It's about soil compaction. Here only laboratory compaction methods have been described and the effect different parameters have been discussed,

1. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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COMPACTION
 In construction of highway embankments, earth dams and many other engineering structures, loose soils
must be compacted to improve their strength by increasing their unit weight.
 Compaction is the densification of soil by removing air voids using mechanical equipment. „
 The dense state is achieved through the reduction of the air voids in the soil, with little or no reduction in the
water content.
 In general, soil densification includes compaction and consolidation.
 Compaction is one kind of densification that is realized by rearrangement of soil particles without outflow
of water. It is realized by application of mechanic energy. It does not involve fluid flow, but with moisture
changing altering. Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil to rearrange the particles
and reduce the void ratio.
 Consolidation is another kind of densification with fluid flow away. Consolidation is primarily for clayey
soils. Water is squeezed out from its pores under load.
Objectives for Compaction
Increasing the bearing capacity of foundations;
Decreasing the undesirable settlement of structures;
Control undesirable volume changes;
Reduction in hydraulic conductivity;
Increasing the stability of slopes.
General Compaction Methods
Compaction Effect

2. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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Laboratory Compaction
Origin
The fundamentals of compaction of fine -grained soils are relatively new. R.R. Proctor in the early 1930’s was
building dams for the old Bureau of Waterworks and Supply in Los Angeles, and he developed the principles of
compaction in a series of articles in Engineering News-Record. In his honor, the standard laboratory compaction
test which he developed is commonly called the proctor test.
Purpose
The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper amount of mixing water amount of
mixing water to use when compacting the soil in the field and the resulting degree of denseness which can be
expected from compaction at this optimum water.
Impact compaction
The proctor test is an impact compaction. A hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample in a mold. The
mass of the hammer, height of drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil, and the volume of the mold are
specified.
Types and Details of Laboratory Compaction Techniques
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed:
(1) The Standard Proctor Test, and
(2) The Modified Proctor Test.
 Each of these tests can be performed in three different methods as outlined in the attached Table 1.
 In the Standard Proctor Test, the soil is compacted by a 5.5 lb hammer falling a distance of one foot into a
soil filled mold. The mold is filled with three equal layers of soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 drops of
the hammer.
 The Modified Proctor Test is identical to the Standard Proctor Test except it employs, a 10 lb hammer
falling a distance of 18 inches, and uses five equal layers of soil instead of three.
 There are two types of compaction molds used for testing. The smaller type is 4 inches in diameter and has a
volume of about 1/30 ft3 (944 cm3), and the larger type is 6 inches in diameter and has a volume of about
1/13.333 ft3 (2123 cm3). If the larger mold is used each soil layer must receive 56 blows instead of 25 (See
Table 1)
Table 1 Alternative Proctor Test Methods

3. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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 Standard Reference:
ASTM D 698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard
Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft3(600 KN-m/m3))
ASTM D 1557 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified
Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3(2,700 KN-m/m3))
Laboratoy Compaction Test Summary
Compaction Energy
Compaction Effort is calculated with the following parameters:
1.Mold volume 2. No of Compaction Layer 3. Weight of Hammer 4. Free fall Height 5. No of blows
Compaction Energy
E =
no of blows per layer ∗ no of layers ∗ weight of hammer ∗ Free fall height
Volume of mold
So, for Standard Proctor Test :
E =
25(no of blows per layer)∗ 3(no of layers)∗ 5.5(weight of hammer) ∗ 1(Free fall height)
1/30(Volume of mold)
= 12375 ft-lb/lb3
So, for Modified Proctor Test :
E =
25(no of blows per layer)∗ 5(no of layers) ∗ 10(weight of hammer)∗ 1.5(Free fall height)
1/30(Volume of mold)
= 56250 ft-lb/lb3
Comparison

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Significance of the Tests
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing soils. An
extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis of field control tests to
assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications. Design specifications usually state
the required density (as a percentage of the “maximum” density measured in a standard laboratory test), and
the water content. In general, most engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to
shrinkage, and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified
compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of) the optimum water content results in a
relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is weaker, more ductile, less pervious,
softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to
the same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the optimum water content typically results in a
flocculated soil structure (random particle orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil
compacted wet of the optimum water content to the same density.
Standard Proctor Test: Procedure & Details
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 943.3 cm3.The diameter of the
mold is 101.6 mm. During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a base plate at the bottom and to an
extension at the top. The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted in three equal layers
by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer. The hammer weighs 24.4 N (mass 2.5 kg), and has a drop of
304.8 mm. For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction can be calculated as
where
W =weight of the compacted soil in the mold
V(m) = volume of the mold (943.3 cm3)
For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the laboratory. With known moisture
content, the dry unit weight γd can be calculated as
(where w (%) =percentage of moisture content.)
Standard Proctor Test equipment ( Mold & Hammer)

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The values of γd determined from Eq. above can be plotted against the corresponding moisture contents
to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture content for the soil. Following figure shows
such a compaction for a silty clay soil.
For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when there is no air in the
void spaces—that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%. Thus, the maximum dry unit weight at a given
moisture content with zero air voids can be given by
To obtain the variation of γzav with moisture content, use the following procedure:
1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.
2. Know the unit weight of water (γw).
3. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and so on.
Standard Proctor compaction test results for a silty clay

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4. Use Eq. to calculate γzav for various values of w.
Analysis of Compaction Curve
The peak point of the compaction curve
The peak point of the compaction curve is the point with the maximum dry density ρd max. Corresponding to the
maximum dry density ρdmax is a water content known as the optimum water content, wopt (also known as the
optimum moisture content, OMC). Note that the maximum dry density is only a maximum for a specific
compactive effort and method of compaction. This does not necessarily reflect the maximum dry density that
can be obtained in the field.
Zero air voids curve
The curve represents the fully saturated condition (S = 100 %). (It cannot be reached by compaction)
Line of optimums Line of optimums
A line drawn through the peak points of several compaction curves at different compactive efforts for the same
soil will be almost parallel to a 100 % S curve, it is called the line of optimums.
Factors affecting Compaction
There are 4 control factors affecting the extent of compaction:
1. Compaction effort;
2. Soil type and gradation;
3. Moisture content; and
4. Dry unit weight (dry density).

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Effect of Compaction Effort
With the development of heavy rollers and their uses in field
compaction, the Standard Proctor Test was modified to better
represent field compaction.
As the compaction effort increases,
the maximum dry unit weight of compaction increase
The optimum moisture content decreases to some extend
The preceding statements are true for all soils. Note, however,
that the degree of compaction is no tdirectly proportional to the
compaction effort.
Effect of Soil type and gradation
fine grain soil needs more water to reach optimum; and
Coarse grain soil needs less water to reach optimum.
Compaction curves for different soils with the same compact effort ; fine grain soil needs more water to
reach optimum and coarse grain soil needs less water to reach optimum.
Effect of Moisture content
Below wopt (dry side of optimum):
As the water content increases, the particles develop larger and larger
water films around them, which tend to “lubricate” the particles and make them
easier to be moved about and reoriented into a denser configuration.
At wopt:
The density is at the maximum, and it does not increase any further.
Above wopt (wet side of optimum):
Water starts to replace soil particles in the mold, and since ρw << ρs the
dry density starts to decrease

8. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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General Information
Each data point on the curve represents a single compaction test, and usually four or five individual
compaction tests are required to completely determine the compaction curve.
At least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of optimum, and water contents varying by about
2%. Optimum and water contents varying by about 2%.
Optimum water content is typically slightly less than the plastic limit (ASTM suggestion). Typical
values of maximum Typical values of maximum dry density are around 1.6 to 2.0 1 Mg/m33 with the
maximum range from about 1.3 to 2.4 Mg/m3.
Typical optimum water contents are between 10% and 20%, with an outside maximum range of about
5% to 40%. With an outside maximum range of about 5% to
40%.
Effect of Compaction on Clay Structure
For a given compactive effort and dry density, the soil
tends to be more flocculated (random) for compaction on
the dry side as compared on the wet side.
For a given molding water content, increasing the compactive
effort tends to disperse (parallel, oriented) the soil, especially
on the dry side.
Effect of Compaction on Permeability
Increasing the water content results in a decrease in permeability on the dry side of the optimum moisture content
and a slight increase in permeability on the wet side of optimum.
Increasing the compactive effort reduces the permeability since it both increases the dry density, thereby reducing
the voids available for flow, and increases the orientation of particles.
Effect of Compaction on Compressibility
At low stresses the sample compacted on the wet side is more compressible than the one compacted on the dry
side.
At the high applied stresses the sample compacted on the dry side is more compressible than the sample
compacted on the wet side.

9. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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Effect of Compaction on Swelling
Swelling of compacted clays is greater for those
compacted dry of optimum. They have a relatively
compacted dry of optimum. They have a relatively greater
deficiency of water and therefore have a greater tendency to
adsorb water and thus swell more.
Engineering Properties Summary

10. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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Compaction Vs Consolidation
Compaction, as a phenomenon, is different from the phenomenon of consolidation of soil. The primary
differences between the two phenomena may be set out as given in the following Table.

11. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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Problem-1: An earth embankment is compacted at a water content of 18% to a bulk density of 19.2 kN/m3. If
the specific gravity of the sand is 2.7, find the void ratio and the degree of saturation of the compacted
embankment.
Solution:
Problem-2: The laboratory test data for a standard Proctor test are given in the table. Find the maximum dry
unit weight and the optimum moisture content.
Solution:
We can prepare the following table:

12. Priodeep Chowdhury;Lecturer;Dept. of CEE;Uttara University// | Soil Compaction
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The plot of ρd against w is shown in Figure. From the graph, we observe
 Maximum dry density =2020 kg/m3
 Optimum moisture content = 13%