International Journal of Training and Development 111ISSN 1.docx

International Journal of Training and Development 11:1
ISSN 1360-3736
Organizational commitment
49
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of Training and Development1360-3736© 2007 The Authors.
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11
1••••Articles
Organizational commitmentInternational Journal of Training
and Development
r

Mohammed Asad Shareef Al-Emadi, Head Internal Auditor,
Qatar Petroleum, PO Box 536, Doha,
State of Qatar; Visiting Scholar and Adjunct Professor,
California State University, 560 Loma Verde
Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94306, USA. Email:
[email protected] Michael J. Marquardt, Professor of
Human Resource Development and International Affairs, The
George Washington University, 2134 G
Street, Washington, DC 20052, USA. Email: [email protected]
Relationship between
employees’ beliefs regarding
training benefits and
employees’ organizational
commitment in a petroleum
company in the State of Qatar
Mohammed Asad Shareef Al-Emadi
and Michael J. Marquardt
The study examined the relationship between the beliefs of
senior staff Qatari national employees regarding training
benefits as measured by the benefits of employee training, and
employees’ organizational commitment as measured by the
three-component model of organizational commitment. This
relationship was assessed through a quantitative associa-
tional research design. From the study site, Qatar Petroleum,
a total of 283 responses were analysed using stepwise regres-
sion analysis. The findings suggest that there is a positive
relationship between employees’ beliefs regarding training ben-
efits and employees’ organizational commitment.

Overview
Emphasizing and implementing powerful training and
development programs are
becoming more critical in order to accomplish organizational
objectives and goals
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International Journal of Training and Development
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effectively and efficiently. Organizations continue to struggle
with the specific issues
of employee retention and manpower shortages. Accordingly,
there has been an
increased interest in organizational commitment. Academic and
professional journals
present an extensive literature that seeks to define, measure and
explain organiza-
tional commitment. For example, Kontoghiorphes and Bryant
(2004) assert that
commitment of employees to the organization has been one of
the most popular
organizational research constructs over the last three decades.
Guffey

et al
. (1997)
suggest that ‘successful organizations recognize that employees
are their most valu-
able resources because of employee commitment to the
organization’ (p. 12). Accord-
ingly, the organizational need to retain human capital has
become a primary concern
for organizations (Harkins, 1998). Becker’s (1975) human
capital theory explains that
organizations can achieve greater productivity through
employee training. Grossberg
(2000) adds that ‘investment in firm-specific human capital
should result in employ-
ment spells of greater duration’ (p. 578). Organizational
investment in human capital
has resulted in management being required to pay ever closer
attention to employee
training.
Statement of the problem
The relationship between employees’ beliefs regarding training
benefits and employ-
ees’ organizational commitment is as yet unclear. Review of the
literature on employee
training and organizational commitment suggest that there is
such a relationship
between employee training and organizational commitment
(Bartlett, 2001, Becker,

1975; Grossberg, 2000; Lang, 1992, Meyer & Smith, 2000;
Pinks, 1992; Tannenbaum
et al
., 1991). However, the nature of this relationship has not been
clearly delineated.
For example, there continues to be lack of empirical studies that
identify which benefit
of employee training (personal, career and job-related) is the
best predictor of which
component of organizational commitment (affective,
continuance and normative).
Researchers and practitioners have invested considerable time,
effort and money in
identifying the importance of employee training and
organizational commitment over
the past 30-plus years, and varied studies have linked
organizational commitment to
a variety of factors. Marsh and Mannari (1977) reported early
on that ‘there has been
a continuing interest in the commitment of employees to their
organization’ (p. 57).
More recently, Tobias and Fletcher (2000) add that ‘training is a
vast and costly activity
that affects a huge segment of the workforce at any point in
time’ (p. 3). Lang (1992)
suggests that employee training and development should be
designed to achieve
increased organizational commitment. Pinks (1992) writes that
‘irrelevant training
programs may negatively affect organizational commitment’ (p.
18). Grossberg (2000)

asserts that employee training across genders is strongly
associated with longer
durations of employment. Meyer and Smith (2000) document the
existence of a link
between organizational commitment and training. Bartlett
(2001) reports the existence
of a strong relationship between training and organizational
commitment. All of these
point out an awareness of the significance of the relationship
under study.
The petroleum industry is the focus of the study for a number of
reasons. First, there
is limited empirical research that examines the relationship
between employees’ beliefs
regarding training benefits and employees’ organizational
commitment in this type of
industry. Yet this industry is at the epicenter of the global
economy; small shifts in the
oil business have large repercussions. Second, the petroleum
industry spends millions
of dollars training its workforce, yet it is unknown if training
has any impact at all on
how committed those employees feel towards the company.
Third and finally, under-
standing the relationship between organizational commitment
and employee training
may help reduce costs associated with employee turnover,
recruitment and training.
Becker (1975) reports that investment in firm-specific human
capital reduces the prob-
ability of employee turnover. Grossberg (2000) adds that
employee training across
genders is strongly associated with longer durations of
employment.

Clark (2001) reports that the petroleum industry ‘has numerous
problems that need
solving. Three current trends are particularly troublesome: the
market’s rise-and-fall
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cycle with its accompanying industry staffing dilemma, an
aging workforce that neces-
sitates recruitment of younger personnel, and the critical need
for the industry to
maintain a positive public image. These elements all play off
one another in a number
of ways’ (p. 17). Bahree and Gold (2005) add that ‘a lot of
skilled people have either
been laid off, or have retired from the industry in the last 18
years . . . recruiting and
training their replacements takes time and requires a global
approach’ (p. 1). Further,
McKenna (2004) suggests that ‘[c]ompanies without a strong
retention strategy will
continue to lose the battle on talent, and be left with a mediocre
workforce at best. You
can’t differentiate with mediocrity. In general, people prefer to
stay put, but this

requires leaders who possess the ability to create a store climate
and culture that makes
staying worthwhile. Companies that understand the causes of
employee turnover and
take action to create solutions will win the war on talent’ (p.
15).
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship
between petroleum com-
pany employees’ beliefs regarding training benefits (personal,
career and job-related)
and the three components of those employees’ organizational
commitment: affective
commitment, continuance commitment and normative
commitment.
Research questions
The overarching research question that guided this study is:
what is the relationship
between petroleum company employees’ beliefs regarding
training benefits and the
commitment of those employees’ to the organization? The
following sub-questions
derived from components of the two constructs under study
were addressed:
1. What is the relationship between affective commitment
and personal bene-
fits, career benefits and job-related benefits of employee

training in a petroleum
company in the State of Qatar?
2. What is the relationship between continuance commitment
and personal benefits,
career benefits and job-related benefits of employee training in
a petroleum com-
pany in the State of Qatar?
3. What is the relationship between normative commitment and
personal benefits,
career benefits and job-related benefits of employee training in
a petroleum com-
pany in the State of Qatar?
4. What is the relationship between organizational commitment
represented by
affective, continuance and normative commitment and
demographic factors rep-
resented by age, gender, education and years of service?
Hypotheses
The study examined the following research hypotheses.
Affective commitment
H1a
There is a positive relationship between affective organizational
commitment
and personal benefits of training.

H1b
commitment
and career benefits of training.
H1c
commitment
and job-related benefits of training.
Continuance commitment
H2a
There is a positive relationship between continuance
organizational commit-
ment and personal benefits of training.
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H2b
ment and career benefits of training.
H2c
ment and job-related benefits of training.
Normative commitment
H3a
There is a positive relationship between normative
organizational commitment
and personal benefits of training.
H3b
ment and career benefits of training.

H3c
and job-related benefits of training.
Significance of the study
This study is significant for the following reasons:
1.
Contribution to theory
: little is know about the relationship between employees’
training and organizational commitment. Use of the three-
component model of
organizational commitment and benefits of employee training
will add to what is
known about organizational commitment and benefits of
employee training at the
individual level of analysis. Additionally, this empirical study
is the first to exam-
ine the relationship between benefits of employee training and
organizational
commitment in the petroleum industry.
2.

Contribution to practice
: the study identifies linkages between organizational com-
mitment and benefits of employee training. Understanding such
linkages may
enable organizations to reduce costs associated with recruiting,
hiring and
training.
3.
Recommendations for future actions
: the study may assist in determining actions
managers and directors can take to maximize organizational
commitment among
employees, thus leading to retaining human capital. The study
may also serve to
highlight areas for further research.
Theoretical/conceptual framework
The study uses two well-grounded theories to measure the
relationship between
employees’ beliefs regarding training benefits and employees’
ment: Meyer and Allen’s (1997) three-component model of
ment, and Noe and Wilk’s (1993) benefits of employee training.

Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework used to ground, or
anchor, the study.
The conceptual framework for this study focuses on
understanding the relationship
between employees’ beliefs regarding training benefits and
employees’ organiza-
tional commitment in a petroleum company. It identifies the
relationship between the
constructs (proposition) and the relationship between the
research variables (ques-
tions or hypotheses) based on a review of relevant literature
related to employee
training and organizational commitment. More specifically, the
study is built around
two constructs: employee training and organizational
commitment. The variables in
this study are divided into two categories: organizational
commitment variables and
employee training-related variables. Organizational commitment
variables include:
affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative
commitment (Meyer
& Allen, 1997). Employee training variables include personal
benefits, career benefits
and job-related benefits of training (Noe & Wilk, 1993). These
variables are considered
important for inclusion in the study based on an examination
and review of the
literature related to employee training and organizational
commitment (Bartlett,
2001).

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Literature review
Organizational commitment has been a popular field of study
among organizational
and behavior researchers since the 1960s with Becker’s (1960)
work. Becker concludes
that ‘[c]ommitments come into being when a person, by making
a side-bet, links
extraneous interests with a consistent line of activity’ (p. 32)
and, further, that individ-
ual bonds to the organization are based on ‘instrumental
interests’ such as salary and
benefits. From that point, interest in the phenomenon expanded.
For example, Marsh
and Mannari (1977) report that ‘there has been a continuing
interest in the commitment
of employees to their organization’ (p. 57). This is because
is recognized as one of the major determinants of organizational
effectiveness (Steers,
1975). Ferris and Aranya (1983) add that ‘organizational
commitment is becoming an
increasingly used construct to predict performance, absenteeism

and turnover’ (p. 96).
Liou and Nyhan (1994) point out that management is
recognizing the link between
increased organizational commitment and higher levels of job
performance, lower
levels of absenteeism and lower levels of employee turnover.
Mitchell
et al
. (2001)
suggest that ‘organizations of all sizes and types are
recognizing that they are engaged
in a struggle to retain talent, and are actively trying to do
something about it’ (p. 97).
Mowday
et al
. (1982) identify some of reasons for the increased popularity of
studies
related to organizational commitment. For example,
predicts important behaviors such as employee turnover and
increased management
interest in improving employee commitment and achieving
employee loyalty to the
organization. Hom and Griffeth (1995) identify the following
determinants of organi-
zational commitment: procedural justice which is ‘fair
procedures for allocating

rewards in the organization’ (p. 114); expected utility of
internal roles, or ‘prospects
for attaining desirable work roles inside the company’ (p. 114);
employment security,
which deals with employment reliability; and job investment,
including pension ben-
efits and on-job training. Meyer and Allen (1997) suggest that it
is not financial rewards
that develop organizational commitment; rather, employee
commitment to the orga-
nization is based on the opportunity the organization offers its
employees to conduct
Figure 1: Theoretical/conceptual framework.
Employee training
Career benefits
of training
Job-related
benefits of training
Personal benefits
of training
Continuance
commitment
Normative
commitment
Affective

commitment
Retained
human
capital
Research question #1
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important and challenging work, the interaction with interesting
people, and the
environment that facilitates developing and building new skills.
Such varied views
lead naturally to the question of the essential nature of
organizational commitment.
Organizational commitment has been defined as both an
attitudinal and a behav-
ioral construct. The attitudinal approach to organizational
commitment is based on

the employee’s development of an emotional or psychological
attachment to the orga-
nization (Meyer & Allen, 1997). In contrast, the behavioral
approach to organizational
commitment is based on cost-benefits decisions of leaving or
remaining with the
organization (Becker, 1960).
Meyer and Allen (1997) note that no one definition of
is more ‘correct’ or universally accepted than the others. That
the definitions are
different, therefore, can only confuse the issue if we speak of
commitment without
indicating which definition we are using. Organizational
commitment can be thought
of as the level of attachment felt towards the organization where
one is employed
(Meyer & Allen, 1997). According to Meyer and Allen (1997), a
committed employee
is an employee that remains with the organization during good
and bad times, attends
work regularly, protects company assets and shares
organizational goals.
Organizational commitment variables
This study adapts its organizational commitment variable from
Meyer and Allen’s
(1997) three-component model of organizational commitment;
i.e. affective, continu-
ance and normative commitment. ‘Affective commitment also
develops on the basis
of work experiences that employees find rewarding or fulfilling’

(p. 56). Affective
commitment is based on emotional attachment to the
organization. Employees choose
to remain with the organization because they want to stay.
is somewhat more pragmatic, referring to ‘employee’s
awareness that costs are asso-
ciated with leaving the organization . . . continuance
commitment can develop as a
result of any action or event that increases the costs of leaving
the organization,
provided the employee recognizes that these costs have been
incurred’ (p. 56). Con-
tinuance commitment is based on perceived cost associated with
leaving the organi-
zation. Employees remain with the organization because they
think that in some way
they ‘have to’ stay. ‘Normative commitment refers to an
employee’s feelings of obli-
gation to remain with the organization. Thus, employees with
strong normative com-
mitment will remain with an organization by virtue of their
belief that it is the “right
and moral” thing to do’ (p. 60). Normative commitment is based
on the belief that it
is an employee’s obligation to be committed to the organization.
Employees remain
with the organization because they believe they should stay in
the organization.
According to Meyer and Allen (1997), ‘It is more appropriate to
consider affective,
continuance and normative commitment to be components,
rather than types, of
commitment because an employee’s relationship with an
organization might reflect

varying degrees of all three . . . consequently, researchers stand
to gain a clearer under-
standing of an employee’s relationship with an organization by
considering the
strength of all three forms of commitment together than by
trying to classify it as being
of a particular type’ (p. 13). Accordingly, it is important to
understand the distinction
between types and components of organizational commitment.
Types of organiza-
tional commitment are discrete and separate, whereas
components of organizational
commitment represent subscales that measure the construct.
Employee training
Noe (2002) defines training as planned activities on the part of
the organization targeted
towards increasing the job knowledge and skills or to modify
the attitudes and behav-
iors of employees in ways consistent with the goals of the
organization and the
requirements of the job. For the purposes of this study,
employee training includes
formal training, informal training, on-the-job training,
professional development and
other developmental learning activities that prepare the
employee for his present job

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as well as possible future jobs. This generalization is made
because Qatar Petroleum
(QP), the research site, does not distinguish between the terms
training and
development.
Employee training has been identified as a key of human
resource management
practices that facilitates and contributes to gaining competitive
advantage (Schuler &
MacMillan, 1984). Noe (1999) suggests that ‘training refers to a
planned effort by a
company to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related
competencies. These compe-
tencies include knowledge, skills or behaviors that are critical
for successful job per-
formance. The goal of training is for employees to master the
knowledge, skill and
behaviors emphasized in training programs and to apply them to
their day-to-day
activities’ (p. 4). According to Noe
et al
. (1987), training ‘is a necessary component of
U.S. companies’ efforts to improve quality, meet the challenges

of global competition,
use new technologies in producing products and services, and
capitalize on the
strength of a diverse workforce’ (p. 153). Gritz (1993)
documents the increasing num-
ber of studies devoted to training and its role on labor markets.
Martel (2003) reports
that the best companies are companies that make investments in
people through
training, compensation, benefits and facilities.
Employee training variables
According to Craig (1996), an employee benefits from on-the-
job training in many
ways. For example, on-the-job training:
reduces unproductive periods of assimilation of new employees
to the work requirements; there-
fore increasing individual productivity more quickly, ensures
that employees learn how to perform
tasks in line with the expectations and standards of the
organization; the work unit, and the
manager-supervisor, allows the learner to experience the day-to-
day realities of the job which
provides an opportunity to identify problems or discrepancies
and enhance present job methods
and procedures, eliminates the transfer-of-training problem
experienced in other training method-
ologies since learning is done in the actual workplace,
encourages the creation and maintenance
of job and task descriptions and standards and procedures which
support consistency and conti-

nuity in the job, increases learner’s confidence and
productiveness by allowing them to work at
their own rate, establishes and strengthens relationship between
leaner and supervisor through
positive reinforcement and feedback, increases the supervisor’s
understanding of the work done
by individual contributors through the review and
implementation of training plans, defines
outcomes in advance, which increases the predictability of
achieving results, requires active
involvement by learners and on-job training instructors, which
is a cornerstone for any learning
process, incorporates just-in-time training principles which
support the concept of learning new
skills as required, and establishes a learning partnership
between the new employee and the
organization which reinforces joint training and development
solutions. (p. 749)
In short, on-the-job training increases efficiency and
effectiveness of the workforces
and facilitates achieving organizational goals and objectives.
Phillips (1997) adds that increased organizational commitment
is one of the benefits
of employee training. Phillips and Stone (2002) note that ‘Most
successful training
programs result in some intangible benefits. Intangible benefits
are those positive
results that either cannot be converted to monetary values’ (p.
210). Phillips and
Phillips (2000), along with Phillips and Stone (2002), identify
increased organizational
commitment as one of the intangible results of employee
training.

Noe and Wilk (1993) grouped employee training benefits into
three categories:
personal benefits, career benefits and job-related benefits.
Personal benefits represent
the extent to which employees believe that participation in
training activities help
them network, improve their job performance and make progress
towards their per-
sonal development. Career benefits result from participation in
training activities that
lead to identifying career objectives, reaching career objectives
and creating opportu-
nity to purse new career paths. Job-related benefits lead to
better relationships between
peers and managers, and provide a necessary break from the job
(Noe & Wilk, 1993).
Noe and Wilk (1993) developed a 14-item scale that measures
the benefits of
employee training based on an earlier study of Nordhaug
(1989). Five items assess
personal benefits of employee training (i.e. participating in
training programs will help
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my personal development; participating in training programs
will help me network
with other employees; participating in training programs will
help me perform my
job better; participating in training programs will help me stay
up to date on new
processes and products or procedures related to my job; and
participating in training
programs will lead to more respect from my peers), six items
assess career benefits of
employee training (i.e. participating in training programs will
increase my chances of
getting a promotion; participating in training programs will help
me reach my career
objective; participating in training programs will give me a
better idea of the career
path I want to purse; participating in training programs will
result in more opportu-
nities to purse different career paths; participating in training
programs will result in
having to do extra work without being rewarded for it; and
participating in training
programs will help me obtain a salary increase), and three items
assess job-related
benefits of employee training (i.e. participating in training
programs will help me get
along better with my peers; participating in training programs
will help me get along
better with my manger; and participating in training programs
will give me a needed
break from my job). Responses were made using 7-point Likert-
type scale, ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Below are the
scales derived from Noe

and Wilk’s (1993) benefits of employee training.
A literature review of training and organizational commitment
suggests that there
is a relationship between employee training and organizational
commitment. How-
ever, the exact nature of the relationship is unclear. It is
important to investigate the
relationship between employees’ beliefs regarding training
benefits and employees’
organizational commitment for both theoretical and practical
reasons. The study will
contribute to theory by adding to what is known about
and employee training at the individual level of analysis, and by
expanding the body
of knowledge with respect to the relationship between
employees’ beliefs regarding
training benefits and employees’ organizational commitment.
The study contributes
to practice by providing practitioners with insights about the
organizational commitment and employee training. The findings
of this study hope to:
• contribute to the organizational commitment and employee
training literature at
the individual level; and
• provide management with useful information about the
employees’ beliefs regarding training benefits and employees’
organizational
commitment. More specifically, identify the relationship
between personal/
career/job-related benefits of training and

affective/continuance/normative com-
mitment. Understanding this relationship should assist
organizations reduce costs
associated with recruiting, hiring and training.
This section provides an analysis of the literature regarding
previous and current
research findings related to employee training and
organizational commitment. More
specifically, the literature on organizational commitment
was examined with the
focus on construct definitions, components, antecedents,
consequences and measures.
Employee training literature reviewed training definition, cost
of employee training,
types of training and benefits of training. The research design is
introduced in the next
section.
Methodology
This quantitative study utilized survey methodology with
associational or nonexper-
imental correlational-descriptive research design.
Study variables
In this study, employees’ organizational commitment was
examined as a possible
consequence of – a condition affected by – employees’ beliefs
regarding training
benefits. Therefore, employees’ organizational commitment

(affective commitment,
continuance commitment and normative commitment) was the
dependent variable
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under investigation. Employees’ beliefs regarding training
benefits were considered a
possible antecedent or predictor of employees’ organizational
commitment; therefore,
employees’ beliefs regarding training benefits (personal
benefits, career benefits and
job-related benefits) were viewed as the independent variable.
Biographic and demo-
graphic factors (age, gender, education level and length of
service at the organization)
were considered potential intervening variables that could affect
the results of the
study.
Site
QP is the organization that was studied in this research. QP was

established in 1974
as a national corporation owned by the State of Qatar. In 2004,
its total assets amounted
to $11.8 billion (QR 43.2 billion) and total revenue of $9.8
billion (QR 36 billion). The
organization has a total workforce of approximately 8600
employees. The rationale for
selecting a nationally owned petroleum company in Southwest
Asia is based both on
its appropriateness for the research questions posed and its
convenience. The organi-
zation’s management is interested in retaining talented
employees and agreed to
participate in the study of examining the relationship between
employees’ beliefs
regarding training benefits and employees’ organizational
commitment.
Population
The target population for this study included Qatari national
employees at the senior
staff level. This study analyses the organizational commitment
of Qatari employees in
relationship with the benefits of training – whereas prior studies
examined different
aspects of commitment of only US employees – and an analysis
of this type is limited
in the literature.
Excluded from this study were employees with the following
characteristics: (1)
non-Qatari nationals; (2) junior-level staff employees; and (3)
temporary-level employ-

ees. The focus of the study was on Qatari national employees
exclusively; expatriate
employees are hired based on definite short-term contracts that
minimize commitment
or turnover problems, and they do not participate in training
activities because of their
high skill level. Junior-level staff employees were excluded
from this study because
training them does not pose a problem to the organization.
Junior staff employees hold
positions that are mostly clerical and require minimum skill sets
that can be filled
rapidly (Mobley, 1982; Mowday
et al
., 1979). Temporary-level employees are excluded
from this study because their employment duration, as defined
by the organization,
does not exceed three months, and their commitment does not
pose a problem to the
organization.
The survey was distributed to all units in the target population.
This sampling
method is known as the comprehensive sampling approach. Of
this particular sam-
pling method, Wiersma and Jurs (2005) report that
‘comprehensive sampling is used
when every unit is included in the sample’ (p. 312).
Comprehensive sampling was
used to ensure a large enough sample size of Qatari employees
at the senior staff level.

Instrumentation
The data used for this study were obtained through Meyer and
Allen’s (1997) three-
components of organizational commitment questionnaire and
Noe and Wilk’s (1993)
benefits of employee training questionnaire. Additional
demographic information
items were included in the survey to facilitate describing the
sample. The survey
consists of the following measures:
• The three-component model of organizational commitment is
represented by 23
items to measure organizational commitment. Eight items assess
affective organi-
zational commitment, nine items assess continuance
and six items assess normative organizational commitment.
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• Employee benefits of training is represented by a 14-item

scale that measures the
benefits of employee training. Five items assess the personal
benefits of employee
training, six items assess the career benefits of employee
training and three items
assess the job-related benefits of employee training.
• Five demographic items – age, gender, education level, length
of service at the
organization and others (i.e. Is there anything else you wish to
share about orga-
nizational commitment or training?) – were included in the
survey to facilitate the
interpretation of the results.
Unit of analysis
Nardi (2003) defines unit of analysis as ‘the element about
which you are observing
and collecting data, such as a person responding to a
questionnaire, a school, an
editorial, or a local business’ (p. 98). This study was conducted
at the individual level
of analysis.
Level of significance
The 0.05 level of significance was used in this study. Alreck
and Settle (2004) define
level of significance as ‘the critical value, or probability level
above which a relation-
ship between variables will not be regarded as statistically

significant because it is too
likely that it could result only by chance from sampling error’
(p. 437).
Statistical analysis
Three types of statistical analysis were conducted for this study
using SPSS 11.5. First,
regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship
between study vari-
ables as highlighted in the research questions, and to test the
research hypotheses. This
study employs multiple regression analysis to investigate the
variables and to identify the strength of that relationship. More
specifically, multiple
regression analysis was employed to identify the relationship
between employees’
beliefs regarding training benefits as measured by personal,
career and job-related
benefits (independent variables) and employees’ organizational
commitment as mea-
sured by affective, continuance and normative commitment
(dependent variables).
Second, for both instruments, internal reliability analysis using
Cronbach’s alpha
(Cronbach & Furby, 1970) was used to determine the reliability
of all scales. The results
of Cronbach’s alpha scores were compared to the published
estimates for pre-existing
scales for instruments used in the study. Third and finally, for
both instruments, factor
analysis was conducted to determine construct validity, fit and
appropriateness of the

instrument (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000).
Results
Reliability analysis
Reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha was conducted to
determine the reliability
of all scales. The reliability scores for organizational
commitment variables (affective
commitment, 0.77; continuous commitment, 0.67; and normative
commitment, 0.80)
and benefits of employee training variables (personal benefits,
0.86; career benefits,
0.78; and job-related benefits, 0.64) were compared and were
found to be consistent
with the published estimates for pre-existing scales.
Factor analysis
Statistical Software for Social Sciences (SPSS) software was
used to conduct factor
analysis to determine construct validity, fit and appropriateness
of the instruments.
Benefits of employee training items and three-component model
of organizational

59
Publishing Ltd.
commitment items were factor analysed using Varimax rotation.
The results of the
factor analysis indicated that, overall, the questions are well
segregated and that the
scaled-items measure the intended construct.
Regression analysis
Affective commitment
The results of the regression analysis, as presented in Table 1,
showed that there is a
significant positive relationship between affective
organizational commitment and
both personal benefits of employee training (
p
=

0.003) and career benefits of employee
training (
p
=
0.030). The relationship between affective organizational
commitment
and job-related benefits of employee training, although positive,
is not significant
(
p
=
0.216). Additionally, two demographic/biographic variables are
significantly and
positively related to affective commitment: age (
p

=
0.014) and years of service
(
p
=
0.037).
The stepwise regression results indicate that personal benefits
of employee training
and age (
p
=
0.014) are the best predictors of affective commitment. Career
benefits,
although significantly related to affective commitment (

p
=
0.030), is not a predictor of
affective commitment. Further, although the predictors are
significant, together they
explain only 5.0 per cent of the variance in affective
commitment. Personal benefits
alone explain 2.8 per cent of the variance in affective
commitment. Whereas years of
service initially appears significant (
p
=
0.037), the model eliminates it as a predictor
of any meaningful explanation of variance.
illustrated that there is

a significant positive relationship between continuance
and the three benefits of employee training: personal benefits of
employee training
(
p
=
0.002); career benefits of employee training (
p
=
0.000); and job-related benefits of
employee training (
p
=

0.000). Additionally, one demographic/biographic variable is
significantly and positively related to continuance commitment:
years of service
(
p
=
0.029).
The stepwise regression results indicate that career benefits of
employee training
and years of service (
p
=
0.029) are the best predictors of continuance commitment.
Personal benefits and job-related benefits, although
significantly related to continuance
commitment (

p
= 0.002 and p = 0.000), are not a predictor of continuance
commitment.
Further, although the predictors are significant, together they
explain only 9.7 per cent
of the variance in continuance commitment. Career benefits
alone explain 6.5 per cent
of the variance in continuance commitment.
Normative commitment
illustrated that there is
a significant positive relationship between normative
both personal benefits of employee training (p = 0.000) and
career benefits of employee
training (p = 0.006). The relationship between normative
and job-related benefits of employee training, although positive,
is not significant
(p = 0.290). Additionally, two demographic/biographic
variables are significantly and
positively related to normative commitment: age (p = 0.001)
and years of service
(p = 0.003).
The stepwise regression results indicate that personal benefits
of employee training
and age (p = 0.001) are the best predictors of normative
commitment. Career benefits,
although significantly related to normative commitment (p =

0.006), is not a predictor
of normative commitment. Further, although the predictors are
significant, together
they explain only 8.5 per cent of the variance in normative
commitment. Personal
benefits alone explain 4.5 per cent of the variance in normative
commitment. Although
years of service initially appears significant (p = 0.003), the
model eliminates it as a
predictor of any meaningful explanation of variance.
60 International Journal of Training and Development
Publishing Ltd.
T
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Organizational commitment 61
Publishing Ltd.
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Publishing Ltd.
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Publishing Ltd.
Discussion of findings
The research study resulted in five major findings. These
findings are presented in the
subsequent sections.
Organizational commitment and employee’s beliefs regarding
training benefits
First, the results of hypotheses testing revealed that personal
benefits and career
benefits of employee training are significantly related to all
three components of
organizational commitment: affective commitment, continuance
commitment and
normative commitment. This suggests that employees who
reflect positively on train-
ing benefits and expect benefits from their participation in
training are likely to be
more committed to the organization. These results are consistent
with the literature
that examined the relationship between employee training and
organizational com-

mitment (i.e. Bartlett, 2001; Grossberg, 2000; Meyer & Smith,
2000; Tannenbaum et al.,
1991).
The significant positive relationship between personal benefits
and career benefits
of employee training and affective, continuance and normative
organizational com-
mitment suggests a number of conclusions. First, participation
in training activities
helps employees network, improve their job performance and
make progress towards
their personal development (i.e. personal benefits of training).
Second, participation
in training activities lead to identifying career objectives,
reaching career objectives
and creating opportunity to pursue new career paths (i.e. career
benefits of training).
More specifically, (1) commitment that is based on emotional
attachment to the orga-
nization occurs where employees choose to remain with the
organization because they
want to stay (i.e. affective commitment); (2) commitment based
on perceived cost
associated with leaving the organization occurs where
employees remain with the
organization because they have to stay (i.e. continuance
commitment); and (3) com-
mitment based on the belief that it is an employee’s obligation
to be committed to the
organization occurs where employees remain with the
organization because they
believe they should stay in the organization (i.e. normative
commitment).
The previously discussed results are consistent with employee

training and organi-
zational commitment literature. For example, Becker (1975)
suggests that investment
in firm-specific human capital reduces the probability of
employee turnover. Grossberg
(2000) documents that employee training across genders is
strongly associated with
longer durations of employment. Meyer and Smith (2000)
reports the existence of a
link between organizational commitment and training from the
point that employee
training has a positive effect on employees’ commitment to
their organizations. Bartlett
(2001) maintains that the perceived benefits of employee
training are found to affect
employee’s organizational commitment. Payne and Huffman’s
(2005) study concluded
that mentoring is positively related to affective and continuance
organizational com-
mitment and negatively related to employee turnover.
In summary, the results of the hypotheses testing demonstrated
that a comfortable
and pleasant work environment represented by personal benefits
and career benefits
of employee training, influence the development of employees’
attachment (i.e. affec-
tive, continuance or normative) to the organization.
Second, the result of hypotheses testing revealed that job-
related benefits of
employee training is significantly and positively related to
continuance organizational
commitment only. On one hand, a positive and significant
relationship between job-
related benefits of employee training and continuance

suggests that the more a person learns and acquires skills and
knowledge in training,
the more likely that individual develops a strong bond towards
the organization. This
strong bond may be the direct results of the employee receiving
a higher compensa-
tion as a result of participating in training activities and leading
to employees’ contin-
uance commitment to the organization. This is consistent with
findings of Becker
(1975) who suggests that individual bonds to the organization
are based on ‘instru-
mental interests’ such as salary and benefits. Accordingly,
investment in firm-specific
Publishing Ltd.
human capital may reduce the probability of employee turnover.
On the other hand,
a positive but not significant relationship between job-related
training and affective and normative organizational commitment
leads to the conclu-
sion that employees do not develop a greater desire to remain
with the organization
if they believe that their participation in training activities only
results in financial
benefits. This may lead to a reduced affective and normative
organizational
commitment.

The positive and not significant relationship between job-
related benefits of
employee training and affective and normative organizational
commitment can be
attributed to a number of reasons. For example, organizational
culture or national
culture may be one of the reasons behind this insignificant
relationship. Schein (1992)
suggests that an organization’s culture develops to help it cope
with its environment.
According to Schein, culture consists of behaviors and artifacts,
values, assumptions
and beliefs. These underlie and, to a large extent, determine
behavior. In this study,
we examined the relationship between organizational
commitment and employee
training. Further studies should be conducted to examine the
organizational commitment and organizational culture.
In this research, the study participants were drawn from a
petroleum company
outside the United States, in a setting where English is the
second language. Accord-
ingly, it is not unreasonable to conclude and attribute this
nonsignificant relationship,
at least tentatively, to culture. Further testing would be required
to see if this specu-
lation bears out in a wider sample within the culture.
Another reason for the nonsignificant relationship between job-
related benefits of
employee training and affective and normative organizational
commitment may be
because of industry-specific reasons. Poruban (2001) reports
that the petroleum indus-

try is experiencing a high turnover and shortage of skilled
employees. Such a human
capital problem could adversely affect employee behaviors with
respect to desired
benefits of training activities and organizational commitment.
Best predictors of affective and normative commitment
The third major finding in this study revealed that personal
training and age are the best predictors of affective and
normative commitment. This
suggests that one of the best predictors for employees to remain
with their organiza-
tion is the level of their involvement in training activities.
According to Noe and Wilk
(1993), this is represented by the extent to which employees
believe that participation
in training activities help them network, improve their job
performance and make
progress towards their personal development. Accordingly,
employee’s emotional
attachment and involvement with the organization, such as work
experiences they
find rewarding and feelings of obligation to remain with the
organization, are best
predicated by personal benefits of employee training. According
to Pinks (1992),
employees with strong normative commitment will have better
job performance, work
attendance and organizational citizenship, because they are
linked to the organization
by feelings of obligation and duty. Additionally, strong
affective commitment among
employees leads to lower turnover and higher productivity.
Employees with strong

affective commitment will not have a high rate of absenteeism
and will be motivated
to do better on the job (Meyer & Allen, 1997).
Employee age, based on the results of the study, is another best
predictor behind
the strong affective and normative organizational commitment.
This means that the
older the employee becomes, the more likely she or he will
remain with the organiza-
tion. This finding is consistent with previous research. For
example, Mowday et al.
(1982) as well as Pinks (1992) report that employee age is one
of the key influences on
organizational commitment. Hackett et al. (1991) report a
positive relationship between
affective and continuance commitments to age and tenure
antecedents of organiza-
tional commitment. Sommer et al.’s (1996) study on antecedents
of organizational
commitment reports a positive relationship between
antecedents relating to age, job tenure and organizational
position. Cohen (1999)
Publishing Ltd.
reports that affective and continuance commitment are
positively related to personal
characteristics.
The aforementioned results are significant in that they suggest

that affective and
normative organizational commitment can be achieved by
designing training pro-
grams that help employees make progress towards their personal
development. This
could make employees’ organizational experience rewarding
and, ultimately, increase
Best predictors of continuance commitment
Based on the results of regression analysis, the fourth major
finding is that career
benefits of employee training and years of service are the best
predictors of continu-
ance commitment.
Iles et al. (1990) report that ‘different types of commitment
have different relation-
ships to the organizational behavior. Employees who express
high commitment to both
the job and the organization may be the least likely to leave.
Employees with high job
involvement but low organizational commitment may leave for
career enhancing
reasons’ (p. 149). Meyer and Allen (1997) suggest that
employees with strong contin-
uance commitment will stay longer with the organization
because leaving the organi-
zation will be more costly to them. Career benefits of employee
training result from
participation in training activities that lead to identifying career
objectives, reaching
career objectives and creating opportunity to pursue new career
paths (Noe & Wilk,
1993). Accordingly, one can conclude that the training

environment is one of the most
important criteria in explaining continuance organizational
commitment. The organi-
zation’s willingness to provide its employees with additional
training opportunities
may lead employees to develop a stronger sense of attachment
or commitment to the
organization.
Additionally, the results indicate that years of service is one of
the best predictors
of continuance commitment. This means that the longer the
employee works for the
organization the less likely he or she will leave the
organization. Accordingly, one
might conclude that when employees spend an extended
duration of time with the
organization, the employees become more confident, open to
change and supportive
of each other. This may lead to establishing a bond between
employees that leads to
increased organizational commitment.
The results are significant in that they suggest that continuance
organizational
commitment can be achieved by designing training programs
that help employees
identify and reach their career objectives. This will make
employees’ organizational
experience rewarding and would ultimately increase
Validity and reliability of instruments
The fifth major finding is based on reliability analysis using
Cronbach’s alpha and

Varimax factor analysis. The result of the analysis revealed that
the organizational
commitment instrument developed by Meyer and Allen (1997)
and the benefits of
employee training instrument developed by Noe and Wilk
(1993) were reliable and
valid. More specifically, the results of the reliability analysis
were compared to the
published estimates and were found to be consistent with the
published estimates for
pre-existing scales. Additionally, factor analysis indicated that
the questions were well
segregated and that the scaled-items measure the intended
construct. The results are
significant in that they suggest that the three-component model
of organizational
commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997) and the benefits of
employee training (Noe and
Wilk, 1993) may be considered valid and reliable outside the
United States (i.e. in the
State of Qatar and for the population under study) and in a
setting where English is
the second language. However, the instruments are not entirely
valid unless it has
been tested in Asia, Europe and countries in other continents
where English is the
second language.
Publishing Ltd.
Conclusion
Understanding the relationship between employee training and

organizational com-
mitment is a critical factor in assisting organizations reduce
costs associated with
recruiting, hiring and training. The results of the study revealed
a positive and signif-
icant relationship between benefits (i.e. personal benefits and
career benefits) of
employee training and the three components of organizational
commitment (i.e. affec-
tive commitment, continuance commitment and normative
commitment). Addition-
ally, the findings revealed that personal benefits of employee
training and age are
significantly related to affective and normative commitment,
and career benefits of
employee training and years of service are significantly related
to continuance com-
mitment. QP’s financial and social commitment towards the
development of its
employees can certainly serve as a model to other petroleum
companies as well as to
any organization that seeks long-term success.
Limitations
The results of this study should be interpreted with recognition
of the study’s limita-
tions. This study is limited by the following constraints:
1. The sample organization is part of a single petroleum
organization located in the
State of Qatar. Therefore, the results may not be generalizable
to all petroleum
organizations in the State of Qatar.
2. The participants were limited to Qatari employees at the
senior staff level. There-

fore, results may not be generalizable to other petroleum
industry employees, or
to employees of organizations not petroleum industry related.
3. The organization studied represents a 100 per cent
government-owned orga-
nization. Results may not be generalizable to not-for-profit or
privately owned
organizations.
4. The survey nature of this study introduced limitations that
are inherent in the
research design, such as possible ambiguity of individual
questions, answers that
cannot be clarified, variations in individual motivations and
variations in the
knowledge of respondents.
5. The complexity and ambiguity related to organizational
commitment and
employee training constructs may have reduced the validity and
reliability of the
measurements. The three-component model of organizational
commitment and
benefits of employee training selected are not comprehensive
measures of organi-
zational commitment or benefits of employee training.
6. The participants’ understanding of English as a second
language could have
affected participants’ responses.
Implications of the study
The results of the study identified a number of implications for
theory, practice and
future research. These implications are presented in the next

section.
Implications for theory
1. Results of the study confirm the existence of a positive
organizational commitment and employee training. However,
additional research
is needed to determine if all three benefits of employee training
are significantly
and positively related to organizational commitment.
Implications for practice
1. Organizations should consider establishing a formal process
of monitoring
employee commitment to the organization. For example,
preparing quarterly
management reports about employees’ duration of service with
the organization
Publishing Ltd.
facilitates monitoring employees’ organizational commitment.
Systematic and
continuous assessment of employee commitment allows
organizations to consider
making timely changes and necessary adjustments in order to
maintain a high
level of commitment among employees.
2. Organizations need to develop strategies and human resource

practices that max-
imize employee commitment. For example, organizations might
opt to use the
quarterly organizational commitment reports to recognize and
reward, on an
annual basis, employees with long durations of service (e.g. 5,
10, 15, 20, 25 and
over 30 years). The reward and recognition can be financial
(salary increment) or
non-financial (long service certificate). Financial rewards can
positively affect
employees’ continuance commitment and non-financial rewards
can positively
affect employees’ affective and normative commitment. These
strategies should
be shared, reviewed and updated on a regular basis.
3. Organizations should consider designing training and
development programs
with focus on employee commitment. More specifically,
ensuring that employee
training and development programs address all aspects of
employees’ commit-
ment to the organization, including affective, continuance and
normative commit-
ment. This should facilitate and improve human capital
retention.
4. In order for organizations to survive the ‘brain drain’, they
need to promote
employee commitment to the organization. One way this can be
achieved is by
addressing all three components of organizational commitment
(i.e. affective com-
mitment dealing with feelings and emotions, continuous
commitment dealing

with cost, and normative commitment dealing with obligations
and ethical con-
cerns of leaving or remaining with the organization). This
means that management
should develop policies that are sensitive to employee needs.
5. Organizations should identify and satisfy the different
training needs of its work-
force. More specifically, fresh graduates have different training
needs than more
experienced employees. Both of these needs should be
identified and satisfied.
Strategies should be developed to ensure that all employees
continuously learn
and grow throughout their careers.
6. Organizations should establish a formal process of
identifying the return on train-
ing investment. Benefits of employee training to both the
organization and the
employee should be identified. More specifically, personal
benefits, career benefits
and job-related benefits of employee training should be
identified and examined.
Implications for future research
1. Additional research is needed to substantiate the validity and
reliability of the
instrument outside the United States and to facilitate making a
generalization that
both the three-component model of organizational commitment
and the benefits
of employee training instruments are valid and reliable outside
the United States
and in a setting where English is the second language.

2. Additional research is needed to determine if job-related
benefits and other demo-
graphic variables (e.g. gender, educational level and marital
status) are predictors
of organizational commitment.
3. Future research examining the potential similarities and
differences between
employee training and employee development would be fruitful.
This would
facilitate a better understanding of the antecedents and
consequences of employee
training and development.
4. Additional research is needed with respect to the antecedents
and consequences
of organizational commitment (affective, continuance and
normative) for other
populations of non-US employees. Understanding the
antecedents and conse-
quences of organizational commitment for non-US employees is
useful for iden-
tifying moderating variables that might influence organizational
commitment and
is relevant to understanding the multidimensionality of the
construct as well.
5. Replicating the study using additional levels of employees
(e.g. junior staff level
and non-national employees) would provide additional and
useful information

Publishing Ltd.
that would facilitate making comparisons between the groups
and allow for more
generalizability of the results.
6. When replicating the study using stratified sampling
methodology, each stratum
should represent a specific job level (i.e. administrative jobs,
operational jobs,
production job, etc.). This should facilitate making comparisons
between different
strata and provide additional information with respect to the
employee training and organizational commitment.
7. Replicating the study using a larger sample that includes a
number of petroleum
companies in Asia would allow for a greater generalizability of
the findings.
8. Broadening the scope of research by applying a mixed-
method approach that
includes surveys and interviews would add depth to the study of
organizational
commitment by revealing more of the subjective quality
surrounding why
employees choose not to be committed to their organizations.
Interviews and
focus groups, for example, could offer additional information
that may be useful
in interpreting qualitative results. Additionally, such studies
might help uncover
the source of additional variance.

9. Further studies should be conducted to examine the
relationship between organi-
zational commitment and other human resource practices such
as employee com-
pensation, job satisfaction and organizational culture.
10. Broadening the scope of the study to determine how
correlates with organizational performance indicators would
enable an under-
standing of commitment factors beyond retention rates and
employee training.
11. The scope of the study should be broadened so as to
examine the impact of
employee training on employee turnover and turnover rate.
12. Broadening the scope of the study to determine the impact
of culture on organi-
zational commitment, employee training and turnover would be
fruitful. This
would identify the impact of organizational and national
culture, if any, on the
variables under investigation. Understanding the impact of
organizational and
national culture could affect the site selection, participants’
selection and study
instrumentation.
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Bucciarelli: “Is Idiot Proof Safe Enough?”
1. What are the various “guises” of uncertainty that affect
design?
2. How do rational design programs attempt to cope with
uncertainty?

3. How does conservative design practice cope with
uncertainty?
Boisjoly, “The Challenger Disaster: Moral Responsibility and
the Working Engineer”
1. Do you think Boisjoly should have blown the whistle the
night before launch? How could he have done so? Would it
have been impermissible, permissible, or obligatory? Explain.

2. Do you think Boisjoly’s testimony to the Presidential
Commission (The Rogers Commission) counts as blowing the
whistle? Was he ethically justified in giving his testimony?

3. How does Boisjoly recommend that the working engineer
accomplish their moral responsibility “to defend the truth and
expose any questionable practice that may lead to an unsafe
product?”
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Boisjoly, “The Challenger Disaster: Moral Responsibility and
the Working Engineer”
1. Do you think Boisjoly should have blown the whistle the
night before launch? How could he have done so? Would it
have been impermissible, permissible, or obligatory? Explain.

3. How does Boisjoly recommend that the working engineer
accomplish their moral responsibility “to defend the truth and
expose any questionable practice that may lead to an unsafe
product?”
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proof.pdf
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(3).docx

Bucciarelli: “Is Idiot Proof Safe Enough?”
1. What are the various “guises” of uncertainty that affect
design?
2. How do rational design programs attempt to cope with
uncertainty?
3. How does conservative design practice cope with
uncertainty?
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Questions (3).docx
Business Executives’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership
and Its Development
Catherine Marsh
Received: 6 July 2011 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published
online: 12 June 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper summarized the findings of a qual-
itative study that examines the perceptions of ethical
leadership held by those who perceived themselves to be
ethical leaders, and how life experiences shaped the values
called upon when making ethical decisions. The experi-
ences of 28 business executives were shared with the
researcher, beginning with the recollection of a critical
incident that detailed an ethical issue with which each
executive had been involved. With the critical incident in
mind, each executive told the personal story that explained
the development of the values he or she called upon when

resolving the ethical issue described. The stories were
analyzed through the use of constant comparison, which
resulted in the development of two models: (1) a frame-
work for ethical leadership illuminating valued aspects of
ethical leaderships and the value perspectives called upon
when making ethical decisions, and (2) a model explaining
how the executives’ ethical frameworks developed. The
paper concludes with a brief discussion on virtue ethics,
experiential learning, and human resource development.
Keywords Ethics � Virtue � Leadership � Action learning
Introduction
As the daily news carries allegations of corrupt behavior in
all arenas of life, the world’s attention is focused on the
behavior of leaders in government, business, social, and
even religious institutions. The courts selectively prosecute
high profile-offenders, the Catholic Church sends priests
into retirement, and political candidates challenge one
another’s records for signs of moral weakness. Legislation,

in the form of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, passed by
the United States Congress following the Enron, Tyco and
Worldcom scandals, has been enacted, but the scandals
continue.
Both executives and scholars are realizing that while
legislation is necessary, leadership may be the primary
determinant in ethical action. Gini (1998) stressed, ‘‘The
ethics of leadership—whether it be good or bad, positive or
negative—affects the ethos of the workplace and thereby
helps to form the ethical choices and decisions of the
workers in the workplace’’ (p. 28). Pollard (2005) stated,
‘‘While rules may bring a higher standard of accountability
and add the ‘stick’ of more penalties, they cannot deter-
mine the honesty, character, or integrity of the people
involved’’ (p. 14).
Lavengood (Pollard 2005) conceded that where public
policy leaves off, leadership must assist with the devel-
opment of a moral community that shapes human character

and behavior. Gough (1998) concurred and explained that
when caught in an internal struggle with regards to getting
ahead or doing the right thing, ‘‘The determining factor is
nothing less than the strengths and the weaknesses of your
character’’ (p. 43).
Badaracco (2006) emphasized, ‘‘Questions of character
are not simply useful … they are crucial to successful
leadership….’’ (pp. 8–9). Quinn (2004) indicated that as
leaders become more inwardly focused on their values,
their inner and outer worlds become aligned, significantly
impacting organizational behavior. He expounded, ‘‘We
also become less self-focused and more other-focused’’ (p.
22).
The study summarized in this paper examined the eth-
ical character of leadership in today’s organizations by
C. Marsh (&)
North Park University, Chicago, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
123
J Bus Ethics (2013) 114:565–582

DOI 10.1007/s10551-012-1366-7
assisting executives in turning inward and uncovering the
values upon which they base their most difficult business
decisions, and listening to them reveal clues pertaining to
the development of a framework for ethical leadership.
This study can be differentiated from other studies that are
predominantly quantitative and utilize a measurable
approach that begins with existing research on values, such
as that of Rokeach (1973), Schwartz (1992, 1994, 2000), or
research on values embedded in existing leadership models
(Kanungo 2001; Mendonca 2001; Bass and Steidlmeier
1999; Greenleaf 1970/1991). Based on Rokeach (1973),
Hood (2003) connected leadership values with business
ethics in a study that measured, by means of a Likert scale,
the relationship of 14 of the Rokeach values with trans-
formational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership
styles (Burns 1978, 2003). Based on a modified version of

Schwartz’s instrument (1994) developed by Stern et al.
(1998), Sosik (2005) used multisource field data collected
in five organizations to examine links among managers’
personal values, charismatic leadership of managers, and
three outcome measures. Also, employing the tool devel-
oped by Stern et al. (1998), Fritzsche and Oz (2007) related
personal values to ethical dilemmas, by means of a Likert
scale, to determine the extent to which personal values
inform ethical decisions. To assess the impact of the
exposure of foreign culture on the development of leaders’
values, Chang and Lin (2008) used a modified version of
Schwartz’s Likert based Portrait Values Questionnaire
(PVQ) (Schwartz 2005, 2006). Graf et al. (2011) also made
use of the PVQ in their assessment of the effects of ideal
and counter-ideal values (Van Quaquebeke et al. 2010)
between leaders and followers. Recent empirical studies
that examine leader values through indirect values frame-
works embedded in leadership models include Groves and

LaRocca (2011) and Reed et al. (2011). Groves and LaR-
occa (2011) utilized the historic ethical philosophies of
teleology and deontology as associated with models of
transformational and transactional leadership (Kanungo
2001; Mendonca 2001; Bass and Steidlmeier 1999) to
examine leader ethical values. Reed et al. (2011) examined
ethical leader values implicited within the servant leader-
ship model (Greenleaf 1970/1991).
While the import of quantitative methods in determining
statistical relationships between the variables of human
values and ethical leadership must be acknowledged, the
need for a more interpretative approach to understanding
the immeasurable aspects of ethical leadership, as repre-
sented in the current study, is emerging. A number of
researchers (Trevino et al. 2003; April et al. 2010; Resick
et al. 2011) have approached the topic by means of qual-
itative methods. Trevino et al. (2003) conducted inductive
research by interviewing corporate ethics officers and

senior executives to examine ‘‘the perceived content
domain of executive ethical leadership’’ (p. 5), including
values and behaviors. April et al. (2010) had middle
managers, enrolled in MBA programs in South Africa and
the Netherlands, self-report enablers (values), and stum-
bling blocks to ethical action. Resick et al. (2011) used
qualitative methods to identify attributes (values are
included) and behaviors that managers from Asia, Amer-
ica, and Europe ascribe to ethical and unethical leaders.
Although their findings were consistent with the GLOBE
(House et al. 2004) framework of values across culture, the
Resick et al. (2011) did not design the study with the
GLOBE framework in mind. The three above-mentioned
qualitative studies explored particular phenomenon and did
not attempt to correlate findings to particular models or
frameworks, unlike the quantitative studies. These quali-
tative studies differ from the quantitative studies in that
they do not measure known variables; they explore per-

ceptions of each study’s participants through open-ended
questions. They do not generalize externally (Maxwell
2002), rather they explore multiple perspectives and
meanings in an attempt to understand the complex phe-
nomenon of ethical leadership within a particular, inter-
nally generalizable, context (Maxwell 2002). The
qualitative studies are not designed to measure variation;
they are more concerned with ‘‘describing in detail what
survey questionnaire results do not permit to be descri-
bed—the assumptions, behaviors, and attitudes of a very
special set [of participants]….’’ (Freidson 1975,
pp. 272–273).
The study summarized in this paper utilized a qualitative
approach to add to the growing knowledge base that clar-
ifies and expands the concept of ethical leadership. How-
ever, unlike the qualitative studies described above, this
study investigated not only the phenomenon of ethical
leadership, but also examined how ethical leadership
develops. The context of the study was senior executives,

in American businesses ranging from small entrepreneurial
ventures to large multi-national corporations, who were
perceived by others, and identified themselves as ethical
leaders. The field of research on ethical leadership is young
and the topic broad and complex (Trevino et al. 2003),
providing ample territory for a constructivist theory-
building approach (Creswell 2003). Further, due to the
subjective nature of ethical leadership (Conger 1998) a
qualitative exploration may prove more suitable than post-
positivist empirical observation and measurement (Cre-
swell 2003).
Problem Statement and Purpose
Based on the premise that leadership is a fundamental
determinant in ethical action, the study summarized in this
566 C. Marsh
123
paper examined both executives’ perceptions of the

frameworks that guided their ethical decisions and their
thoughts on how those frameworks came into existence. As
previously mentioned, a modicum of research linking
values and business ethics exists (April et al. 2010; Chang
and Lin 2008; Graf et al. 2011; Groves and LaRocca 2011;
Fritzsche and Oz 2007; Hood 2003; Resick et al. 2011;
Sosik 2005; Trevino et al. 2003), but little has been done to
draw upon the actual perceptions of the business leader as
to what life experiences have fostered the development of
values and character. The growth of virtue ethics as an
aspect of the business leadership development provides
new opportunity for research that explores the link between
the growth of personal values and leadership development.
As Donaldson (2003) stated, ‘‘at no time has the legitimacy
of business depended so heavily on clarifying its connec-
tion to human values’’ (p. 365). Further, virtue ethics is
seen to develop through experience (Brewer 1997; Hart-
man 2011; MacIntyre 1984), hence examining the experi-

ences of those who perceive themselves to be ethical may
add to our understanding of ethical leadership develop-
ment. This study, in its attempt to clarify that connection
between the development of personal values and ethical
leadership behavior, took its participants on a journey in
which they discussed their values in the context of ethical
issues with which they had struggled. It allowed them to
take the time to tell their personal stories regarding their
understanding of the dimensions of their ethical frame-
works and the development of the values upon which those
frameworks were based. Specifically, this study contributes
not only to the emerging knowledge on ethical leadership
but also the nascent field of ethical leadership
development.
Research Questions
Two overarching questions guided this study.
1. What aspects of ethical leadership are valued by those
who consider themselves ethical leaders?

2. In what ways do the life experiences of those who
perceive themselves to be ethical leaders inform the
understanding of the process of ethical leadership
development?
Theoretic Framework
In recent years, business ethicists have begun to investigate
the merit of the inclusion of virtue ethics, based on values,
in business ethics education (Whetstone 2001, 2003).
Miller and Collier (2010) cited Crockett (2005) to explain
virtue ethics in the Aristotelian sense: virtues ‘‘…are meant to
be exercised in practical judgments, habitualized with frequent
use and gradually adopted as a stable part of one’s character’’
(Crockett 2005, p. 199). This is in keeping with Aristotle who
described ethics as a habit of virtue that is modeled and
developed through practice’’ (Miller and Collier 2010, p. 83).
Similarly, Morrell and Clark (2010) explained, ‘‘virtue ethics
has at its heart the habits and character of key actors—who
become virtuous through carrying out right actions, acting in a

manner that communicates the importance of considering the
means by which outcomes are achieved’’ (p. 257).
This turn toward the character perspective comes as a
result of research that shows that the teleological and
deontological cognitive decision-making approaches alone
have not had sufficient impact (Rest and Narvaez 1994),
and that ethical decisions are ultimately an expression of
the decision maker’s value system. Further, ‘‘by shifting
the focus from the act to the agent, virtue ethics overcomes
these problems [problems posed by act-centered teleolog-
ical and deontological approaches to ethics]’’ (Dawson and
Bartholomew 2003, p. 127). Bastons (2008) discussed the
cardinal virtues as personal decision-making competencies
and stresses, ‘‘… without these competences it is not pos-
sible to guarantee a decision is really optimal’’ (p. 399). As
the focus of the research summarized in this paper was on
the connection between leadership values and ethical
decision-making, virtue ethics provided the study with a
foundational framework due to its emphasis on character,

rather than cognitive act-centered decision-making schema,
in the exercise of ethical leadership.
One of the most recognized calls for a return to Aristo-
telian virtue ethics has come from Alasdair MacIntyre
(1984). MacIntyre asserted that current ethical theory and
practice are in a state of grave disorder brought on by the
liberal individualism of the Enlightenment, most notably
articulated by Nietzsche. He postulated that people can best
remedy this disorder by reviving the Aristotelian tradition
of virtue ethics. Moore (2002, 2003) insisted that corpora-
tions can only resist the power of corrupting influences
through incorporation of the virtues of those who represent
the organization. A major tenet offered by MacIntyre’s
premise is that we discover our virtuous character only in
acting it out in relationship within community—it is only
through our association with virtue that we can become
virtuous (Blum 1988). If the community itself is not virtu-
ous, and MacIntyre struggled with the notion that the

business organization could be virtuous, the actions of
community members will be victim to the desires/morals of
the community (Dobson 2009; Hine 2007). MacIntyre
conceded, however, that individual members of the com-
munity are not necessarily bound by what he perceives to be
the moral limitations inherent within business institutions
operating within a capitalist society (Schwartz 2009).
Ethical Leadership and Its Development 567
123
Dawson and Bartholomew (2003) argued that in as much
the business organization serves as community, it plays a
significant role in encouraging and developing the virtues.
Through his or her experience, then, ‘‘the manager would
draw upon an ever increasing understanding of what con-
stitutes the good’’ (Brewer 1997, p. 832). In Hartman’s
examination of the role of the Aristotelian virtues in busi-
ness decision-making he suggested, ‘‘We learn through

experience, and we may look to the insights of literature,
including religious literature, to distill that experience and
improve our moral imagination’’ (2011, p. 14.). Hence,
moral education is at the heart of virtue ethics, and, in turn,
virtue ethics provides a basis for understanding the expe-
riential development of ethical leadership and supports the
quest, undergirding this study, to comprehend the process
by which executives develop their ethical frameworks.
Understanding this process may provide clues for those
engaged in the arduous task of not only leadership devel-
opment, but also ethical leadership development.
Methodology
As previously mentioned, the design for the research
undertaken in the present study is qualitative. As the study
relied primarily upon the capability of the researcher to
enter into dialog with the participants to extract meaning
from lived experience (Maxwell 1996) in an inductive
fashion, an interpretive approach, which is qualitative by

nature, was required (Merriam et al. 2002). In addition, as
the study was undertaken with the hopes that it would pave
the way for new theory to emerge from the perceived
reality of the participants rather than from the researcher’s
own perspective, a qualitative process assisted with the
formulation of theory from the data as it unfolded (Morse
and Richards 2002). The semi-structured data collection
interviews were based on the following questions:
(1) Think of a time in your career in which you were
confronted with a difficult business decision you
considered to be an ethical dilemma.
(2) What was at stake?
(3) What did you decide?
(4) What process did you use in reaching that decision?
(5) Now—tell me some stories about how you developed
the values that supported the decision.
(6) Which of these do you consider to be the most
important influence(s) on your ethical perspective?

The constant comparison methods (Glaser and Strauss
1967), supplemented by critical incident technique (Flan-
agan 1954), were key elements of the data analysis. They
provided the structure that allowed theory to evolve from
the research process. First, the critical incident technique
was used to isolate the ethical dilemmas through which the
executives told their stories. With the incident clearly in
mind, each executive told stories of how he or she came to
hold the values called upon when making the decision.
Second, after the collection of data, the method of constant
comparison was used to understand patterns among the
stories that were shared.
Examples of the incidents detailed in the complete write
up of the study are: (1) A bank executive recalled a time
when he had been asked by his commanding officer to hire
the future son-in-law of a powerful senator over a qualified
internal candidate; (2) A vice president of human resources
of a multi-national software corporation discussed a time

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