they could observe the sun directly
overhead during the time that the sun was passing
over their latitude. Through observations Mayan
scholars discovered that the sun did not rise from the
same point each day, nor set at exactly the same point.
They oriented their buildings according to the
solstices and equinoxes and were thus able to
determine the date of each by the relative position of
the sun.
http://www.mayaventure.com/MayanCulture3.html
http://www.crystalinks.com/mayanastronomy.html

On the Spring and Autumn Equinoxes, the Sun gradually
illuminates the pyramid stairs and the serpent head at
the base of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá, creating the image
of a snake slithering down the sacred pyramid dedicated
to Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent God. People
gather here every year to see the sight as they have done
for centuries.
http://www.michielb.nl/maya/astro.html

The astronomical object of
greatest interest to the Mayas was
Venus. In fact, the Mayas thought
Venus was more important than
the Sun. They surprisingly knew
its motions with much accuracy.
Venus, the morning star, was the
patron planet of warfare. Many
offerings were made to Venus, as
well as to the Sun. People would
stop up their chimneys so that no
light from Venus could enter their
houses and cause harm.
Mayan, Incan, and Aztec Civilizations, Mark Twain Media, Inc.

Mayans also studied the moon and
associated human events with phases
of the moon. When the Maya looked at
the shades of dark and light of the
moon, they saw a pattern that
resembled a leaping rabbit. The Moon
Goddess was often portrayed holding
her special pet, a large rabbit, in her
arms.
http://www.halfmoon.org/moon.html

The Mayas believed that the heavenly bodies were gods. If
they studied the sky, the Mayas hoped to learn to predict
events on earth that these gods controlled. To study the
heavens the Mayas built large observatories in many of their
cities. The ancient Mayans used the doorways and windows
of their buildings as astronomical sightings, especially for the
planet Venus. The observatory at Chichén Itzá is one of the
important Mayan buildings that still stands today.

“Celestial events defined (the rituals) of Mayan rulers.
Transfer of royal power, for example, seem to have
been timed by the summer solstice at certain centers.
Maya murals and carvings show rulers wearing
symbols of the heavens, including a belt or sky-band
made of a chain of symbols relating to the Moon, the
Sun, Venus, day, night and the sky. Rulers are also
depicted carrying bars decorated as sky-bands to
indicate that they had the mandate of heaven.
Sometimes they are seated, surrounded by a sky-
band which gives the ruler a halo of celestial
authority. Rulers also liked to associate themselves
with auspicious gods of the sky such as the Sun God,
and Maya rulers and priests in real life often "clothed
themselves with the heavens" by dressing in the pelt
of the jaguar, whose spots were taken to represent
the stars.”

The Mayas developed an important system of
mathematics that was more advanced than the
systems used by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, or
Romans. There were also perhaps the first people to
use the idea of a zero, an important invention.
Instead of using a base of ten as we do today, the
Maya used a base number of 20.
Their system consisted of bars and dots for
counting. A dot stood for one and a bar stood for
five. They used a picture of a shell to equal zero. All
whole numbers can be written as a combination of
these three symbols.
http://www.michielb.nl/maya/math.html

0
5
10
15
1 2 3
6 7 8
11 12 13
16 17 18
4
9
14
19
. . . … ….
__ __ __ __ __
____ ____ ____ ____ ____
______ ______ ______ ______ ______
. . … ….
….
….
…
…
. .
. .
.
.
.
Their bar and dot system looked like
this:

.
8000’s
400’s
20’s
1’s
.____..
.
20 32 122
400 8000
__.
..
.
Because the base of the number system
was 20, larger numbers were written down
in powers of 20.
Numbers were also written from bottom to
top instead of from left to right as we do.

Try reading this Maya number.
* Starting from the top, multiply four by 8,000 to get
32,000.
* Then multiply the 17 by 400 to get 4,800,
* Then 6 times 20 in the second level equals 120,
* Add all of the results, plus the 7 on the first level, and
that's it! ….
. .______
.__
. .__
The number is 36,927.

Adding and subtracting using this number system
was very easy. It was just a matter of adding of dots
and bars. Even uneducated people could add and
subtract for the purposes of trade and commerce.
Maya merchants often used cocoa beans, which
they laid out on the ground to do the calculations.
… …. . .__
__ __ ____
.__ ….__ ______
____ …__ ______…
+
+
+
+
=
=
=
=
3+4=7
5+5=10
6+9=15
10+8=18

__1’s
20’s
400’s
8000
’s
….__
. .____
…
.
__
.
__.
.
….__
…____
….__
….
+ =
9449 + 10425 =
19874
Here is another example of addition:

Numbers can be written with Maya numerical
symbols or with the picture of a god
associated with that number, or a combination
of the two. Using glyphs the number one, for
example, is often depicted as a young earth
goddess; two is represented by a god of
sacrifice, and so on. To further confuse things,
number glyphs were sometimes compounds.
The number 13, for example, could be written
using the head glyph for 10 plus the head
glyph for three.
Head glyph for the
number 3
http://www.halfmoon.org/.cal/num1.gif

The Maya considered some numbers more
sacred than others. One of these special
numbers was 20, as it represented the number
of fingers and toes a human being could count
on. Another special number was five, as this
represented the number of digits on a hand or
foot. Thirteen was sacred as the number of
original Maya gods. Another sacred number
was 52, representing the number of years in a
"bundle", a unit similar in concept to our
century. Another number, 400, had sacred
meaning as the number of Maya gods of the
night.

The Mayas were one of the few peoples in history to
worship time. They accurately predicted seasons for
farmers and astronomical events for religious rites. To
do this they developed a sophisticated system of
calendars. They actually had two different calendars.
The tzolkin was the sacred calendar which worked on
two cycles. In the first, each day (kin) had a name, much
like our days of the week. There were 20 day names,
each represented by a unique symbol and each
associated with a god or goddess. The days were also
numbered from 1 to 13. Since there are 20 day names,
after the count of thirteen was reached, the next day was
numbered 1 again. These two cycles would repeat
themselves every 260 days. The Maya used this calendar
to determine religious events.
http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAMRCA/MAYAS.HTM

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004577/calendar.php3
Below are the glyphs and names of
the 20 Maya days in the Tzolkin
calendar.

In addition to the sacred calendar, the
Mayans also had the vague, or Haab
calendar, which was 360 days long plus five
concluding, unlucky days. This calendar was
based on the movement of the earth around
the Sun. It had 18 months of 20 days each
and one month of 5 days. Each month had a
name and a corresponding glyph. The vague
calendar was used for farming and normal
daily life.
http://mayacalendar.com/f-descripcion.html
http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2FCapeCanaveral
%2FLab%2F7671%2Fmayan.htm

Below are the glyphs and names of
the 19 Winal (months) of the 365-day
calendar.
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004577/calendar.php3

The combination of the 260 with the 365-day calendar results in a
larger cycle of 18,980 days (the least common multiple of the two
calendars). This combination has been called the Calendar
Round, a 52-year cycle with each day having a completely unique
name.
The end of this cycle was feared because it was thought that it
would bring the end of the world. Therefore, at the end of each
cycle, the Maya would appease the gods so that the world would
not end. The Calendar Round elped the Mayas to predict eclipses,
plan festivals, and schedule pilgrimages. On a large number of
Maya monuments the date is only recorded in the Calendar
Round.
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004577/calendar2.php3 http://www.uwec.edu/academic/curric/greidebe/hos/Hist/jdround.htm
Calendar from Altar V, Tikal

Another chronological measure used by the Mayans
was the Long Count. This was a count of the number of
days since they believed that the world had begun. The
first day has been calculated to be August 12 in the
year 3113 BC. Since each combination of dates was
only unique for a cycle of 52 years using the Calendar
Round, the Long Count was used to record dates for
longer periods of time.
The Long Count is normally written in two parts, the
first being the count of days and the second being the
current date according to both calendars.
http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2FCapeCan
averal%2FLab%2F7671%2Fmayan.htm

The Maya wrote their dates of
importance in stone
monuments called stelae some
of which we can still see today.
http://mayacalendar.com/f-components.html
http://pages.prodigy.com/vivaimports/stelae.htm
This is a detail of the
stelae "E“ from
Quirigua. Each glyph
represents a date
sequence of the
Mayan calendar.

In combination, these calendars made
the Mayans the most accurate keepers of
time before the modern period reaching
an accuracy of being one day off every
6000 years (which is far more accurate
than our calendar). All the days of these
calendars in their incredible complexity
served as astronomical almanacs that
rigidly controlled behavior and religious
ceremony.

The Mayans had the most developed and
complex system of writing of the ancient
Americans. Instead of using an alphabet, they
used pictures and symbols called glyphs. Each
individual glyph represented a sound, an idea, or
both. Also, each glyph could have more than
one meaning. The Mayans used more than 800
individual symbols and glyphs that could be
combined in any manner to form words or
sentences. The glyphs could be read left to
right, right to left, top to bottom, or bottom to
top.
http://raphael.math.uic.edu/~jeremy/crypt/contrib/halatek.html

Here are some examples of Mayan
glyphs:
the sky an ahau a house a child the city of
(King) Palenque
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mmc04eng.html#dresden

The Maya considered writing to be a sacred
gift from the gods. Most ancient Maya could
not read, because the knowledge of reading
and writing was jealously guarded by a small
elite class of priests and nobles, who
believed that they alone could interact
directly with the gods and mediate between
the gods and the common people.

Maya writing is difficult to interpret and therefore
much of it still remains a mystery. There are a
number of reasons for this. First, glyphs can
represent both sounds and ideas, making it
difficult to know how each glyph should be read.
In addition, many Maya glyphs can have more
than one meaning, and many Maya concepts can
be written in more than one way. Some glyphs
represent more than one phonetic sound, while
also representing an idea. This means that a
single idea can be written in many different ways.
To date nearly 85% percent of known Maya
hieroglyphics have been decoded. However, the
ongoing work of decoding the glyphs holds
promise that many of the mysteries surrounding
the Maya may one day be solved.
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mmc04eng.html#codices

The Maya carved their hieroglyphic symbols into
stone and wood on monuments and architecture,
painted them on pottery, and painted them in the
books they made from bark paper, coated with lime
to make a fresh white surface. These "books" were
one long strip of paper folded like a long screen and
bound with wood and deer hide. They are called
codices (codex is singular). Because of their
perishable nature and because Spanish conquerors
burned many of them, only four codices remain
today. They are a valuable source of information
about the religious beliefs of the Maya and record
information about the gods associated with each
day in the Maya calendar, as well as astronomical
tables outlining the cycles of Venus and other
celestial bodies.

The four remaining Maya codices, usually known by the
name of the city in which they are now located, are:
* The Dresden Codex - a seventy-eight-page book
describing changes in the skies, days, that has accounts
of the changes in the orbit of the planet Venus.
* The Madrid Codex - a 112-page manuscript that
contained religious writings and predictions.
* The Paris Codex - a twenty-two-page book filled with
predictions.
* The Grolier Codex - the most recently found source.
However it is estimated that over half the twenty page
writing is missing. This writing offers a highly detailed
account of the movements of the planet Venus.

http://pages.prodigy.net/gbonline/madridpg.htm
Graphic detail from Madrid Codex

Religion was important to every part of Mayan life. The
Mayas worshipped a great number of gods that governed
the wind, the sun, the sky, the earth, the underworld,
heaven, corn, war, death, water, etc. These gods controlled
all aspects of human existence and the natural and
spiritual worlds. The Mayas tried to explain how things
happened because of the gods. Gods were not only
benevolent towards men, but could be good or evil
according to circumstances. An important Maya concept
was their complete trust in the gods’ control of time and of
people's activities. The Mayas believed they could
communicate with the gods through prayers, sacrifices
and visions.
http://www.akumaladventures.com/mayagods.html
http://library.thinkquest.org//J0112511/religion.htm

The Mayas had a variety of religious festivals and
celebrations. Religious ceremonies were performed by
Maya priests, as well as by regular people from all social
groups. These elaborate celebrations involved dance,
prayers, competition, dramatic performances, and
sacrificial offerings to win the favor of their many gods
and goddesses and to obtain help with hunting, fishing,
the harvest, and anything else affecting the community.
The sacrifices included valuable gifts, their own blood,
and animal and human sacrifices. In many ceremonies,
the priests cut themselves to get blood to present to the
gods. Also, most rituals followed the same pattern of
fasting or abstinence to purify the body, selection of a
favorable day according to the calendar, expulsion of evil
spirits from the participants, and cleansing of idols and
altars with copal incense.
http://www.mayacuisine.com/maya/myths.html

The bulk of sacrifice involved some form of human
sacrifice. The majority of this human sacrifice was
blood-letting, in which a victim, usually a priest,
voluntarily pierces a part (or parts) of their body, usually
their tongue, ears, lips, or penis—and "gives" blood to
the gods. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the
more blood was expected. This blood sacrifice was
necessary for the survival of both gods and people,
sending human energy skyward and receiving divine
power in return.

Human sacrifice was perpetrated on prisoners,
slaves, and particularly children, with orphans
and illegitimate children specially purchased for
the occasion. The Mayas had three methods of
giving the human sacrifices. Often, the priest took
the victim to the altar at the temple, cut the heart
out of the living victim and presented it to the
god. The priest would pass the heart on to other
high priests, who would smear the blood all over
their bodies. The dead body was then rolled down
the side of the pyramid, where at the bottom the
priests would dismember, skin, and eat the dead
person.
http://putnam.k12.il.us/Mayan.htm

In another method, the victim was taken to a temple,
stripped, and tied to a stake. The priest performed
bloodletting when he cut the victim and spectators
danced around the victim. The priest would give a
signal to the men who would then throw spears and
arrows at the victim’s heart.
In the third type of sacrifice, the priests threw the
victim into a sacred well or cenote. If the victims
survived the fall and did not drown, the priest pulled
them back out of the well. The Mayas believed the
gods had chosen to spare these victims. The priests
then asked the victims what messages they brought
back from the gods. The victims received special
treatment from then on since the Mayas believed they
had spoken to the gods.

The most famous
sacred well is the Well
of Sacrifice at Chichén
Itzá. Along with
sacrificed men and
women, other objects
such as incense
offerings, jade
figurines, gold and
copper jewelry, and
ceramic were thrown
into the pool to honor
the gods.

The Mayans believed that the world was made up
of heavens and underworlds. They were linked
together by a giant tree, which had its branches
in the heavens, and it's roots in the underworld.
Another Mayan explanation of the world was that
the world was a giant crocodile or turtle and that
the gods lived in the sky and heavens and there
was a watery underworld below. Terraced
pyramids with steps were symbols of the
heavens, and the temple that was tall enough to
reach the heavens was considered the dwelling
place of the gods. The Maya imagined a Heaven
formed by thirteen celestial layers and a hell
comprised of nine levels, each of which was
overseen by a god.

The Maya believed that when people died, they entered
the Underworld through a cave or a cenote. When kings
died, they followed the path linked to the cosmic
movement of the sun and fell into the Underworld; but,
because they possessed supernatural powers, they were
reborn into the Sky World and became gods. Warriors
killed in combat, women who died in childbirth, dead
priests and suicides went to a special paradise; only the
wicked went to the deepest of hells, where they would be
eternally tormented. Death from natural causes was
universally dreaded among the Maya, particularly
because the dead did not automatically go to paradise.
The Mayas worshipped the dead. They believed the dead
became one with the gods. They worshipped their
ancestors at many religious ceremonies. They also built
pyramids over the sacred remains of their dead rulers.
The Maya believed that in the afterlife they would receive
a reward or punishment for their human actions.
http://www.mayaventure.com/MayanCulture2.html

“Ordinary people were buried beneath the floors of
their houses, their mouths filled with food and a
jade bead, accompanied by religious articles and
objects they had used when alive. The graves of
priests contained books. Great nobles were
cremated - a practice of Mexican origin - and
funerary temples were placed above their urns. In
earlier days, nobles had been buried in sepulchres
beneath mausoleums. Some Maya even
mummified the heads of dead lords. These were
then kept in family oratories and "fed" at regular
intervals.”

Itzamná was the head
god, lord of the heavens
and lord of night and
day. His name meant
lizard. Carved pictures
show him as an old
crossed-eyed man with
a lizard’s body. The
Mayas believed he
invented books and
writing.
http://grenier2clio.free.fr/maya/pantheon2.htm

Kinich Ahau was the Sun god
and the god of the rulers. He was
domineering and was appeased
by offerings of sacrificial
beheadings.
Later, when the sun fell, he
became the Jaguar god of the
sun in the underworld. Kinich
Ahau is usually shown with
jaguar-like features (ex. filed
teeth). He also wears the symbol
of Kin, a Mayan day. Kinich Ahau
was also known by the name Ah
Xoc Kin, who was associated
with poetry and music.
Maya Art Design,Editorial SanFernando, Mexico, 1988.

Chac was the god of rain and lightening.
He was a benevolent god for the Mayans
who often sought his help for their crops.
Chac was associated with creation and
life. He was considered to be divided into
four equal parts, representing North,
South, East, and West. He is often
pictured as a dragon-like god with a
crocodilian head, deer ears, fish scales, a
long nose, catfish-like whiskers and
holding his lightning axe, which he would
hurl down to the earth in great
thunderbolts. Chac was also believed to
be associated with the wind god,
Kukulcan. Some Mayans and historians
believe Kukulcan was just a variation of
Chac. Gold and jade were sacrifices to
this god.
Maya Art Design, Editorial San Fernando, Mexico, 1988.

Yun Kaax is the god of maize
(corn) and the god of
agriculture. Maize was the base
of the Mayan agriculture.
Pictures always show him as a
young man, carrying a plant or
with a headdress of maize.
Despite this youth, the Maize
god was powerless by himself.
His fortunes and misfortunes
were decided by the control of
rain and drought. The Rain god
would protect him. However, he
suffered when the Death god
exercised drought and famine.
http://www.akumaladventures.com/mayagods.html

The death god was called
Yum Cimil. He also could be
called Ah Puch, the god of
the Underworld. His body was
predominantly skeletal and
his adornments were made of
bone. Yum Cimil has also
been represented with a body
covered with black spots
(decomposition) and he
wears a collar with eyeless
sockets, the symbol for the
underworld.

Ix Chel was the moon and rainbow
goddess. She was also the goddess of
weaving and childbirth. She held the
power to transform darkness into light
and to cause birth and rebirth. She was
depicted as an old woman wearing a
skirt with cross bones on it, and she
often had a serpent in her hand or on her
head. She also carried a jug of water
which she overturned to send heavy
floods and powerful rainstorms on the
Earth. She had an assistant sky serpent,
whom they believed carried all of the
waters of the heavens in its belly. Her
husband was the benevolent moon god
Itzamná.

Ix Chel had two aspects. She was also seen by
the Maya as a beautiful young woman, often
depicted sitting in a crescent moon holding a
rabbit in her arms.
http://www.funhousefilms.com/drakonarts/deities1.htm

The suicide goddess was called
Ixtab. The Mayans believed that
suicides would lead you directly to
heaven. Hence, suicide was more
common and more acceptable than
today. Ixtab was considered the
particular patron of those who killed
themselves by hanging. She is
represented hanging from the sky
by a rope which is coiled around
her neck. Her eyes are closed in
death and on one of her cheeks is a
black circle which represents the
discoloration of the flesh due to
decomposition.http://grenier2clio.free.fr/maya/pantheon2.htm

The wind god was also
known as the feathered-
serpent god Kukulcan. Many
people believe that Kukulcan
was just a variation of Chac.
Many also believe that he
was actually a living man. He
is depicted as being part
human and part reptile. This
god was known as
Quetzacoatl, but the Maya
changed his name to
Kukulkan.Maya Art Design,Editorial SanFernando, Mexico, 1988.

Ek Chaub was the god of
trade and also the god of
cacao. The connection lies
in the fact that cacao
seeds were used as
currency throughout
Meso-America.
Mayan artists painted his
face black and he had a
drooping lower lip.
http://www.pauahtun.org/driveletter.html#mglist

Buluc Chabtan is the
god of war and
human sacrifice.
Carvings of him show
a black line around
his eye and down
onto his cheek. He is
at times shown with a
torch or weapon in
his hand.

The Mayans believed in Duality. A god/goddess
could have dual or contrasting roles, such as
being the ruler of the sky and the underworld, or
being good and evil. Another aspect was being
part human and part animal. The dualism also
extended to life after death. The good souls,
those who had been hanged, sacrificed, or died
in childbirth, were cast into heaven while the evil
souls were cast into the underworld where they
were tortured by cold, exhaustion, hunger, and
sadness.

When the Spanish “conquistadors”
arrived, the Maya cities had already
been abandoned. For some reason
they abandoned their cities and
lands and diminished greatly in
numbers. There are quite a number
of theories that try to explain why
this decadence occurred.

*** One theory is that a massive earthquake occurred,
killing thousands and destroying most of the cities. This
theory is based on the fact that most Maya cities are in
ruins, and a high number of earthquakes occur in the
highlands of Guatemala. However it's not very realistic
because there are no earthquakes around the northern
area (Yucatán), and the destruction of the cities could be
a result of the intense growth of the wild life.
*** Another theory states that repeated breakouts of
Paludism and Yellow Fever could have reduced the
Mayas to a fraction of what they were forcing them to
abandon their cities and homes in search of a healthier
environment. However many scientists argue that these
diseases didn't exist in America until the Spanish
conquest.

*** It is known that there were many conflicts
between the different Maya cities (Uxmal,
Chichén Itzá), therefore it is possible that
major wars between all the cites resulted in
the destruction and economical losses of
many cities forcing the Mayas to abandon
them.
*** There are some people that suggest that
foreign groups could have invaded and
destroyed the Maya cities. However the idea
of one external group destroying every city in
the region is not very believable.
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004577/decadence.php3

The Mayan Empire may be dead, but the Maya culture is still
thriving today. Four to six million people live on their ancestral
land still continuing many of the traditions of their ancient culture,
such as speaking their ancient dialects instead of Spanish,
growing their favorite crops (corn, beans, chili, tomatoes, and
squash) with the same techniques, and using herbal medicinal
treatments instead of modern medicine. Many spiritual aspects of
Mayan life, the purpose for their ancient cities, is still exercised
with many offerings and pilgrimages to modern churches,
sometimes fusing Catholicism with Mayan beliefs.
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mms6_10.html

Today descendants of the Mayas live in
southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize,
northern Honduras and El Salvador.
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mmc08eng.html http://www.awrem.com/tanah/experience.html

In fact, over
half of the
population of
Guatemala is
Indian, the
largest
population in
Central
America.

The Mayans of Guatemala
are undoubtedly the most
colorful people in the
Americas. A high percentage
of the indigenous people still
proudly wear their traditional
dress called traje. The Maya
traje is village-specific or
language-group related. With
dozens of Indian towns and
villages, and many different
Mayan ethnolinguistic groups
represented, the variety of
costumes is truly amazing.
http://www.public.usit.net/rfinch/traje.html
http://www.public.usit.net/rfinch/traje.html

A huipil is a Mayan
woman’s traditional,
woven blouse,
embroidered with
patterns distinctive of a
particular town or
region. It is the most
significant part of the
woman’s traje.
A huipil is used to identify the specific village of the wearer, as well
as her social and marital status, religious background and beliefs,
wealth, authority, individual personality, and skill as a weaver.

http://www.public.usit.net/rfinch/nebaj3m.jpg

http://www.public.usit.net/rfinch/santia5m.jpg
Woman weaving on loom
http://www.crosswinds.net/~travelogs/pic_html_camer_2000/chichi_rugs.html
Mayan textiles at the market at
Chichicastenango. Both tourists
and local women bargain and buy
objects woven in these colorful
patterns.

The ruins of Mayan cities remained hidden for centuries in
the dense jungles of Mexico and Central America. At first
scientists thought these locations were religious centers
only, but after further study they found they were complete
cities. The main temples, ceremonial structures and plazas
were in the city center. Close to this area were the living
quarters of the priests, lords and officials responsible for
ritual, government and administration. Normally there is
one of the famous ball courts nearby and further out were
the homes of the wealthy and important merchants. On the
perimeter were the dwellings of ordinary citizens and
farmers. Today, many of these ancient cities are in
remarkably well-preserved condition and contain some of
the finest man-made wonders in the world.

The most important archeological centers of the Mayan
region are found in:
Yucatán, México: CHICHÉN ITZÁ and UXMAL
Chiapas, México: PALENQUE, TONINÁ, YAXCHILÁN and
BONAMPAK
Tabasco, México: LA VENTA and COMALCALCO
Quintana Roo, México: TULÚM and COBÁ
Campeche, México: EDZNA and CALAKMUL
Guatemala: TIKAL, CEIBAL and QUIRIGUÁ
Belize: LAMANAI, CARACOL and XUNANTUNICH
Honduras: COPÁN
El Salvador: LA JOYA DE CERÉN, also known as "The
Mayan Pompeii."

During the Classic period
of the Mayan civilization
(250-900 AD) the great
Mayan city of Tikal thrived
in the dense lowland jungle
of northern Guatemala.
This city, the largest and
perhaps oldest known Mayan one, spread over 50
square miles and its population may have reached over
100,000 people. The temples and pyramids here include
the highest known structure built in the Americas
before the arrival of the Europeans. Tikal was
abandoned centuries ago but remains part of the
heritage of the old Mayan civilization.
http://www.culturefocus.com/guatemala.htm
http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/prehistory/latinamerica/meso/sites/tikal.html

The most spectacular structure in Tikal is the plaza
surrounded by stelae and sculpted altars,
ceremonial buildings, residential palaces, and a ball
court.

The Temple
of the Great Jaguar is
a monument to the ruler Ah Cacau.
During his rule (late 7th Century
A.D.) he created many of the
spectacular temples that exist in
Tikal today. His burial chamber
was discovered at the base of this
temple, and much has been learned
from his tomb. Buried along with
him were ornamental jade,
intricately carved bone, and sting-ray
spines that were used for religious blood-letting. Temple I
was built around 700 A.D. and rises 145 feet in the air.
http://www.caske2000.org/ngo/countries/guatemala/tikal6.htm

Temple II was built by ruler Ah Cacao about 700 A.D. It
is believed that he created this temple to honor his wife.
Unfortunately, no burial chamber has yet been found
beneath it to definitively prove this theory.
http://www.aopro.com/tikal.html

http://www.caske2000.org/ngo/countries/guatemala/tikal5.htm
Located to the west of the
Great Plaza, is the Temple
of the double-headed
serpent (Temple IV) built
around 740 A.D. by Ah
Cacau’s son. At 212 feet it
is the highest standing
structure in Tikal. It was
also the tallest structure in
North America before the
construction of the
skyscrapers in the late
1800’s.

Temple V, located south of the Great Plaza, was
constructed around 750 AD. This temple is close to
190 feet high.
http://www90.homepage.villanova.edu/lowell.gustafson/pic161.htm

The second largest Mayan city is Copán in western
Honduras. Here the great Mayan civilization developed
and flourished until the 800s. Copán is known for its
beautiful temples, altars, and stelae. Some of the best
preserved temples are located here.
http://www.shieldsaroundtheworld.com/pichtml/p0000599.html
The Central Plaza

Maya Ball Court
Copán has a perfect example of a ball court. One of the
facts known about the soccer-like ballgame played on this
court is that players were never to strike the ball with their
hands or arms; rather the hips were principally used. It is
widely believed that the losers of the game lost their lives.
http://www.miseri.edu/users/davies/maya/bcourt.htm

http://www.miseri.edu/users/davies/maya/balls.htm
This macaw is one of several that decorates
the front and the corners of the eastern and
western buildings of the ball court.

The hieroglyphic staircase is
the longest known Mayan
hieroglyphic inscription and
the most famous structure of
Copán. It was completed in
743 AD and traces the
lineage of Copan's kings
back to the founder, Yax Kuk
Mo. The inscriptions on the
64 steps are worn-down so in
order to prevent further
erosion, the staircase is now
now protected by an
enormous tarp.
http://www.miseri.edu/users/davies/maya/hcourt.
htm

The stelae, magnificent
statues of former
rulers of the city of Copán, dot the
grounds of the Great Court. The stelae
are 3-5 meters tall and 2-3 meters
around; and many are round on one side
(the figure side) and flat on the other.
The flat sides are laden with hieroglyphs.
These unique sculptures, carved in
impressive detail, are considered to be
the most impressive in the Mayan world and are invaluable
to our understanding of this lost civilization.
(http://www.thresholds.net/copan/copan.html

As are most of the
stelae in the Grand
Courtyard, Stelae A
was erected by the
sixteenth ruler of
Copán who has been
known to
archaeology as
"Eighteen Rabbit“.
http://www.miseri.edu/users/davies/maya/081full.jpg

Detail of the glyphs on the back of Stelae A. The top
two center reference God K and Copán.
http://www.thresholds.net/copan/copan9.html

The "full figured
glyphs" on the rear of
Stelae D
are among the finest
examples of Mayan
calligraphy known.
http://www.miseri.edu/users/davies/maya/stelad.htm

Altar Q is one of the most significant at Copán. The figures
depicted are believed to be dynastic rulers.

http://www.ddb.simplenet.com/copan.html

Although not geographically expansive, the Maya ceremonial center of
Palenque, located in Chiapas, Mexico, is arguably the most beautiful of
the Classic Period (A.D. 200 to 900) Maya cities. Although the earliest
occupation of the site dates to about 100 BC, it didn’t become a major
population center until about 600 AD; and all construction at the site
ceased by about 800 AD. Many of the plazas and buildings that can be
seen today were built under the rule of Lord Pacal (AD615-683) then
later continued under the reign of his son, Chan-Bahlum. Their ancestry
and accomplish-ments are immortalized in the temples and palaces, as
well in the glyphs and stucco tablets adorning the temples.
http://www.dallas.net/~lalo/palenque.html

Palenque consists of several
temples, palaces and buildings
of various functions. bas-relief
figures and hieroglyphic
inscriptions, which relate
events in royal history. So far,
only 34 out of 500 ruins have
been excavated but studies
have revealed a lot about
ancient Mayan culture.

http://www.dallas.net/~lalo/maspal3.html
The Temple of Inscriptions is perhaps the most
interesting pyramid at Palenque. Besides being the
tallest, it also housed the crypt of the famous King
Pacal, one of the most important rulers of Palenque.

King Pacal was born in the year
603 A.D. and is said to have
reigned for 67 years until his
death at the age of 80. His
remains, adorned with jade
ornaments and his face covered
with a jade mosaic death mask
were buried below the surface of
the plaza above which was
erected the Pyramid of the
Inscriptions. The crypt had been
untouched for a millennium until
it was discovered in 1952. Many
objects have been taken to other
museums for display and study.

http://www.webwizzard.com/anahuac/cat001.html
The lid of Pacal’s tomb
(referred to by some as The Lid
of Palenque), is perhaps the
most photographed,
reproduced and written about
stone work of its kind. The lid
depicts the dead ruler falling
into the jaws of the
underworld. Above the
reclining lord sprouts the Maya
sacred tree of life. The entire
scene is framed with a band of
astrological symbols and
almost all available space
within this border is filled with
elaborate iconography.

This tablet is on an
interior wall of House E
in the East Courtyard
next to the Palace
Tower. Pacal is on the
right, seated on a
double jaguar throne,
as he receives a
headdress from his
mother, Lady Zac-Kuk,
on the left. This image
depicts the great ruler
ascending the throne.
http://www.thresholds.net/palenque/palenque7.html

http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/jsneed/courses/LISS.380-83/LISS.381/resources/sites/palenque/img0037/index.shtml
The Palace Complex with its extraordinary and architecturally
rare (for Mayan sites) tower was a hub of high official housing
and political business. It is a maze of enclosed private courtyards
and rooms decorated with sculpted panels and steps, all standing
on a platform. Beneath the complex is a maze of underground
tunnels and rooms.

http://www.mexicanwave.com/travel/palenque/

The three temples known as the "Cross Group", located just south of
the main plaza, are among the most elegant of all Maya architecture. All
three temples have a large central opening flanked on each side by two
stucco decorated piers and a narrow portal. The interiors are divided
into front and back rooms, much like the traditional Maya home. In the
back room is a sanctuary that houses a three part panel. In each temple
the panel has a similar theme, depicting what is now believed to be
Pacal’s eldest son, Chan Bahlum as a boy on one side and as a man on
the other. The central icon is different in each temple
but the glyphs tell the same story – how Chan Bahlum is rightful heir
and ruler of Palenque. http://www.jaguarsun.com/ crossgroup.html

The Temple of the Sun
dates from 642. It has
one of the best-
preserved roof combs
of any Mayan site. Roof
combs were richly
decorated false fronts
that added to the
grandeur of Mayan
buildings. Airy and comparatively delicate, they generally
haven't survived the years of abandonment and jungle
growth as well as the stouter pyramids. In their time, the
roof combs were colorfully painted, and still serve as an
inspiration for much contemporary Mexican art and
architecture. http://www.gorp.com/gorp/location/latamer/mexico/arc_maya.htm http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/jsneed/courses/LISS.380-
83/LISS.381/resources/sites/palenque/img0013/index.shtml

http://www.mexicanwave.com/travel/palenque/palenque_2.asp

The Temple of the Cross with its
elaborate stone roof-comb clearly
visible

http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/jsneed/courses/LISS.380-83/LISS.381/resources/sites/palenque/img0010/index.shtml

http://www.mexicanwave.com/travel/palenque/
The Ball Court at Palenque is much smaller
compared to others such as at Chichén Itzá
in the Yucatán.

http://www90.homepage.villanova.edu/lowell.gustafson/pic253.htm
In the 1830s an eccentric adventurer,
Count de Waldeck, lived on top of the so-
called Temple of the Count.

The Temple of the
Jaguar is perhaps the
most intriguing example
of similarities to Asiatic
art. The temple displays
a Foliated Cross motif
that is almost identical
to one found at Angkor
Wat in Cambodia, and
some of the bas-reliefs
have motifs very similar
to those used in Hindu
art.
http://www.gorp.com/gorp/location/latamer/mexico/arc_maya.htm

The North Group consists of five temples on a
single platform.

Chichén Itzá, the principal Maya city of the
Yucatán Pensinsula of Mexico, has the most
impressive intact ruins of Mayan civilization.
The ancient city, whose name means “in the
mouth at the Itzá’s Well”, was the center of
political, religious and military power in the
Yucatán between 800-1200 A.D. This city, along
with others, was abandoned long before
Columbus reached the area, yet this culture has
influenced many areas of architecture, art, and
astronomy that live on even in our modern
world.
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004577/chichen.php3

Chichén Itzá’s architecture has two
distinctive styles; traditional Mayan
architecture, and more recent Toltec
architecture. The Toltecs were another
more warlike tribe who invaded
Chichén Itzá around the year 800 AD.
The Toltecs were much more fierce
than the Mayans and human sacrifice
was a large part of their rituals. It is
quite easy to decipher which structures
in Chichén Itzá were built before and
after 800 AD.

Ruins at Chichén Itzá include several
plazas, pyramid temples, and ball courts.
An important ruin is the large observatory
tower (El Caracol) used by ancient
astronomers.

Chichén Itzá is also the loction of the Well of Sacrifice.
This is a natural well dedicated to Chac the god of
rain, that was used only for religious, ceremonial, and
ritual purposes. The Mayas threw many live children,
virgins, and warriors into the well as sacrifices to the
gods. Pilgrims also came to leave offerings.

(Pyramid of Kukulcan)
This magnificent pyramid is approximately 75 feet tall with a
square base, nine recessed stories symbolizing the planes of the
underworld, and a small temple on the top. It has four great
staircases of 91 steps, one on each side. On the main entrance to
the temple there is a mask of the god Chac.

The staircase on the northern side of the Castle is decorated
with two colossal heads of feathered serpents at is base. On
the summer and fall equinoxes the body of the feathered
serpent (Kukulcan) creeps down the stairway until it joins the
huge head carved in stone at the bottom. This symbolic
descent of Kukulcan is believed to have been connected with
agricultural rituals.

Inside the Castle is a smaller pyramid
containing another temple, a red throne in
the shape of a jaguar and a Chac Mool
sculpture. The jaguar was one of the
Mayan sacred animals.

This temple owes its name to a procession of
jaguars carved on the front of the upper
structure.

At ground level is the Annex with just one
beautifully decorated room. Two square carved
columns, decorated with military chiefs who carry
lances and dart throwers, separate the entrance
into three bays; in the center one stands a stone
statue in the shape of a jaguar.

This jaguar statue is believed
to be a ceremonial throne, a
seat of honor for the lord of
Chichén Itzá. Many believe
that the governor seated on
this throne presided over
public and religious
ceremonies and met with
diplomatic couriers from
other parts of the Yucatan.
The back wall of the annex
has a colored fresco which
shows a dignitary seated on
his throne with rows of
warriors carrying the
common weapon of Central
Mexico, the dart thrower.
http://www.internet-at-work.com/hos_mcgrane/chichen/eg_maya_chichen_jaguar1b.html

Ball Courts were part of almost every Mayan city and
Chichén Itzá’s Ball Court is the largest in Mexico. The
soccer-like ballgame, tlactli was played here using a
hard rubber ball. The teams were supposed to keep the
ball in play using only their knees and hips, and score
by putting the ball through the hoop.

The game had important religious meaning, as
well as being a form of entertainment that
demonstrated the players’ skill. It is widely
believed that the losing team often lost their
lives.
Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1997

The stone hoops
at each end of
Chichén Itzá’s
Ball Court are
carved with
entwined
feathered
serpents that
represent
Quetzalcoatl-
Kukulcan, the
principal god of
the inhabitants.

The religious and ritual aspects of the game
are well illustrated by the striking reliefs on
the benches lining the sides of the court.

This rectangular platform, decorated with
symbols of death, was where the heads of
sacrificial victims were placed.

The Temple of the Warriors was named after the
sculpture of warriors on the pillars of the front and
supporting columns. The upper temple is covered with
images of heart-eating eagles and jaguars, as well as
images of Kukulcan. Inside the building there are many
colorful paintings showing daily life of the Mayas.
http://www.internet-at-work.com/hos_mcgrane/chichen/eg_maya_chichen_warriors1b.html#

In front of the entrance to
the upper temple there is
a stone statue of Chac
Mool. It is believed that
offerings were placed on
the stomach of the half-
reclining figure who
would act as messenger
to the gods. The statue is
positioned between two
large, carved feathered
serpent columns that
symbolize the god
Kukulcan.

This structure was given its name by the Spanish in the 16th
century who believed its numerous small rooms had been inhabited by
priestesses dedicated to certain ceremonies. However, researchers
believe that this building was more likely used for civil ceremonies than
as a nunnery. It is the largest structure dating from the Classic Period
and was built in several stages over the centuries. Various stairways
lead to two upper temples which are built on top of each other on an
enormous base.

This structure was given its name, Chichanchob ("little
holes“) because of the small holes on the crest of the roof.
The building was also known as the "Red House" because
of the red paint which can still be seen in frescos in the
inside chamber. The crested roof is an architectural
element that was used to create a special effect to make
temples appear larger than they actually were. Numerous
masks of Chaac, the rain god, decorate the stone frieze.

This stone platform
was probably a
military structure,
on which homage
was paid to the
orders of the
“Knights of the
Eagles & Jaguars.”
The aggressive eagles sculpted on the walls of the platform are
the symbols of “The Eagle Knights”, the elite group of archers
who stood out on the battlefield because they wore clothing of
feathers from the bird for which they were named. “The Jaguar
Knights”, believed to be the fiercest members of the army, fought
hand to hand, with wooden clubs tipped with knives of obsidian.
They covered themselves with armor made of jaguar skins and
helmets of jaguar heads. http://www.internet-at-work.com/hos_mcgrane/chichen/eg_maya_chichen_eagle1b.html

Detail of a carving on the platform depicts a jaguar
holding a human heart. The figures of eagles and
jaguars devouring hearts are said to represent the
warriors who were responsible for obtaining victims
for sacrifice to the gods.

This temple has a single room profusely
decorated with low reliefs that feature
Kukulcan with warriors at his sides and
thirteen other persons.

The beautifully carved panels on the exterior side
walls of this building give the temple its name. The
carvings include several different motifs such as
warriors, gods, birds, monkeys, jaguars, trees and a
hut with three people.

El Salvador has a number of ancient archaeological sites from the
Mayan civilization. The ruins of Tazumal, located near the town of
Chalchuapa, are considered the most important and best preserved in
El Salvador.
http://www.abest.com/~rlba1/taz.gif

The Mayan village of Joya de Cerén, located about 20 miles NW of San
Salvador, was buried under volcanic ash by an eruption of Laguna Caldera
volcano around 600 AD. This ancient farming village was first uncovered by
chance in 1976, its adobe dwellings complete with ceramics, domestic utensils,
foodstuffs, and other belongings in place. Because of the exceptional condition
of the remains, archeologists have learned a great deal about the daily
existence of the common Mayan villager. The fact that no human remains have
been found suggests that the inhabitants had time to flee their homes prior to
volcanic eruption. Joya de Cerén was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site
in 1993. It is sometimes called “The Pompeii of the New World”.
http://www.visiteelsalvador.net/maya.htm

http://www.uscsumter.edu/student_affairs/cass/turismo.htm#Sanandre
San Andrés, located just 5 km from Joya de Cerén, is a
group of ceremonial centers, courts, and pyramids built
between 300 BC. - 600 AD. There is a court named
"Tlatchtti", where the Indians played a primitive basketball or
football, both as a pastime and as a religious rite. Mayan
high dignitaries lived here.

Mayan Codices:
http://www.artfaces.com/artkids/middleart3.htm
http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/mmc04eng.html#codices
http://www.angelfire.com/ca/humanorigins/writing.html#maya
http://raphael.math.uic.edu/~jeremy/crypt/contrib/halatek.html
Mayan Gods:
Mayan, Incan, and Aztec Civilizations, Mark Twain
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004577/religion2.php3
http://www.crystalinks.com/mayangods.html
http://www.uwec.edu/Academic/Curric/greidebe/HonorsWorld%2
0REligions/Worshipping%20Nature/Tiffany/jaguar.htm
http://www.blueroebuck.com/Goddess/ix_chel.htm
http://www.geocities.com/thewitchescircle/biggg2.htm

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