Environmental problems caused by improper mine tailings disposal in the Baguio district include pollution of the Lower Agno River system and its watershed and siltation of irrigation canals in the Pangasinan plains. Direct economic losses are from reduced agricultural production due to siltation of irrigation works and farmlands. To check the adverse ecological effects of improper mine tailings disposal, government regulations have been imposed on mining firms. Several disposal schemes have been proposed, including the use of the reservoir of a multipurpose project to be sited in the watershed where the mines are located. Because of siltation problems, however, trapping the tailings in the reservoir will diminish the economic benefits that can be derived from the project.

1. Mining Pollution: the Case of the Baguio Mining
District, the Philippines
NICOMEDES D. BRIONES nomic losses are from reduced agricultural production due to
Environment and Policy Institute siltation of irrigation works and farmlands. To check the ad-
East-West Center verse ecological effects of improper mine tailings disposal,
Honolulu, Hawaii 96848, USA government regulations have been imposed on mining firms.
Several disposal schemes have been proposed, including
the use of the reservoir of a multipurpose project to be sited
ABSTRACT / Environmental problems caused by improper in the watershed where the mines are located. Because of
mine tailings disposal in the Baguio district include pollution siltation problems, however, trapping the tailings in the reser-
of the Lower Agno River system and its watershed and silta- voir will diminish the economic benefits that can be derived
tion of irrigation canals in the Pangasinan plains. Direct eco- from the project.
The Philippines is considered one of the world's consequently damaging about 190,000 ha of farmlands
highly mineralized countries in terms of minerals per (Villavicencio 1977). As the tailings are transported
unit area of land. For example, the country has the down the streams and rivers, the beds become shal-
world's largest deposits of chromite and one of the lower, leading to overflowing with consequent
richest nickel reserves. The total mineral reserves of flooding of the outlying areas. The tailings accumulate
the Philippines is estimated at 36.2 billion metric tons at lower elevations and clog irrigation canals, ricefields,
(MT), 66% of which is accounted for by nonmetallic and reservoirs.
ore reserves and the remaining 34% by metallic re- It has been recognized that pollution and siltation
serves (NEEP 1983). At present, most of the mining of main river systems within the immediate vicinity of
activities are concentrated in Luzon's Baguio Mining mine sites of Baguio Mining District is due to im-
District, where metallic reserves such as. gold, silver, proper disposal of mine tailings. This article discusses
and copper are the largest in the nation. the problems and economic implications of mining
The mining industry has always been a major con- pollution in the highly mineralized area in Baguio, the
tributor to national economic growth and develop- Philippines. Alternative mine waste disposal methods,
ment. Its significance lies in its contribution to employ- including the use of the proposed reservoir of the San
ment, capital accumulation, and foreign exchange Roque Multipurpose Project as a dumping site, are
earnings. For a developing Philippine economy, the also presented.
mining sector is an indispensable source of funds to
improve the country's balance of payments. Although T h e B a g u i o M i n i n g District
it accounted for less than 2% of the net domestic
product, the annual contribution of mining as a source In an area of a few kilometers southeast of Baguio
of foreign exchange earnings was about 18% of the City in Luzon is a mining site which is drained by the
total receipts for the period of 1971-1984 (NEDA Twin River, a tributary of the big Agno River. It lies in
1985). The majority of the Philippine mining share is a mountainous region characterized by sharp edges
derived from the exports of copper concentrates, gold, and steep slopes. This area is collectively designated as
iron ore, and chrome ore. the Baguio Mining District, which is considered as the
While the industry has brought economic benefits, most important and productive mining area in the
it has also taken its toll on the environment. In 1977, Philippines (Figures 1-3). Several active mines and
there were 39 mining firms dispersed along the major mine prospects are clustered along a north-south
river basins of the Philippines. Of these, 24 mines were trending belt with an approximate area of 260 km 2.
active mineral-producing firms generating 220,000 The most common problems of the mines in the
MT of raw ore daily. About 140,000 MT of mine district is how to dispose of the mine tailings properly.
tailings were being discharged daily into eight rivers, After ore milling and concentration, the mines dis-
charge the railings into neighboring creeks; thus,
KEY WORDS: Mine pollution; Water quality; Watershed management; downstream of the mines all streams are polluted to
Siltation; Mine tailings varying degrees. The total daily tonnage of discharged
EnvironmentalManagementVol. 11, No. 3, pp. 335-344 9 1987 Springer-VerlagNew York Inc.

2. 336 N.D. Briones
0 50 1fib 150 200 250 Krrl
I
N
O
Baguio
-- 17 ~
Mineral
District
C~
Z
N 15~
Figure 1. Location map of the Baguio
Mining District, Luzon, the Philip*
pines.
Figure 2. Aerial view of a typical mining site, Baguio Mining Figure 3. Aerial view of mining roads, Baguio Mining Dis-
District, The Philippines. trict, The Philippines.
mine tailings is approximately 50,000 MT and is ex- district, started operation in 1958 and by 1983 had
pected to increase in the coming years. This quantity, 3000 employees. The mine, which uses the block-
which flows into the Agno River and other nearby caving mining method, has a remaining lifespan of 40
creeks, has caused a considerable amount of damage years. The railings produced by this mine represent
to the agricultural system and aquatic resources. Mine 90% of the total railings volume produced within the
pollution in the area affects four river systems and Lower Agno River watershed and nearly 80% of the
hundreds of thousands of hectares of farms in the overall ore or tailing volume mined in the Baguio Dis-
lowland areas of the provinces of Pangasinan, La trict. At present, Philex Mines' tailings are impounded
Union, and Ilocos Sur (Table 1). in two company-constructed tailing dams that are
Philex Mines, the largest company operating in the being gradually built up on a right bank tributary of

3. Mining Pollution in the Philippines 337
Table 1. River systems affected by mines, Baguio Mining District.
Quantity of tailings River system Province
Mining company produced daily (MT) affected affected
Philex Mines 27,000 Agno Pangasinan
Western Minolcoa 14,000 Amburayan Ilocos Sur
Baguio Gold 7,400 Amburayan La Union
Black Mountain, Inc.b 2,470 Bued La Union
Benguet Consolidated, Inc. 1,974 Agno Pangasinan
Lepanto Consolidated 835 Abra Ilocos Sur
Itogon-Suyoc Mines 120 Agno Pangasinan
Atok- Big Wedgec 100 Agno Pangasinan
Benguet Exploration 87 Bued La Union
Not operatingsince November 1977.
bSuspendedoperationsin 1983.
cNot operatingsince 1976.
the Agno River. These two dams will reach capacity by this practice, which is successfully being adopted by
1987. The construction of a third dam was started in Benguet Mining Corporation, 60% of the generated
1978 but it was stopped in 1979 because of the govern- tailings are recovered and returned underground.
ment's plan to construct a multipurpose reservoir Kennecott Copper Corporation in the USA also uses
downstream to impound mill railings from the mines this method (Mantell 1975). However, this system is
in the watershed. limited to underground sloping mines and not appli-
cable in other underground mining methods such as
block-caving, where ore extraction is enormous (Bug-
Mine Tailings Disposal
nosen 1981).
The three tailings disposal measures generally
adopted by the country's mining companies are (a) di- Containment in Tailing Ponds
rect disposal to the sea, lakes, or rivers, (b) backfill This is the most widely used tailings disposal system
method, and (c) tailings-pond method. in the Baguio district. The tailings are directed into a
pond constructed with the use of dams or dikes
Direct Disposal to the Sea, Rivers, and Lakes (Figures 4-7). Tailings dams are generally built by
The tailings are directly disposed into the sea, using the coarse sand component of the tailings to
rivers, or lakes by means of pipelines and launders form the embankment. The railings particles settle
(box conduits conveying particulate materials sus- while the decanted effluent is allowed to flow into the
pended in water in ore dressing). Suspensions of solids drainage system or sometimes recycled. This method
in water bodies can affect and destroy aquatic life and has several disadvantages. Failure to properly main-
fisheries. If water is turbid with suspended solids, pho- tain the dams can result in tailings escaping into the
tosynthesis by phytoplanktons can take place only near natural drainage system and consequently into the irri-
the surface, so that primary production will be drasti- gation canals and farmlands and other infrastructures.
cally reduced (Holme 1978). Ultimately, fish and other Strong storm events can cause washouts of the tailings
aquatic organisms that directly or indirectly depend on dams.
planktons are also affected. However, disposal to the The tailings coming from the mine processing
sea seems to be the accepted solution in the Philip- plants in the Baguio Mining District are conveyed by
pines. The biggest mine in the country (Atlas Consoli- means of gravity launders to railings ponds formed by
dated Mining Company) disposes most of its tailings to damming nearby creeks. The tailings dams are raised
the sea. The firm has designed, constructed, and now gradually, with the precise pattern following the in-
successfully operates a 47-km system of pipelines and crease of sediment level in the pond. Diversion works
open launders or flumes for transporting tailings by and tunnels divert the natural river flow and floods
gravity to the sea (Gaddi 1981). from the creeks upstream of the ponds to avoid over-
topping of the dams and softening of the sediments.
Backfill Method However, these dams suffer occasional collapses due
The tailings are used as fillings for underground to strong rains that prevail in the area, especially
openings that are mined out or no longer in use. By during the rainy season. At present, a large volume of

4. 338 N.D. Briones
Figure 4. A mine tailings pond that is almost filled up to Figure 5, Aerial view of a tailings pond, Baguio Mining Dis-
capacity. trict, The Philippines.
Figure 6. Aerial view (downstream side) of a tailings dam. A Figure 7. Upstream aerial view of the railings dam and reser-
bulldozer is piling up the tailings to increase the dam's height, voir.
mine tailings is being released and reaches the Agno building facilities, inevitably disturb the environment.
River, thus heavily polluting its waters. Milling operations produce tailings, which, if not
The construction of a railings dam is costly for the properly disposed, could easily find their way into nat-
mining companies and is therefore carried out with ural river systems, resulting in the sedimentation of
extremely limited investment. The stability of the riverbeds and agricultural lands. When rocks and
railings dana therefore is very uncertain, and the wastes are dumped to lower levels, trees are usually cut
ponds represent a serious threat to public projects and down or buried. The heavy-metal components of the
private properties downstream. wastes are subject to leaching and can adversely influ-
ence water quality. Acid water is also an undesirable
Ecological Effects of Improper Mine discharge from the mines.
Tailings Disposal Mill tailings provide a hostile environment to plants
because they are deficient in important soil nutrients,
All mining activities create an imbalance in the envi- have excessive salts and heavy phytotoxicants, and lack
ronment by altering landforms and physiography, microbial populations; moreover, physical damage is
disrupting the hydrologic cycle, and discharging caused by unconsolidated sands that, when wind
wastes into the rivers and polluting them with toxic blown, destroy young plants and seedlings. Mill
wastes. Mineral development activities such as the ex- tailings are also toxic and destructive to much aquatic
cavations in open-pit mining, block-caving, ground life, because of the effects of heavy metals, reagents,
preparation, including construction of roads and and suspended solids.

5. Mining Pollution in the Philippines 339
Table 2. irrigation systems affected by mine tailings. Table 3. Losses due to mine tailings siltation of
Estimated Volume of
irrigation systems (1978 prices).
Total volume of mine tailings
service Irrigated mine tailings per meter Annual loss (million US$)
Irrigation area area in irrigation of canal
system (ha) (ha) canals (m s) (m3/m) Cause Amburayan Agno Bued
Agno 18,509 12,095 509,093 3.20 a Loss due to silting of canals
Lower Agno 8,001 7,515 42,846 3.75 b (rehabilitation) (1970-
Bued 2,766 2,766 33,606 c
Amburayan 3,705 3,553 57,463 0.33 d
1977) 0.20 1.73 0.009 a
Loss due to uncollected
a Based on samples taken from 3 main canals and 1:3 lateral canals. irrigation fees (1970-
b Based on samples taken from 6 lateral canals. 1977) 0.06 0.36 __b
c Not available. Loss due to crop yield
d Based on samples taken from 2 main canals and 2 lateral canals. reduction (1970-1977) 4.44 6.36c b
Loss due to the inability to
irrigate parts of the
Agricultural Production Loss service area (1970-1977) 1.05 0.04c b
Downstream of the mine sites is a productive and Total 5.75 8.49 0.009
heavily populated areas collectively known as the Pan- a For the period 1973-1977.
gasinan Plains, occupying both banks of the Agno b No estimamsmade.
River. Rice is the primary crop in the area with corn, ~ F o r t h e period 1976-1977.
tobacco, mungbean, and peanut as secondary crops.
Yields are generally low due mainly to undependable rigation System, Agno River Irrigation System, and
supply and low quality of irrigation water (NIA 1983). Bued River Irrigation System, respectively (NIA 1978)
In this area, the National Irrigation Administration (Table 3). T h e losses had been attributed to siltation of
(NIA) operates several irrigation systems covering a canals, crop yield reduction, inability to irrigate the
service area of 33,000 ha. The canal network of the service area, and uncollected irrigation fees. The total
irrigation systems is, at present, in rather poor condi- farm area affected was 122,757 ha located in the prov-
tion because of operations and maintenance problems inces of Pangasinan, La Union, and Ilocos Sur.
due to heavy siltation caused by mine railings, as In fresh unweathered form, the mill tailings contain
shown in Table 2 (NIA 1983). very little assimilable plant nutrients and in the rice-
T h e Agno River Irrigation System (the largest irri- fields where such sediments are deposited and mixed
gation system affected by mine pollution) started with the existing soil by plowing and harrowing, the
operation in 1958 and has a total service area of soil fertility had diminished every year. The conse-
18,509 ha, 35% of which is unirrigated due to siltation quences of uncontrolled irrigation water siltation by
from mine tailings. It is a diversion-gravity type that mine wastes have been determined by several studies
gets its water from the Agno River through a diversion (Mercado 1974, Sulliven 1967). Mine wastes have high
weir downstream of the mines at San Roque gorge. acidity and dissolved solids that pollute irrigation
The sediment-laden water of the river had brought water, which results in water which is slightly toxic to
maintenance problems to about 52% of the 222.27 km plant growth. The lower pH changes the stability and
of main canal and laterals of this system. As early as mobility of numerous elements and salts in the soil. In
1963 sedimentation of the canals was already a big addition, continuous siltation has raised the elevation
problem. On the basis of data collected at a cross sec- of the farms so that they require leveling to insure
tion of the main canal, 2 km from the diversion head- proper distribution of irrigation water.
gate, an annual average of 450,000 MT of sediment Based on the population whose livelihood depends
were being deposited along the canals and farm areas directly on agriculture in the area, calculations indicate
served by this irrigation system (Saddam and Prospero that the number of people adversely affected in 1980
1963). Sand from the river had been traced to the far- by these mine tailings was about 146,000.
thest laterals. T h e extent of damage to the Agno River
Irrigation System in 1977 was estimated at a loss of Hydrobiological Effects
25% of its designed capacity because of silting at the In addition to the effects on agricultural produc-
intake structure (Peters and Kitching 1978). tivity, mine tailings also adversely affect the microbio-
By 1978, the annual damage attributable to mine logical regime of the Lower Agno River. In a fishery
tailings had been estimated to be US $5.75 million, US survey conducted in a proposed damsite (BFAR 1983),
$8.49 million, and US $8960 for Amburayan River Ir- identified fish species such as gobies, eels, mudfish,

6. 340 N.D. Briones
black bass, and tilapia were found to be very rare. Of ronmental conditions in the proposed project site and
the nine species of phytoplankton identified, only furthermore would contain mitigating measures to be
three species were considered abundant while the rest undertaken in the course of operations to protect the
are rare. All of the four kinds of zooplanktons identi- environment. This function is under the supervision
fied were rare. Virtually no floating, emergent, or of the National Environmental Protection Council
submerged aquatic vegetation has been found. (NEPC), a public agency created primarily to assure
The absence of abundant fish and other forms of the people of a safe, decent, healthful, and productive
aquatic life is attributed to the high water turbidity environment.
caused by great amounts of fine suspended sediments Several government agencies have been mobilized
from the mine railings. The turbidity reduces light to safeguard the environment from mining pollution
penetration and limits the photosynthetic activities of and specifically to design programs to solve the railings
the phytoplanktons. The resulting decrease of micro- problems in the Bagnio district. These include the Na-
bial population adversely affects the higher forms of tional Pollution Control Commission, the Ministry of
aquatic life, especially fish that directly depend on Public Works and Highways, National Power Corpora-
planktons for sustenance. tion, National Irrigation Administration, and the
Bureau of Mines and Geosciences. Representatives
Government Policies on Mine Tailings Disposal from the mining companies operating in the district
work together with these agencies.
While government concern covers all mining oper-
ations in the Philippines, it has been more or less fo-
cused on the degradation caused by the mining opera- Proposals to Dispose of Mine Tailings
tions in the Bagnio Mining District. Because of the ex- To find a permanent solution to mine tailings dis-
tent of pollution and siltation caused by the mining posal in the Bagnio Mining District, the government
industries, Presidential Decree (PD) no. 463, known as has sought the assistance of several international orga-
the Mineral Resources Development Decree of 1974, nizations, such as the United Nations Environmental
was issued defining the government policies on mine Programme and the Japan International Cooperation
tailings disposal, mineral conservation, rehabilitation Agency, in designing mine disposal schemes.
of mined-out areas, safety, and socioeconomic devel-
opment in mining areas. This decree was further Japanese International Cooperation Agency
amended by PD nos. 1385 and 1677. Among the sa- (JICA) Proposal
lient features of the decree are (a) the submission by The disposal scheme is a combination of tunnel-
mining firms of their long-term plans for the protec- launder (chute)-pipeline designed to accommodate
tion and enhancement of the environment, (b) the im- tailings disposed of in 20 years of mining operations.
plementation of a work program designed to rehabili- The mines' discharge systems will be connected by
tate, regenerate or revegetate mined-out areas, and (c) tunnels that merge in a common area. The tailings will
the provision of appropriate pollution control mea- then be conveyed by pipelines and launders to the sea.
sures to prevent further damage to the environment. The system, which will serve six mines, will start from
In order that the requirements of the decree can be a common point to a discharge point along the sea in
implemented properly, the mining firms are required Lingayen Gulf, a distance of 25 km. Some of the ad-
to put up an "environment protection and enhance- vantages of the proposal are:
ment unit" and to allocate at least 1/2% of the total
yearly operating budget to finance the environmental 1) The system will provide an area for reclamation at
protection activities. the disposal site in Lingayen Gulf with the possi-
Presidential Decree no. 1151 (as amended by PD bility of development such as a park or a port.
1586) was issued in 1977 requiring the submission of 2) The facilities for cleaning the pipeline/launder
Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) which aim along the common line would be a source of irri-
primarily to identify, predict, interpret, and communi- gation water for farmlands along the route of the
cate information regarding the changes in environ- common line.
mental quality associated with a proposed project and 3) The system would take care of future expansions
to examine the range of alternatives for the objective and new mines within the mining district and it
of the proposal and its impact on the environment. would have a 20-year life.
Under this system, a company proposing a mining
project that has significant effects on the environment The disadvantage of the proposal is its high cost esti-
must prepare an EIS that would identify existing envi- mates. The rate of amortization is unacceptable to

7. Mining Pollution in the Philippines 341
some mines which will shoulder a part of the costs. 1) The reservoir can provide up to 1.3 billion m 3 of
The total construction cost estimate of this system storage and has ample capacity to impound the
when it was proposed in 1978 was US $60 million: $29 expected volume of mine railings without the need
million for the land portion and $31 million for the of tailing dams.
sea portion. 2) It will improve downstream water quality by elimi-
nating the solids discharged by the mines and by
United Nations Environment Programme diluting the chemicals released after mine pro-
(UNEP) Proposal cessing.
3) Estimations based on the present mine operations
The disposal scheme is a combination of tunnel-
indicate that the system can accommodate all mine
launder-pipeline system of which the end-point dis-
railings production for the entire productive life
posal of the tailings is in a nearby mountain foothills
of the mines (up to 40 years).
valley. The advantages of the system are the following:
However, under this proposal, only mines affecting
1) It would use state-owned lands, thus significantly
the Agno River would be relieved of the tailings dis-
lowering the costs and the litigation that could be
posal problems. Because of high cost estimates, the
anticipated in the expropriation of private lands.
rates of amortization will be very high. The total cost
2) The discharge area is near the mines, hence costs
of constructing the entire multipurpose project was es-
are lower for railings conveyance works.
timated to be US $1.2 billion (1983 prices).
3) Because of good location and the availability of
While these proposals are being considered, the
roads and power lines, the disposal area offers
mining companies are resorting to their usual means
good opportunities for development and sale.
of disposal, the use of existing pond-tailing dams,
4) It would create an aesthetically and environmen-
which is considered inadequate.
tally acceptable area from what is presently consid-
ered a desolate and economically unproductive
area. Mine Tailings and the San Roque
Multipurpose Project
On the other hand, the feasibility of the proposal de-
pends on the ability to safely contain the Bued River in The proposals done by JICA and UNEP had long
the proposed containment channel at full flood so that been forwarded to the nation's economic planning
the water will not breach the banks of the channel. body, the National Economic Development Authority
This proposal will also condemn the Bued River, and (NEDA), for deliberation and comments. Meanwhile,
the lifespan of the project is relatively short (10 years). the Philippine government had already committed it-
self to the construction of the San Roque Multipur-
National Power Corporation (Philippines) and pose Project with the help of Japanese financing.
Electro-Consult (Italy) Proposal As one of the purposes of the project, the proposed
In 1979, the Philippines' National Power Corpora- reservoir will be used as a trap for mine railings and
tion and ELC (Italy) proposed that the mine tailings be sediments from natural erosion. The technical feasi-
trapped in a multipurpose reservoir to be constructed bility study (NPC-ELC 1979) assumed the status quo
downstream of the mines. This was in connection with ante of the watershed would continue, that is, the in-
a government plan to construct the huge San Roque flow of water and silt and sediment would be the same
Multipurpose Project in the Lower Agno River to pro- in quality and quantity as observed in the past. How-
vide irrigation, hydroelectric power, flood control, and ever, this assumption is doubtful, because soil erosion
water quality improvement. Together with the natural in the area is considered serious owing to the deterio-
erosion runoff, the mine railings will be trapped in the rating conditions of the watershed (BFD 1984). Also,
reservoir. Baguio Mining District lies within the imme- mine tailings production will increase when the inac-
diate watershed of the proposed multipurpose reser- tive mining concessions are developed.
voir. The high investment cost of the SRMPP prompted
The proposed disposal scheme dictates that railings Briones (1985) to attempt to quantify the effects of
will be discharged directly from the mines to the tribu- sedimentation on the proposed reservoir. To estimate
taries of the Agno River. The tailings will accumulate the potential economic loss under the scenario as de-
in the upstream side of the proposed multipurpose picted in the feasibility study, the rate of net sediment
reservoir. According to the proponents, the system has inflow from the mine tailings and natural erosion into
the following advantages: the proposed reservoir has been calculated.

8. 342 N.D. Briones
On the basis of estimations of the productive life- been tried in the Agno River watershed by the R P -
span of the active mines in the area and the daily ton- German Training Center for Reforestation and Soil
nage of mine tailings production, a total of 184 million Erosion Control (Costales and Costales 1983, Costales
m s o f mine railings has been calculated to accumulate and others 1981 and 1982).
in 50 years (the economic planning period of the A two-year data base on mine waste revegetation by
SRMPP). Sedimentation from natural erosion must be Pefiafiel (1981) revealed that Alnus maritima, Trema
added to the mine railings to get the total amount of orientale, Pinus insularis, Desmodium sequiax, Eclipta alba,
sediment that will go into the proposed reservoir. Nat- and Miscanthus sinensis are suitable for mine wastes
ural erosion includes gully and sheet erosion as well as planting in the Baguio district. Because of high mois-
erosion due to road construction and maintenance, ture stress in mined waste areas, Orr (1975) suggested
shifting cultivation and other agricultural activities, that crosswind furrowing and mulching must be
and logging operations. Based on erosion studies con- adopted in order to conserve available moisture for
ducted in the Agno River watershed a net erosion rate the plants and in some degree control soil erosion and
of 6500 ma/km2/year was used in the calculation gushing overland flow. Chapman (1967) recom-
(Briones 1985, BFD 1984, Abernathy 1984). Estima- mended that when tree-planting on open-cast mined
tion of natural erosion gave a total volume of 168 lands is to be done, cavities should be filled and dumps
MCM. Summing up the contribution of mine tailings leveled before the area is covered with topsoil. Then
and the sediment from natural erosion will give a total plants of hardy pioneer species should be planted in
volume of 352 MCM for 50 years. holes to be filled with topsoil originally covering these
The accumulation of this great amount of sediment lands. Whenever a vegetative cover is to be reestab-
in the reservoir will reduce the outputs of hydroelec- lished, the plants or cuttings nmst be set densely
tric energy, usable irrigation water, and storage for enough to be able to close up quickly to form a protec-
flood control. The computation of economic loss by tive blanket, which should consist of a mixture of trees,
Briones (1985) showed that sediments could reduce shrubs, and some grass species. Brushwoods could also
the project benefits by as much as 12% of the original be used for contour planting to temporarily arrest sur-
estimates presented in the feasibility study. In mone- face runoff and soil movement (Agpaoa 1975, Hudson
ta W terms, the value of this decrease is about US $370 i973).
million (discounted at 10%). About 52% of this
amount (US $192.6 million) can be attributed to mine
tailings (on the basis of the proportionate volume of Discussion and Conclusions
mine tailings and natural erosion to be trapped in the
reservoir). When this loss (or benefits forgone) is com- The problem of mining pollution in the Baguio
pared with the JICA proposal, which will cost only US Mining District will surely be felt for as long as the
$37 million (discounted at i0%), it is evident that the mining firms are allowed to operate in the area.
Philippine economy is better off if the JICA proposal Tradeoffs will have to be made inasmuch as many so-
is adopted as the alternative disposal scheme. cial and economic benefits are involved, both for the
mining industry and the downstream sector. It is nec-
essary to maintain a balance between economic growth
An Immediate Answer and environmental quality. What is the appropriate
tradeoff between economic growth and environmental
The proposed disposal schemes are very costly to quality? The answer is crucial for setting appropriate
implement and are not forthcoming, but there are environmental standards and for correctly allocating
measures that can be employed to curb the problem. scarce resources between economic production and
The mining firms can stabilize and reinforce the ex- environmental protection.
isting tailings dams through vegetative covering. Sev- T h e attainment of a good environmental quality is a
eral methods of stabilizing tailings dams have been responsibility of both the public and the private
tried, and vegetative covering seems to be the most sectors. Cooperation between the mining firms and
practical and economical alternative for the mining the government is needed to promote the efficient uti-
companies. Introduction of vegetation to immediately lization and disposition of resources. Government poli-
provide protective cover is very essential, considering cies must include practical considerations and eco-
the hydrologic and ecological enhancement these plant nomics, but they must also include environmental pro-
covers can provide. The use of some biological struc- tection goals. Mining firms, on the other hand, must
tures in stabilizing tailings dams and road banks had be continuously conscious of the pollution that they

9. Mining Pollution in the Philippines 343
contribute to the e n v i r o n m e n t and should endeavor to Philippines. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii, Hono-
minimize the resultant ecological imbalance. T h e rate lulu, Hawaii.
of d e v e l o p m e n t must balance the national economic Bugnosen, E.M. 1981. Mine pollution. Paper presented at
needs and the necessity of maintaining a healthy envi- the 1979-1980 international course on environmental
science, Delft, The Netherlands.
ronment.
Chapman, C.W. 1967. A manual on establishment tech-
Uncertainties cloud the solution r e c o m m e n d i n g a
niques in man-made forests. Paper presented on FAO
planned i m p o u n d m e n t of all mill tailings into the pro- symposium on man-made forests, Canberra, Australia.
posed multipurpose reservoir. T h e r e is a need to as- Costales, E. F., Jr., and A. V. B. Costales. 1983. Effects of
sess the short- and long-term quality o f the reservoir's plant combinations upon protection/stabilization of mined
water with the introduction of mill wastes. Considering waste areas. Terminal report of PCARRD Project no. 639.
the large volume of mine tailings to be eventually Forest Research Institute, Baguio City, The Philippines.
d u m p e d in the p r o p o s e d reservoir, there may be un- Costales, E. F., Jr., A. V. B. Costales, and A. C. Bravo. 1981.
known effects on the stored water's aquatic life, influ- Methods of revegetating mined waste areas through dif-
ferent soil amendments. Research terminal report, Forest
ences on the water's potential use as irrigation water,
Research Institute, UPLB, College, Laguna, The Philip-
and effects on the operation and maintenance of the pines.
electromechanical e q u i p m e n t of the hydroelectric Costales, E. F.,Jr., A. V. Lopez, and G. Felipe. 1982. Restora-
power plant. Since the multipurpose project's main tion of surface and mined waste areas by selected vegeta-
justification is other than as a disposal site for mine tive engineering methods. Research terminal report, Forest
tailings, it would be appropriate and economic that Research Institute, UPLB, College, Laguna, The Philip-
mine tailings disposal be addressed in other ways so as pines.
not to jeopardize the huge investment to be poured Gaddi, I.C. 1981. Environmental management on mineral
into this project. resources development in the Philippines. Bureau of Mines
and Geophysics, Ministry of Natural Resources, Manila,
The Philippines.
Acknowledgments Holme, N. A. 1978. Environmental management of mineral
wastes. Sijthoff and Noordhoff, Alpen van den Rijn, The
T h e author is g r a t e f u l for the financial support Netherlands.
provided by the Environment and Policy Institute, Hudson, N. 1973. Soil conservation. Cornell University Press,
E a s t - W e s t Cen{er, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Sincere Ithaca, New York.
appreciation is extended to the staff of the Watershed Mantell, C.L. 1975. Solid wastes, origin, collection, pro-
M a n a g e m e n t G r o u p of the National Power Corpora- cessing, and disposal. John Wiley and Sons, New York,
tion, Diliman, Q u e z o n City, the Philippines, for pro- New York.
viding logistical support during the field study. Mercado, B. T. 1974. Study of the growth of some rice vari-
eties in NaC1 + salinated soils as affected by season. Philip-
pine Agriculturist 58:40-49.
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