ASDASDASD

1. Chapter 6: Section 1: Psychodynamic Assessment
Section 1: Introduction to Psychodynamic Assessment
Psychodynamic Assessment
Assessing the specific aspects of personality can be as
controversial and complex as the theories themselves.
Because the majority of our actions are dictated by the
unconscious, a bigger struggle was faced by
psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theorists: How to find
out what even the patient himself doesn’t know.
The following two sections describe the theory behind
psychodynamic assessment as well as specific
techniques used. Keep in mind as you read this chapter,
that many other types of assessment exist. In fact, of the
major types of personality assessment techniques,
projective techniques remain the most controversial and
the most open to interpretation.

2. Chapter 6: Section 2: Theory Behind Projective
TestsThe Basis for Projective Techniques
Freudian and Neo-Freudian psychology emphasized the importance of understanding unconscious information and bypassing
strong defense mechanisms in order to help a person heal. treatment is often focused in insight, or creating a deeper
understanding of motives, beliefs, and drives.pretty student revising for her exams #2
If you remember from previous sections, Freud believed that there were only two distinct drives that motivate every person: sex and
aggression. These drives, often buried deep in the unconscious, direct the majority of our everyday behavior. If we are to change
these behaviors, according to psychoanalytic and dynamic thought, we must understand not only what they are but where they
come from as well.
The problem, however, is that this information is hidden even from the individual. Even if he or she wants to access it, there are
defenses in the way that seem to function beyond the conscious will of the person. No matter how much they want to remember
something, no matter how hard they try to access this hidden information, it remains buried.
One of Freud’s main defense mechanisms is called projection: the projecting of one’s own unconscious and often anxiety provoking
impulses onto a less threatening person or object. In other words, a person who has an unconscious need for aggression may
become actively involved in crime prevention and may criticize violence. What they are really doing, according to Freud and others,
is seeing this tendency in the self, acknowledging it and the associated anxiety and then throwing it outside the self to relieve
anxiety. The person can now criticize or attack the self without the associated anxiety.
The idea of projection prompted many psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theorists to devise ways of accessing the buried
information by allowing the patient to project it somewhere else. This resulted in the birth of the projective techniques of
assessment.
The basic idea is to provide neutral and non-threatening stimuli to a patient and then ask them to interpret ambiguous pictures, fill in
the blanks, make associations, or tell stories. If the theory of projection is true, then the clients will project their own unconscious
impulses onto the non-threatening stimuli, allowing the assessor to interpret and move the patient toward increased insight. The
next section provides a description of the main types of projective techniques.

3. Chapter 6: Section 3: Specific Projective Tests
Specific Tests used in Psychodynamic Assessment
There are several commonly used projective techniques that were derived from Freudian and Neo-Freudian
Theories. These projective techniques are gaining more and more research support as they become more
standardized and researched, but they are still open to a lot of different interpretations. Ideally, most psychologists
see these tests as a way to gain information about an individual although they recommend they be used in
conjunction with other assessment techniques.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
The Rorschach is the most commonly used projective technique. The test consists of ten white cards with blots of
ink on them in either black, black and red, or multi colored.
These inkblots were originally random in design and these have been maintained although much research has
gone into each card.
If you’ve ever looked to the sky and saw images in the clouds, then you can appreciate the idea behind the
Rorschach. If the cards have no specific shape (see example to the left), just like the clouds, the shapes we see
are projections from our unconsciousness. In other words, it is not uncommon for children to see bunny rabbits,
kitty cats and monsters in the clouds. These images represent their needs for life and love as well as their
underlying fears about death and aggression.
The research that has taken place with the Rorschach cards has produced a standardized protocol, eliminating the
biggest criticism of projective tests. They have also helped us develop standardized interpretation which allows for
more congruency between evaluators. The standardization allows us to compare the results of one person’s
Rorschach to another’s, and while it is the most accepted projective technique, it continues to lag far behind more
commonly used assessment devices such as the MMPI.

4. Thematic Apperception Test
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by Henry Murray, a student of psychoanalytic thought. The
TAT consists of numerous cards with black and white and grayscale pictures. These pictures where chosen for
two reasons. First, they are ambiguous to some extent and portray emotion and thought without specifying details.
An example would be a silhouette of a man looking off into the distance. While there is obvious emotional and
intellectual activity, the details are not revealed.
Second, they correspond to the major themes of psychoanalytic thought, such as the oedipal complex, where the
son develops an attraction for the mother and then identifies with the father. There are relationship cards and
several that portray both sexual and aggressive undertones without depicted actual violence, aggression, or sexual
activity.
The TAT probably comes in second after the Rorschach in terms of its use and research as a projective test.
Individuals being tested are asked to tell a story about each card, including what led up to the picture, what is
happening in the present, and how the story will end. The basic premise is that unconscious themes will begin to
develop relating to specific types of cards or to the test in general. These themes can then be interpreted and
used for further exploration.
House-Tree-Person
The House-Tree-Person test (H-T-P) requires no specific materials and is not standardized at all. The assessor
tells the individual to draw a picture of a house, a tree, and a person. Once completed, he may ask the individual
to tell a story related to each picture, including the who, what, where, how, and why’s of each.
Different methods of interpretation are utilized, and depending on the assessor’s training and theoretical approach,
different interpretations can arise. Like most projective techniques, it’s strength lies in weakening the defenses and
getting a clearer picture of the unconscious.

5. Free Association
This was one of Freud’s favorite techniques and on the surface sounds quite simple to use. Freud
would sit in his chair behind the patient so as not to allow any projection to occur. He would then
allow the patient to talk, without interruption or guidance, for an extended period. Freud would take
notes, analyze themes, and piece together aspects of the unconscious that peak out.
Others might provide a topic for this free association, such as ‘mother’ or ‘anger’ and then sit back to
allow the patient to freely associate. Without pressures, anxiety, or fears, the aspects of the
unconscious are more free to show themselves. Interrupting or guiding the patient would therefore
strengthen the defenses and push the unconscious impulses back down.
Dream Analysis
Another favorite of Psychoanalytic therapists, dream interpretation allows the assessor to find themes
and hidden meaning in the patients dreams. Freud believed that all dreams consist of manifest, or
obvious content, and latent, or hidden content.
The manifest content of dreams are the story like details that we share with others. For example,
dreaming of flying would include details of how it came about, who was there, where the person flew,
how fast, how high, etc. The latent content consists of bits and pieces of the unconscious that seep
out while we are asleep and our defense mechanisms are their weakest. The dream of flying may
represent a deeper unconscious need for freedom, a fear becoming too grounded or stuck, or perhaps
even an expression of one’s sexual impulses. The interpretation afforded a specific dream can vary
dramatically and most agree that using this technique in conjunction with other information is its only
ethical use.

6. • Word Association
• Word Association tests can take many forms as there is no single accepted list of words. Simply
put, when using this type of test, the assessor would read a list of words, asking the participant to
write down the very first thing that comes to mind after each. The object is to bypass defense
mechanisms that are at play and get to the unconscious before these defenses have a chance to
work.
• As you might guess, there are some words that are common on such a test, mother, father, and sex
being at the top of this list. There is research on word association tests but since there is no
standard form, the efficacy of such has not been determined. Like many of the projective
techniques, it may be that this assessment provides some quality information that, in the very least,
can inspire further investigation.
• Incomplete Sentences
• This assessment can take numerous form but the main idea behind it is the completion of partially
completed sentences. Items on such a test might look like the following:
• 1. A best friend ____________________________.
• 2. Mothers ____________________________.
• 3. My worse childhood experience was _______________________.
Obviously a test such as this is somewhat simple to manipulate, and that is a recognized
negative. However, many see this assessment as a means to get information that may not be at the
surface level or to prompt an individual to think about something that he may have forgotten or
suppressed. The Incomplete Sentences tests also work well with children, some say even better,
because they tend to be more honest and less wise as to the purpose of the assessment.

7. Chapter 7: Section 1: Trait Theory
Introduction to Trait Theory
Practically all personality theorists are concerned with traits. After all, traits are what make
us who we are; they are the relatively permanent aspects of each of us evidenced by the
consistency in our interactions. Knowing this, what makes the trait approach to
understanding personality different from the other theories?
First of all, while most theories represent attempts at better understanding the development
of personality, trait theorists typically talk very little about development. Second, predicting
a person’s behavior in a given situation is also not a concern for trait theorists. Third, unlike
many other theoretical orientations, trait theorists are interested in the comparison of people
through based on not just aspects, but also degrees. And finally, and likely the biggest
difference, trait theory does not inherently provide a medium of personality change.
In this chapter, we will look at some of the most influential trait theorists and explore
different approaches to identifying and understanding human personality traits. Because
trait theory is so concerned with identification, we will also discuss various assessment
techniques that have become commonplace in the psychological community.

8. Chapter 7: Section 2: Gordon Allport, The Original
Trait Theorist
The Functionally Autonomous Central Traits
Gordon Allport was born in Indiana, the youngest of four boys. As a child he felt different from others,
both in his childhood play and his interests. After high school followed his older brother Floyd through
the same educational path. They went to the same undergraduate program, both attended Harvard
for graduate school, and both majored in psychology. Floyd made a name for himself in social
psychology, but Gordon felt like an outsider in this arena.7.1
Gordon was interested in personality, and at the time, personality was not a formal sub-discipline of
psychology and it certainly was not as fashionable as social psychology. It is likely that Gordon
followed his brother through school in an attempt to find himself. He reported feeling different from
others, including his older brother. This feeling, however, might have helped him succeed in his
chosen profession.
He completed his doctorate, began studying personality. It is said that he was the first professor to
teach a college level course on personality theory, a course that today is required by nearly all
undergraduate psychology majors.
Prior to graduation, Allport secured a meeting with Sigmund Freud due to his writing on the
unconscious and its effect on personality. It was during this meeting, after being probed by Freud for
unconscious motives, that Allport wrote that psychologists should give full recognition to manifest
motives before delving into the unconscious.

9. Allport is considered a trait theorist as he believed that every person
has a small number of specific traits that predominate in his or her
personality. He called these a person’s central traits. While these
central traits share in the make-up of personality, he also argued that
occasionally one of them becomes an apparent dominant force. He
called this a person’s cardinal trait.
Both the central traits and the occasional cardinal trait are
environmentally influenced. As a child develops, specific behaviors and
interactions become a part of the individual’s personality. As the
person grows, these traits become functionally autonomous. In other
words, they become so much a part of the person that they no longer
require whatever it was that caused it to develop.

10. Chapter 7: Section 3: Henry Murray and the TAT
Psychogenic Needs
Henry Murray’s history is anything but a prerequisite for a career in psychology. He earned
his bachelor’s degree in history in 1915, a medical degree from Columbia in 1919 and then
completed a doctorate in biochemistry from Cambridge nine years later.
His start in psychology occurred after reading Jung and eventually arranging a meeting with
him. During this meeting, Jung convinced Murray to study psychoanalysis, which he did at
Harvard University. After competing his training, Murray actually began teaching
psychology and psychoanalytic theory at Harvard, and he remained there for the rest of his
professional career.
Although considered a trait theorist, Murray’s medical background, combined with his
analytical training give a unique flair to his research and writing. This is probably most
evident in his development of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a personality test
designed to determine personality themes as well as unconscious motivation.
He was focused on basic needs in personality which he called psychogenic needs. He
believed these needs were largely at the unconscious level. After researching this area, he
narrowed these needs down to 27, although the list and names vary depending on the time
frame and the author.

12. To analyze and experience, to seek knowledge
Murray contended that environmental forces played a
significant role in the exhibition of the psychogenic
needs. He called the forces “press,” referring to the
pressure they put on us that forces us to act. He
further argued for a difference between the real
environmental forces, alpha press, and those that are
merely perceived, beta press.
The 27 needs and the forces that press them have
stood up to research. Three of these, especially,
have been the focus of study: the need for Power,
Affiliation, and Achievement.

13. Power, Affiliation, and Achievement
Three of Murray’s Psychogenic Needs have been the focus of considerable research: The Need for Power (nPow),
Affiliation (nAff) and Achievement (nAch).
The need for Power refers to the desire or need to impact other people, to control or be in a position of
influence. Careers that involve these aspects are better suited for high nPow people, such as teachers,
psychologists, journalists, and supervisors. They don’t necessarily make the best leaders though. Research has
found that those with high nPow are more likely to rate an employee higher if that employee has a tendency to
schmooz or flatter the subject where those with low or moderate nPow rate employees the same. In this sense,
those with high nPow would do well if they also had traits of self-control and objectivity.
The need for affiliation has a long history of research, and studies show that those with a high nAff often have a
larger social circle. They spend more time interacting with other such as talking on the phone and writing letters, and
they are more likely to be members of social groups or clubs. Those with high nAff are also more likely to get lonely
than those low in nAff, so their need for affiliation may be related to their sense of self and their desire for external
stimulation.
Those with a high need for achievement (nAch) demonstrate a consistent concern about meeting obligations and
accomplishing tasks. They are, however, more focused on internal motivation rather than external rewards. For
example, those high in nAch are more likely to value intelligence and personal achievement over recognition and
praise.
There are also cultural and gender differences among these three needs. For example, the United States is higher
on ratings of nAch than other countries whose focus is more on relationships and nAff. Men and women also
demonstrate their needs in different manners. Men with high nPow tend to be more risk takers and act out more
readily while women tend to be more active in volunteer activities.
Combined with other personality aspects of traits, such as introversion/extroversion, the needs may also show
themselves in very different manners. Introverts may demonstrate their high nAff through small groups and
intellectual pursuits, while extroverts evidence this same need through large gatherings and louder parties. However
they come out, these three needs have shown a consistent pattern in research, perhaps even more so related to
humanistic theory than in trait theory itself.

14. Chapter 7: Section 4: Raymond Cattell and the 16PF
Personality Factors
Raymond B. Cattell entered the field of psychology almost against his own better judgment. After working in a
hospital during World War I, he decided that understanding human behavior and interaction is the only way to
get beyond the irrationality of the times. While a graduate student at London University, he was hired as a
research assistant to Charles Spearman, a mathematician studying the quantification of intelligence.
Spearman, a well known name in the field of intellectual assessment, developed a mathematical formula known
as factor analysis. This statistical technique allows one to take raw data and determine groupings of data. In
other words, if you and many others took a general test that had both math and English questions, a factor
analysis would likely determine that there were two factors or groupings on this test. Imagine the power of this
technique for lesser understood concepts such as intelligence and personality.
By developing questionnaires and tests consisting of personality characteristics, and analyzing data from report
cards of students, evaluations from employees, etc., Cattell applied this new statistical technique. In 1949, he
published his findings in an assessment device known as the 16PF. According to Cattell’s research, human
personality traits could be summarized by 16 personality factors (PF) or main traits.
He described these 16 traits on a continuum. In other words, everybody has some degree of every trait,
according to Cattell. The key to assessment is determining where on the continuum an individual falls. The 16
traits are shown in the chart below.

16. The OCEAN of Personality
If you look at the theories we’ve discussed so far, not only within the trait theory camp, but also those
of Hans Eysenck and even Sigmund Freud, you may start to notice some commonalities. Many
different researchers, from different schools of thought have studied the aspects of personality and
several interesting similarities have evolved. While different theorists may use different terminology,
five factors or personality traits have shown up in a rather consistent pattern.
These traits, now known as the Big Five are Openness to experience, Conscientiousness,
Extroversion/introversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. These five traits, according to many,
make up the OCEAN of human personality, as the acronym goes, and are often considered to be the
basic traits under which all other aspects of personality fall.
Openness to experience refers to the dimension ranging from outgoing, liberal, interested in new
things, and imaginative to reserved, conservative, traditional, and conforming. Like all of these five
traits, people will fall somewhere on a continuum, with most falling somewhere in the middle.
Conscientiousness refers to the continuum ranging from organized, careful, and determined to
careless, and weak willed. Those on the high end of this factor may be seen as stoic, cold, and
methodical. Those on the low end may be seen as gullible, followers, or may see the needs of others
as always superceding their own.

17. Extroversion refers to a person who prefers group activities, group sports, large gatherings,
lots of friends and acquaintances, loud music, and social endeavors. An introvert prefers
more solitude, quiet music, small groups or individual sports and would rather stay at home
or engage in a small group activity than attend a party or large social gathering. We’ve even
found that extroverts tend to get bored more easily and may be followers who seek out
others to avoid this boredom. Introverts, on the other hand, tend to become anxious more
easily, especially in larger groups, and prefer the individual activity to avoid this anxiety, and
as more of an individualist, may be seen as more of a leader.
Agreeableness represents the extremes of stubborn versus easy going or suspicious versus
trusting. Those high in agreeableness are helpful, sympathetic to others, and
understanding. Those low on this trait are seen as argumentative, skeptical, and strong-
willed.
Finally, neuroticism refers to the dimension of emotional stability. Someone high on
neuroticism would exhibit an instability in his or her emotions, interactions, and
relationships. They may have frequent and wide mood swings, be difficult to understand,
and become more upset over daily stressors and interactions. The person low on
neuroticism may be seen as reserved, calm, and perhaps even unemotional.

18. Application of Trait Theory
One of the most obvious applications of understanding human traits is our ability to then measure these
traits. We’ve discussed some of the assessment devices based on trait theory: The Thematic
Apperception Test, 16PF, and tests designed to measure the Big Five. Most of the assessment devices
that result from trait theory are self-report type tests. In other words, the person being tested responds to
questions and these responses may or may not be accurate. People can lie on a test, they can fake bad
or fake good, or they can purposefully try to manipulate the results.
If you are taking a test for a sales job and asked questions regarding your level of
extroversion/introversion, is it likely that you might lie or stretch the truth a little to get the job? If you are
an introvert, you may feel this would hinder your chances. So instead, you respond positively to the
extrovert questions such as “I prefer social activities to solitary activities, ” or “I enjoy being the center of
attention.”
One assessment device that has attempted to address these issues is the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory. The MMPI-2 (now in it’s second addition) consists of 567 item to which a test taker
responds either true or false. The response styles or factors have been determined based on statistics
and depending on how you respond, you will fall on a continuum of an increasing number of traits. The
main traits include disorder related categories such as depression, psychotic, histrionic (neurotic),
introversion, masculinity/femininity (gender role), and hypochondriasis. This test is so well researched
that there are literally over a hundred of these scales now represented.

19. The MMPI-2 utilizes several techniques that attempt to catch a person who is
attempting to alter the results. It asks questions in a specific way as to determine
what’s called a response style. A response style is a person’s tendency to be
honest, fake good, or fake bad. And, research suggests that it does a fairly good
job of this, especially with people who are less knowledgeable about psychological
testing.
Another application of trait theory has been in the workplace. A great deal of
research has gone into the determination of traits that are helpful in specific types
of jobs. For example, a sales person would likely do better if she is an extrovert, a
teacher more likely to succeed if he is conscientious, or a navy seal more likely to
get the job done if he is confident and open to new experiences.
Many career type assessment measures look at personality traits and compare you
traits with those who are successful in a specific career. If most successful and
happy psychologists are conscientious, agreeable, understanding introverts and
you have these same traits, we could say that you are likely to succeed as a
psychologist. Based on your traits, we could use assessment to determine careers
or college majors that fit your personality and therefore offer you a greater chance
of success.

20. Strengths and Criticisms of Trait Theory
While trait theory may seem logical and strait forward, like any theory on
personality, it has both its good points and its criticisms.
Strengths
Objectivity. Perhaps the biggest strength of trait theory is it’s reliance on statistical
or objective data. Unlike many other theories, the subjectivity or personal
experience of the theorists play no role in trait theory. Freud’s relationship with his
mother, Adler’s childhood illness, or Jung’s belief in mythology could be said to
have influenced their theories. In that sense, subjectivity may have biased their
ideas. Trait theory has no bias.
Ease of Use and Understanding. Trait theory has been used to develop a number
of assessment devices. It provides an easy to understand continuum that provides
a good deal of information regarding a person’s personality, interaction, and beliefs
about the self and the world. Understanding traits allows us to compare people, to
determine which traits allow a person to do better in college, in relationships, or in a
specific career. We can help guide people toward a more agreeable future by
knowing how they interact with the world.

21. Criticisms
Poor Predictor of Future Behavior. While we may be able to say, in general that a person falls on
the high end or low end of a specific trait, trait theory fails to address a person’s state. A state is a
temporary way of interacting and dealing with the self and others. For example, an introvert may be
quiet, reserved, intellectual, and calm in most situations. When around close friends, however, he
may seem quite outgoing, fun-loving, and excitable. The same could be said for the extrovert who,
when presented with a job interview, may act more introverted, shy, reserved, and intellectual.
Does not Address Development. While statistics may be a strength of trait theory, it may also be it’s
biggest criticism. Because it is based on statistics rather than theory, it provides no explanation of
personality development. Where most theories argue for the development (past), the current
personality (present) and provide a means for change (future), trait theory is stuck in the present.
No Means of Change. Perhaps because trait theory does little to offer ideas about trait
development, it also provides little or no guidance in the changing of negative aspects of a
trait. Without understanding how a trait develops, how do we then change that trait? Many argue
that the application of trait theory is significantly reduced because it lacks a means for
change. What good is to measure something or to know something if we can do nothing about it?

22. Chapter 8: Section 1: Learning Theory
Section 1: Introduction to Learning Theory and
Behavioral Psychology
Introduction to Learning Theory and Behavioral Psychology
Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential
behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive our environment, the way we
interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact or behave. John B. Watson (1878-1958)
was the first to study how the process of learning affects our behavior, and he formed the school of thought
known as Behaviorism, now considered a sub-camps of learning theory. The central idea behind
behaviorism is that only observable behaviors are worthy of research since other abstraction such as a
person’s mood or thoughts are too subjective. This belief was dominant in psychological research in the
United Stated for a good 50 years.
Perhaps the most well known Behaviorist is B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner followed much of Watson’s
research and findings, but believed that internal states could influence behavior just as external stimuli. He is
considered to be a Radical Behaviorist because of this belief, although nowadays it is believed that both internal
and external stimuli influence our behavior.
Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in how our behavior results from the stimuli both in the environment
and within ourselves. They study, often in minute detail, the behaviors we exhibit while controlling for as many
other variables as possible. Often a grueling process, but results have helped us learn a great deal about our
behaviors, the effect our environment has on us, how we learn new behaviors, and what motivates us to change
or remain the same.

23. Other sub-camps of learning theory include Social Learning. or the idea that we learn through our
interactions with society. In social learning theory, society plays a much larger role in the way we
think about ourselves and the world and therefore how we interact or behave in the larger context of
society.
Still others see our thoughts as playing an important role in the development of personality. While
this concept is negated or denied by some strict behaviorists, many argue that the world is not made
up of factual information but rather information that is always open to interpretation. The way we
perceive the world is much more important than the way the world really is. Social-Cognitive
theories of personality represents a combination of behaviorist, social learning theory, and cognitive
theory and could be termed cognitive-behavioral in nature

24. Chapter 8: Section 2: Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
One important type of learning, Classical Conditioning, was actually discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov (1849-
1936). Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who discovered this phenomenon while doing research on digestion.
His research was aimed at better understanding the digestive patterns in dogs.
During his experiments, he would put meat powder in the mouths of dogs who had tubes inserted into various organs
to measure bodily responses. What he discovered was that the dogs began to salivate before the meat powder was
presented to them. Then, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the person feeding them would enter the room. He
soon began to gain interest in this phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favor of his now famous
Classical Conditioning study.
Basically, the findings support the idea that we develop responses to certain stimuli that are not naturally occurring.
When we touch a hot stove, our reflex pulls our hand back. It does this instinctually, no learning involved. It is merely
a survival instinct. But why now, do some people, after getting burned, pull their hands back even when the stove is
not turned on? Pavlov discovered that we make associations which cause us to generalize our response to one
stimuli onto a neutral stimuli it is paired with. In other words hot burner = ouch, stove = burner, therefore, stove =
ouch.
Pavlov began pairing a bell sound with the meat powder and found that even when the meat powder was not
presented, the dog would eventually begin to salivate after hearing the bell. Since the meat powder naturally results in
salivation, these two variables are called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the unconditioned response (UCR),
respectively. The bell and salivation are not naturally occurring; the dog was conditioned to respond to the bell.
Therefore, the bell is considered the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the salivation to the bell, the conditioned
response (CR).

25. Many of our behaviors today are shaped by the pairing of stimuli. If you ever noticed certain stimuli, such as the
smell of a cologne or perfume, a certain song, a specific day of the year, results in fairly intense emotions. Its not
that the smell or the song are the cause of the emotion, but rather what that smell or song has been paired
with…perhaps an ex-boyfriend or ex-girlfriend, the death of a loved one, or maybe the day you met you current
husband or wife. We make these associations all the time and often don’t realize the power that these connections,
or pairings have on us. But, in fact, we have been classically conditioned.
Operant Conditioning
Another type of learning, very similar to that discussed above, is called Operant Conditioning. The term “Operant”
refers to how an organism operates on the environment, and hence, operant conditioning comes from how we
respond to what is presented to us in our environment. It can be thought of as learning due to the natural
consequences of our actions.
Lets explain that a little further. The classic study of Operant Conditioning involved a cat who was placed in a box
with only one way out; a specific area of the box had to be pressed in order for the door to open. The cat initially tries
to get out of the box because freedom is reinforcing. In its attempt to escape, the area of the box is triggered and the
door opens. The cat is now free. Once placed in the box again, the cat will naturally try to remember what it did to
escape the previous time and will once again find the area to press. The more the cat is placed back in the box, the
quicker it will press that area for its freedom. It has learned, through natural consequences, how to gain the
reinforcing freedom.
We learn this way everyday in our lives. Imagine the last time you made a mistake; you most likely
remember that mistake and do things differently when the situation comes up again. In that sense,
you’ve learned do act differently based on the natural consequences of your previous actions. The same
holds true for positive actions. If something you did results in a positive outcome, you are likely to do that
same activity again.

26. Chapter 8: Section 3: Reinforcement and Reinforcement
Schedules
Reinforcement
The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything stimulus which strengthens or
increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if you want your dog to sit on command, you may give
him a treat every time he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in
a treat. This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so
This is a simple description of a reinforcer (the treat), which increases the response
(sitting). We all apply reinforcers everyday, most of the time without even realizing we
are doing it. You may tell your child “good job” after he or she cleans their room;
perhaps you tell your partner how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe
you got a raise at work after doing a great job on a project. All of these things increase
the probability that the same response will be repeated.
There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative,
punishment, and extinction. We’ll discuss each of these
and give examples.

27. Positive Reinforcement
The examples above describe what is referred to as
positive reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in
order to increase a response. For example, adding a treat
will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will
increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her
room. The most common types of positive reinforcement
or praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced
this as both the giver and receiver.
Negative Reinforcement
Think of negative reinforcement as taking something away
in order to increase a response. Taking away a toy until
your son picks up his room, or withholding payment until a
job is complete are examples of this. Basically, you want
to remove or withhold something of value in order to
increase a certain response or behavior.
Punishment
Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order
to decrease a behavior. The most common example of
this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for misbehaving.
The reason we do this is because the child begins to
associate being punished with the negative behavior. The
punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she
will stop behaving in that manner.
Extinction
When you remove something in order to decrease a
behavior, this is called extinction. You are taking
something away so that a response is decreased.
Research has found positive reinforcement is the most
powerful of any of these. Adding a positive to increase a
response not only works better, but allows both parties to
focus on the positive aspects of the situation. Punishment,
when applied immediately following the negative behavior
can be effective, but results in extinction when it is not
applied consistently. Punishment can also invoke other
negative responses such as anger and resentment.

28. Reinforcement Schedules
Know that we understand the four types of reinforcement, we need to
understand how and when these are applied. For example, do we
apply the positive reinforcement every time a child does something
positive? Do we punish a child every time he does something
negative? To answer these questions, you need to understand the
schedules of reinforcement.
Applying one of the four types of reinforcement every time the
behavior occurs (getting a raise after every successful project or
getting spanked after every negative behavior) is called a Continuous
Schedule. Its continuous because the application occurs after every
project, behavior, etc. This is the best approach when using
punishment. Inconsistencies in the punishment of children often
results in confusion and resentment. A problem with this schedule is
that we are not always present when a behavior occurs or may not be
able to apply the punishment.

29. There are two types of continuous schedules:
Fixed Ratio
A fixed ratio schedule refers to applying the reinforcement
after a specific number of behaviors. Spanking a child if you
have to ask him three times to clean his room is an example.
The problem is that the child (or anyone for that matter) will
begin to realize that he can get away with two requests before
he has to act. Therefore, the behavior does not tend to
change until right before the preset number.
Fixed Interval
Applying the reinforcer after a specific amount of time is
referred to as a fixed interval schedule. An example might be
getting a raise every year and not in between. A major
problem with this schedule is that people tend to improve their
performance right before the time period expires so as to “look
good” when the review comes around.
When reinforcement is applied on an irregular basis, they are
called variable schedules.

30. Variable Ratio
This refers to applying a reinforcer after a variable number
of responses. Variable ratio schedules have been found to
work best under many circumstances and knowing an
example will explain why. Imagine walking into a casino
and heading for the slot machines. After the third coin you
put in, you get two back. Two more and you get three
back. Another five coins and you receive two more back.
How difficult is it to stop playing?
Variable Interval
Reinforcing someone after a variable amount of time is
the final schedule. If you have a boss who checks your
work periodically, you understand the power of this
schedule. Because you don’t know when the next ‘check-
up’ might come, you have to be working hard at all times
in order to be ready.
In this sense, the variable schedules are more powerful
and result in more consistent behaviors. This may not be
as true for punishment since consistency in the application
is so important, but for all other types of reinforcement
they tend to result in stronger responses.

31. Chapter 8: Section 4: Social Learning Theory
The Role of Expectancy
While the power of behaviorism gained a great deal of attention and productive
research, it began to look as though classical and operant conditioning did not go
far enough in explaining the behavior of humans. Researchers began to question
the idea that only external reinforcers play a role in the actions an individual
performs. They began to look at the internal aspects such as attitudes, beliefs,
and thoughts.
This new way of approaching a very successful theory
marked a transition away from strict behaviorism and
toward a concept known as social learning theory. As this
occurred, researchers began to recognize the fact that
people sometimes exhibit a behavior without any external
reward or reinforcement. The idea, then, was that
perhaps internal thoughts could be rewarded just as
external behaviors.
Julian Rotter is perhaps the most well known theorist to
challenge strict behaviorism from within the same
camp. He believed that humans are more complex than
lower animals and that pure behaviorism does not go far
enough in explaining the complex behaviors of humans

32. According to Rotter, people engage in behaviors not
merely for the reward but because of what he called
Behavior Potential. He defined this in terms of both an
expectancy to be rewarded and the value of the potential
reward. In other words, the potential for a person to act in
a certain manner is determined by both how much he
expects to be rewarded for that behavior and how much
the reward is worth to him.
For a behavior to occur, according to Rotter, both of these must exist. If a person believes
he can do very well at a specific task and therefore receive the reward but sees the reward
as useless, he is much less likely to perform. For example, Playing the lottery has a very
low expectancy of reward for most people. However, the value of the reward is so high that
people will engage in this behavior.
For new situations, traditional behaviorism states that we
engage in a type of trial and error learning. In other
words, we try different behavior until we find one that is
reinforcing. Rotter believed our behavior in novel situation
was not this random. He argued that we will often apply
what we know about the expectancy and value of rewards
from similar situations. If we know we enjoy baseball, we
may be more likely to engage in a neighborhood softball
game even though we’ve never played the game before.

33. Chapter 8: Section 5: Social-Cognitive Theory
Reciprocal Determinism
Like Rotter, Albert Bandura also saw problems with the
traditional behaviorist’s view of personality. He argued
that some behaviors that we exhibit are strictly human
behaviors and that studying animals can never give us a
compete understanding of human nature. The one major
difference between human and lower animals, according
to Bandura, is our advanced ability to process information.
His theory, known now as Social-Cognitive Theory, states
that two aspects of human nature determine behavior:
internal and external. He called these reciprocal
determinants of behavior because they act together and
can not be separated. Since the outcome of our internal
and external determinants can also influence future
behavior, Bandura believed that these three aspects make
up his model.

34. Observational Learning
Bandura argued that learning can take place without actually exhibiting
a change in behavior. Unlike behaviorists, who believe no learning
takes place without a change in behavior, he felt that we could actually
observe others, read books, hear stories and learn information that is
stored for future use. This phenomenon is known as observational
learning. Like the rest of his theory, even though we don’t perform the
activity we learned, we still maintain both an internal and external belief
about the outcome of that activity. If we see the outcome as negative,
even though we may be wrong, we are less likely to engage in it.
Research has indicated that there is support for this
concept. In his classic experiment, Bandura (1965)
looked at the behavior of children after watching a model
on TV perform aggressive acts. The children were divided
into three groups; model rewarded, model punished, and
no consequence, referring to the outcome of these
aggressive acts. As he expected, all of the children were
able to perform the aggressive acts even though they had
never performed them or been rewarded for them in the
past. However, those who witnessed the aggressive
model being punished exhibited less aggressive acts
themselves in the play time that followed

35. Chapter 9: Section 1: Behavioral Theory Applications and
Research
Section 1: From Theory to Practical Application
Behaviorism
Perhaps the biggest strength of behaviorism and the resulting social learning
and social cognitive theories are their ease of application to real world
examples. Information gathered for learning theories such as these are often
represented by statistics and facts, rather than theoretical concepts and
ideas. Therefore, applying them and measuring the outcome is much
simpler.
We have also found that the treatment approaches
developed from these theories is relatively simple and
quick to administer. Curing mental illnesses that would
have taken months or even years with traditional
psychoanalysis can now be completed in weeks, or even
days.
his chapter discusses the benefits of learning theories and behavioral
psychology as well as the most commonly applied treatment, behavior
modification. It ends with a short discussion regarding potential short
comings of the theory and the inevitable criticism that is given every
theory in psychology.

36. Chapter 9: Section 2: Behavior Modification
Behavior Modification
Since the only thing worth measuring in behavioral theory
is behavior, it is only logical that the one thing behaviorists
focus on changing is also behavior. Behavior modification
is the generic term given any process derived from
learning theory where the goal is to change a person’s
behavior or the way he or she interacts with the world.
To understand behavior modification, you have to
understand the two main concepts that it is based on:
Classical and Operant Conditioning. Classical
conditioning refers to the pairing of naturally occurring
stimulus-response chains with other stimuli in order to
produce a similar response. Operant conditioning started
as an experiment in learning and developed into the Law
of Effect and our knowledge of reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction.

37. In behavior modification, we apply these same techniques in order to effect change on
the way a person acts or responds to the environment. Changing complex behaviors,
hence, requires complex behavioral modification. The concept of shaping comes into
play here. Shaping refers to the reinforcement of behaviors that approximate or come
close to the desired new behavior. The steps involved are often called successive
approximations because they successively approximate or get closer and closer to the
desired behavior.
Shaping
Research has found that this technique works well for phobias and anxiety related
disorders. Take arachnophobia for instance, the fear of spiders. To be diagnosed with a
phobia you must have both an irrational fear that is not justified by current outcome and
significant distress or negative consequences because of this irrational fear. To modify this
fear or the behavior of avoiding or running away from spiders, behaviorists would apply the
concept of shaping.
The process of shaping involves the creation of a
hierarchy ranging from the least feared situation (such as
a stuffed animal that looks like a spider) to the most
feared situation (a real tarantula, for example). We would
then fill in the space between the two with situations that
progressively produce higher levels of fear. The following
is an example of such a hierarchy:

38. We would then start at the bottom of the hierarchy and reinforce the person
for engaging in this behavior, or for our example, touching or handling the
stuffed animal. Once they master this level, we would then move to the next
level and repeat the same process. Ultimately, through shaping and behavior
modification, the person will be cured of their irrational fear of spiders. This
technique, and others based on the same principles, have been found to be
quite successful for specific disorders
Systematic Desensitization
A concept described by Joseph Wolpe uses a hierarchy like the example above but
instead of applying reinforcement, the client is taught to relax. Some behaviors are
incongruent with each other and we have found that being tense, anxious and afraid is
not possible when a person is relaxed. The theory argues that if we can teach a person
to relax in the presence of a feared object or situation, then we can alleviate the
associated fear
In systematic desensitization, an hierarchy is created,
typically by the client alone or with the assistance of the
behavioral therapist. Often the hierarchy includes
imagination such as imaging a spider crawling toward you
or imaging a spider on your hand as intermediate
steps. The goal of this treatment is the same as shaping
and reinforcement; to eliminate the fear associated with
the object or situation.

39. This techniques has also received much research that
suggests it is an effective and viable treatment for
phobias, anxiety related disorders, and even sexual
dysfunctions. The performance anxiety associated with
impotence in males is often reduced significantly with
systematic desensitization.
While shaping uses the theory of operant conditioning and
reinforcement, systematic desensitization was derived
from classical conditioning. The object (UCS), originally
paired with fear (UCR) is altered so that the object (CS)
becomes paired with relaxation (CR) and hence a
relearning of a conditioned response. Overall, both
treatments have been applied to many different symptoms
related to anxiety and fear with very positive outcomes.

40. Chapter 9: Section 3: Learned Helplessness
Learning to be Helpless
The experiments in classical conditioning started as research on digestion and almost by
accident lead to a concept that has become a staple in behavioral theory. In 1967, while
researching classical conditioning, another accidental discovery occurred. In the original
experiments, dogs were placed in harnesses so that they could not escape and then were
presented with small electric shocks (Overmier & Seligman, 1967; Seligman & Maier,
1967). After this experience, these dogs as well as dogs who had not undergone the
original harness studies were placed in a shuttle box (see below) which consisted of two
sides both with independent electric grids on the floor.
What they discovered was a distinct difference between the dogs who had
originally been harnessed and those who had not. For the latter, when a shock
was presented, they almost immediately, after trying different methods of escape,
jumped across the barrier to escape the uncomfortable shock. The previously
harnessed dogs showed distress, as did the other digs, but unlike the other dogs,
failed to escape the shock and ultimately laid down on the grid and whimpered
(Seligman, 1975).
These studies demonstrated that previous learning can result in a drastic change in
behavior. When presented with a situation that allowed the dogs to control their
experience, those who learned earlier that they had no control failed to escape the
shock. Without this learning, escape was not only seen as a possibility, the behavior to
escape was exercised in every case.

41. In the study of psychological phenomenon of animals, the next logical step after a discovery such
as this, is to determine its effect on humans. Experiments were designed presenting a loud
irritating noise (rather than the original shock) to human subjects (Hiroto, 1974; Hiroto & Seligman,
1975). In these experiments, subjects were presented with the noise and told that if they solved a
puzzle the noise would turn off. By pressing a series of buttons, for example, one group learned
that they had control over their environment. A second group, however, were presented with
puzzles that had no solutions, resulting in an inability to turn off the irritating noise.
To test if their learning would generalize to other areas, these same subjects, as well as new subjects
were then presented with similar situations but with new types of problems to solve. The problems in
this phase were identical, so each group had an equal chance of solving the problems. Those who
were able to control their environment before did as well as new subjects, however, those in the
unsolvable condition before, did significantly worse. Like the dogs in the original experiments, the
human subjects also inaccurately generalized their learned helplessness to a new situation
Several replications of these experiments support the idea that we can learn to be helpless
in an environment that actually offers us control (Garber & Seligman, 1980, Peterson, Maier,
& Seligman, 1993). This realization has since been applied to many aspects of human
behavior, and does well to explain why people in certain situations accept their
uncomfortable or negative situation despite the ability to change it.

42. Applications of Learned Helplessness
Since the original learned helplessness experiments, the phenomenon has been
applied to several areas of human behavior, including (1) Depression (Seligman,
1975; Seligman, 1976); (2) elderly adults and old-age homes (Langer & Rodin,
1976); (3) domestic violence and abusive relationships; and (4) drug abuse and
addiction.
Studies have found that a true inability to control the environment is not necessary for
learned helplessness to occur. In fact, even when told there is nothing a person can
do, he or she is more likely to not try or to try less diligently than those who were not
given this advice (Maier & Seligman, 1975). Like in many aspects of human behavior,
perception is the key.
We have found that those who have experienced depression in the past are more likely to
accept depression in their future and therefore less likely to attempt change. The same holds
true for individuals in domestic violence situations. Those who have been unable to escape
violent situations in their homes are much more likely to refuse help and accept future violence
as inescapable. This is true even when presented with real options to avoid future violence.
Many also argue that an inability to quit smoking is related, along with obvious chemical
qualities, to the person’s perception of control. If a person witnesses others try and fail in
their attempts to quit, they are less likely to try themselves. For those addicted to other
substances, this phenomenon seems to hold true as well. The more you have witnessed
failure either in yourself or others, the less likely you are to attempt change, even if the
situation changes dramatically.

43. Chapter 9: Section 4: Limits of Behavioral Theory
Psychology is not a Hard Science
While there have been many exciting discoveries leading to very effective treatment
options for psychological problems, behaviorism and the learning theories are not without
the short comings. We spoke of the positive aspects in the beginning of this chapter,
including its basis in research and factual information, its ease of application, and
successful treatment outcomes.
On the downside, there are typically three main arguments against these theories. First, many argue
that even with the new revisions by Rotter, Bandura, and others, behaviorism still falls short in the
overall understanding of human personalities and human differences. Why do people respond
differently to very similar situations? Why do some people engage in negative behaviors? Why do
some people make sacrifices without external reward? These are only a small percentage of the
questions that are currently being asked of behaviorists in critique of their theory
Second, a new discovery was found that seems to, at least on the surface, negate the concept
of external reinforcement developed by Skinner and others. Research has found that by
rewarding someone for a behavior they are doing anyhow actually serves to reduce the
behavior rather than increase it. Imagine having a hobby that you greatly enjoy and someone
suggests that you turn it into a business. This sounds like a great idea and many have tried
this. You are doing what you love and people are giving you money to do it but suddenly you
start to dislike this activity. This may occur because without external rewards, there were also
no external pressures, punishments, and expectations. The addition of the reward does not
often make up for the added negative results, causing you to stop engaging in a previously
loved activity after given a reward

44. Finally, while applying treatment based on learning theory
has produced very positive results, many argue that this
type of treatment has limited or no effect in the greater
scheme of personality change. In other words, a
psychoanalyst may argue that the spider mentioned in the
previous section is a representation of something or
someone else, such as the mother figure. While we may
alleviate the fear of spiders, the fear of mother is still
present and will surface in other areas of the person’s
life. In this sense, we have not cured a personality deficit,
we have only moved it somewhere else. A humanist may
argue that by focusing on this small aspect of the person’s
life, we are actually diverting them away from true
happiness and self-actualization. And finally, a biological
theorist may argue that the fear of spiders was natural,
resulting from our natural genetics and removing this
natural phenomenon will ultimately cause detrimental
results.

45. Chapter 10: Section 1: Humanistic Theory
Section 1: Introduction to Humanistic Theory
People are Basically Good
Humanistic Psychology gets its name from its belief in the
basic goodness and respect of humankind. Its roots are
based in existential psychology or the understanding and
acceptance of one’s own existence and
responsibility. Two American psychologists, Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers paved the way for this new
approach to understanding personality and improving the
overall satisfaction of individuals.
When conflict between war and peace arose in the early
to mid 1960s, so to did the need to understand human
nature. Humanistic theory gave us an understandable
way to look at man’s need for war for the sake of
peace. It is a simplistic theory that has become one of the
most popular topics in self-help style books and man’s
struggle for meaning has been and will always be a major
part of literature and entertainment

46. The basic ideas behind humanistic psychology are simple, some may say overly
simple. Humanists hold the following beliefs:
1. The present is the most important aspect of the person and therefore humanists
focus on the here and now rather than looking at the past or trying to predict the
future.
2. Humanistic theory is reality based and to be psychologically healthy people
must take responsibility for themselves, whether the person’s actions are positive or
negative.
3. The individual, merely by being human, posses an inherent worth. Actions may
not be positive but this does not negate the value of the person.
4. The goal of life should always be to achieve personal growth and
understanding. Only through self-improvement and self-knowledge can one truly be
happy.

47. Chapter 10: Section 2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
King of the Mountain
Perhaps the most well known contribution to humanistic psychology was introduced
by Abraham Maslow. Maslow originally studied psychology because of his intrigue
with behavioral theory and the writings of John B. Watson.
Maslow grew up Jewish in a non-Jewish neighborhood. He spent
much of his childhood alone and reported that books were often his
best friends. Despite this somewhat lonely childhood, he maintained
his belief in the goodness of mankind. After the birth of his first child,
his devotion to Watson’s beliefs began a drastic decline. He was
struck with the sense that he was not nearly in control as much as
Watson and other behaviorists believed. He saw more to human life
than just external reinforcement and argued that human’s could not
possibly be born without any direction or worth.
At the time when he was studying psychology,
behaviorism and psychoanalysis were considered the big
two. Most courses studies these theories and much time
was spent determining which theory one would
follow. Maslow was on a different path.

48. He criticized behaviorism and later took the same approach with Freud and his
writings. While he acknowledged the presence of the unconscious, he disagreed
with Freud’s belief that the vast majority of who we are is buried deep beyond our
awareness. Maslow believed that we are aware of our motives and drives for the
most part and that without the obstacles of life, we would all become
psychologically healthy individuals with a deep understanding of ourselves and
an acceptance of the world around us. Where Freud saw much negativity,
Maslow focused his efforts on understanding the positives of mankind. It could
be said that psychoanalytic thought is based on determinism, or aspects beyond
our control, and humanistic thought is based on free will.
Maslow’s most well known contribution is the Hierarchy of
Needs and this is often used to summarize the belief
system of humanistic psychology. The basic premise
behind this hierarchy is that we are born with certain
needs. Without meeting these initial needs, we will not be
able to continue our life and move upward on
hierarchy. This first level consists of our physiological
needs, or our basic needs for survival. Without food,
water, sleep, and oxygen, nothing else in life matters.

49. Once these needs are met, we can move to the next level,
which consists of our need for safety and security. At this
level we look seek out safety through other people and
strive to find a world that will protect us and keep us free
from harm. Without these goals being met, it is extremely
difficult to think about higher level needs and therefore we
can not continue to grow.
When we feel safe and secure in our world then we begin to seek out friendships in
order to feel a sense of belonging. Maslow’s third level, the need for belonging and
love, focuses on our desire to be accepted, to fit in, and to feel like we have a place in
the world. Getting these needs met propels us closer to the top of this pyramid and into
the fourth level, called esteem needs. At this level we focus our energy on self-respect,
respect from others, and feeling that we have made accomplishments on our life. We
strive to move upward in careers, to gain knowledge about the world, and to work
toward a sense of high self-worth.
The final level in the hierarchy is called the need for self-actualization. According to
Maslow, may people may be in this level but very few if anybody ever masters it. Self-
actualization refers to a complete understanding of the self. To be self-actualized
means to truly know who you are, where you belong in the greater society, and to feel
like you have accomplished all that you have set out to accomplish. It means to no
longer feel shame or guilt, or even hate, but to accept the world and see human nature
as inherently good.

50. Application to Real Life
As you read through the section above, many likely tried to place
themselves on one of the five levels of the pyramid. This may be an
easy task for some, but many struggle with the ups and downs of
life. For many of us, life is not that straight forward. We often have one
foot in one level, the other foot in the next level, and are reaching at
times trying to pull ourselves up while making sure we don’t fall
backward at other times.
As we climb the pyramid, we often make headway but also notice that
two steps forward can mean one step back. Sometimes it even feels
like two steps forward means three steps back. The goal of mankind,
however, is to keep an eye on the top of the pyramid and to climb as
steadily as possible. We may stumble at times and we may leap
forward at times. No matter how far we fall backward, however, the
road back up is easier since we already know the way.

51. Chapter 10: Section 3: Carl Rogers and the Client-
Centered Approach
The Person-Centered Approach
While Maslow was more of a theorist, Carl Rogers was
more of a therapist. His professional goal was more on
helping people change and improve their lives. He was a
true follower of humanistic ideation and is often
considered the person who gave psychotherapy it’s basic
humanistic undertones.
Rogers believed in several key concepts that he believed
must be present in order for healthy change to take
place. His approach to treatment is called Client or
Person-Centered-Therapy because it sees the individual,
rather than the therapist or the treatment process as the
center of effective change. These basic concepts include:

52. Unconditional Positive Regard:
The therapist must believe that people are basically good
and must demonstrate this belief to the client. Without
unconditional positive regard, the client will not disclose
certain information, could feel unworthy, and may hold
onto negative aspects of the self. Accepting the client as
innately worthwhile does not mean accepting all actions
the client may exhibit.
Non-Judgmental Attitude:
Along with seeing the person as worthy, the therapist
should never pass judgment on the individual. Roger’s
believed that people are competent in seeing their
mistakes and knowing what needs to change even if they
may not initially admit it. He also believed that by judging
a person, you are more likely to prevent disclosure.
Disclosure:
Disclosure refers to the sharing of personal information. Unlike
Psychoanalysis and many other approaches to therapy,
Roger’s believed that in order for the client to disclose, the
therapist must do the same. Research has shown that we
share information at about the same level as the other
person. Therefore, remaining secretive as a therapist,
encourages the client to hold back important information.

53. Reflection:
Rogers believed that the key to understanding the self was not
interpretation, but rather reflection. By reflecting a person’s words in a
different manner, you can accomplish two things. First, it shows the
client that you are paying attention, thinking about what he or she is
saying, and also understanding the underlying thoughts and
feelings. Second, it allows the client to hear their own thoughts in a
different way. Many people have said that their beliefs become more
real once they are presented back to them by someone else.
By following these concepts, therapy becomes a self-exploration where
the therapist is the guide rather than the director. The client, according
to Rogers, has the answers and the direction. It is the therapist’s job to
help them find it.
The fictitious therapy session below shows how a typical Rogerian
session might go. Notice that the therapist never provides answers or
interpretation and never assumes he knows more than the
client. Assuming this is a first session, the therapist would likely start
by revealing some information about himself. He may discuss his
education, therapeutic philosophy and other professional aspects, but
may also talk about his family, how his day is going, and his goals for
the future.

54. Therapist: I’m very curious about what’s going on with you. What do you see as your reason for your coming in to talk with me today?
Client: Well, I see myself as a loser. I can’t seem to accomplish anything and my husband says he wants a divorce because I just sit around all
day doing nothing. I just don’t see any way out of this whole mess.
Therapist: That’s a lot to deal with, it sounds like you are quite overwhelmed right now.
Client: Exactly. Sometimes I hate myself because of it and other times I think its his fault that I can’t get anything done.
Therapist: You’re not sure how much of this is because of your actions and how much is because of your husband.
Client: I go from angry to sad and back again many times a day. I just can’t take it any more.
Therapist: Extreme emotions are difficult to deal with. I know when I get angry I seem to like myself less.
Client: Oh yeah, I can relate to that.
Therapist: What solutions have you come up with, even if you don’t think they’ll work. I’m curious where you are right now as we speak.
Client: I could divorce him, but if the problem is all me, I’ll probably be even more depressed. I could take medication, but I heard that just
covers up emotions. I guess I could sit down and talk with him about it more, but he doesn’t seem to really listen to me. I don’t know what to
do.
Therapist: It sounds to me like you do know what to do. At least you have some ideas on where to start.
Client: I guess, but how would I make him listen to me?
Therapist: You want to force him to listen to you?
Client: No, not force, I want him to want to listen to me.
Therapist: And for him to want to listen to you, you would do what?
Client: Maybe listen more to him.
Therapist: So you’re thinking that by listening to his side of things, he would be more likely to listen to your side?
Client: Yeah, maybe. It’s worth a shot, don’t you think?
Therapist: You know yourself and your husband much better than I do.
Client: You’re right. I think this will help me figure out where the blame really lies. I imagine its with both of us.
Therapist: So if you both accept some changes and make and effort…
Client: Then we both will feel better. I guess someone has to start it, it might as well be me.
Therapist: Sounds like you’ve got some direction now.
Client: Yeah, I know what I’m going to do.

55. Chapter 10: Section 4: Research on Humanistic Theory
Against the Basics of Science
Humanistic theory is not one that was easily researched in the
beginning. First of all, there are few tests that a humanists
would use due to their main belief that people are basically good
and the focus of treatment should be on the positive rather than
the negative. Secondly, by using assessment you are basically
telling the client that you know more than the client does about
his or her own thoughts, behaviors, and emotions. This in itself
would be a contradiction of humanistic belief.
So, many theorists, especially those prescribing to the
behavioral viewpoint, discounted humanistic theory due to
its reduced capacity for research. But like
psychoanalysis, it was not impossible to gather important
data on the efficacy of the theory’s application. In fact, like
psychoanalysis, new tests had to be developed that
emphasized the specific theory and what the theory was
designed to do. For psychoanalysis it was tests such as
the Rorschach and TAT. For humanistic theory, we talk
about the Q-Sort.

56. Q-Sort
The Q-Sort assessment was developed by Stephenson
(1953) and it was quickly adopted into Client Centered
Therapy by Carl Rogers. The Q-Sort consists of a deck of
100 cards, each containing a fairly specific quality within
an individual’s personality. Examples would be “very
outgoing and social,” “organized and detail oriented,” or
“high self-esteem.” The goal of the assessment is to
determine where a person is at relative to these qualities
at the beginning of treatment and then to re-assess at
various intervals and at the end to determine progress
The client is instructed to read each of the cards and to
place them on a nine-point continuum ranging from “very
much not like me” to “very much like me.” On the initial
sort, they are asked to place them according to how they
are at that very moment; their true self. There is a preset
limit as to how many cards can be placed at each point
representing a normal curve. In other words, the client is
permitted to place the most cards in the middle and less
on each point as they get closer to the extremes.

57. Once all of the cards are placed, they are recorded and the cards are
once again shuffled. At this point, the client is asked to redistribute the
cards on the same nine-point continuum. This time, however, they are to
do so according to their ideal self, or where they want to be once therapy
is complete. These two sorts allow the client and the therapist to know
where the client is at in the present and what direction the client would
like to take in treatment. And, since the therapist has no say in where the
cards are placed, distortions, exaggerations, and misperceptions about
the self get factored into treatment. In other words, as treatment
progresses, some positive qualities may actually move backward as they
discover their real self.
According to Rogers and others, the healthy person is one who’s idea
self and true self are very similar. The closer one gets to the person he
or she wants to be, the more self-actualized they become. A truly self-
actualized person is one who knows himself completely and accepts
himself for all his strengths and weaknesses. As the ideal and true self
get closer and closer together, he or she climbs closer and closer to the
top of Maslow’s hierarchy.

58. Strengths and Weaknesses of Humanistic Theory
Strengths of Humanistic Theory. Like every theory, some people find the
humanistic approach to be valid while others see it for the numerous
inherent flaws. Some of the strengths of this theory include the focus on
both the positive nature of humankind and the free will associated with
change. Unlike Freud’s theory and the biological approach, which focus
on determinism or our lack of power over ourselves, Maslow and others
see the individual as very powerful.
A second positive aspect of humanistic theory is the ease in which many
of its aspects fit well with other approaches. Many therapists have
adopted a humanistic undertone in their work with clients. While they may
argue humanistic theory does not go far enough, they see the benefit of
the core components in helping people change.
Finally, most have seen the benefits of humanism carries over into different professions. If you
take a health class, you are likely to discuss Maslow’s hierarchy. If you study economic or
business, you will also focus on moving upward in our lives in order to be more aware of who
we are and where we fit in with the world. The same holds true with other professions,
including literature, criminology, and history, among others, as the basics of humanistic thought
strike an undertone in all of what is considered human.
Weaknesses of Humanistic Theory. With the good, always comes the bad, and this theory is
no different. The biggest criticism of humanistic thought appears to center around it’s lack of
concrete treatment approaches aimed at specific issues. With the basic concept behind the
theory being free will, it is difficult to both develop a treatment technique and study the
effectiveness of this technique.

59. Secondly, there are those who believe humanistic theory falls short in it’s ability to
help those with more sever personality or mental health pathology. While it may
show positive benefits for a minor issue, using the approach of Roger’s to treat
schizophrenia would seem ludicrous.
Finally, humanistic theory makes some generalizations about human nature that
are not widely accepted as complete. Are people basically good or are their some
individuals who are not capable of this? Can we adequately argue that everyone
follows the same levels as Maslow explained, or are these levels, and even what
they stand for, be determined by the individual? Why do some people seem to
make negative choices even when positive solutions are staring them in the
face? These questions plague humanistic thought and the difficulty in researching
the theory does not provide any freedom.
Despite these problems, humanistic theory has been incorporated into many
differing views on psychotherapy and human change. Many argue now that a
humanistic undertone in treatment provides a nice foundation for change. While it
may not be sufficient, it may still be necessary for a significant personality change
to occur.