FM1 - Micro Analysis Booklet

1. AS Film Studies
FM1: Exploring Film Form
Name: …………………………………………
Class: …………………………………………
Candidate Number: …………………………………………
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2. Assessment Objectives
AO1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of film as an audio-visual form of
creative expression together with its contexts of production and reception and of the
diversity in film making across different historical periods and locations.
AO2 Apply knowledge and understanding, including some of the common critical
approaches that characterise the subject, when exploring and analysing films and
when evaluating their own creative projects to show how meanings and responses are
generated.
AO3 Demonstrate the ability to devise film projects creatively, applying appropriate
planning and production skills effectively.
AO4 Demonstrate the ability to undertake, apply and present research into film
topics.
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3. Introduction
This booklet is designed to introduce the main aspects of reading a film
from the micro perspective – that is ‘reading’ what we actually see
(Non-Verbal and Technical Codes ) and hear (Verbal Codes) on
screen.
As part of your coursework YOU MUST produce a 1,500 word Essay
analysing a film extract of approximately 3-5 minutes from one or more of
the micro features. When you have chosen the film extract you wish to
deconstruct, YOU MUST use the information here to identify features that
create meanings and evoke responses from the spectator.
YOU SHOULD complete your analysis based around the dominant micro
features represented in the sequence. The knowledge you gain here will
also be used later in planning and applying knowledge in your own practical
film projects.
Micro reading a film
When we give a detailed reading of a film we break down what we see and
hear into five major areas of study;
· Editing – how a film is cut together
· Mise en Scene – what we see in a shot and how it is positioned and lit
· Performance – acting styles and techniques
· Cinematography – camera movement and framing
· Sound – music, dialogue, effects and their relationship to the image
When reading a film we may focus on these areas and their relationships
with each other.
Editing
· Editing is about how the various shots in the film are joined or cut
together, ordered and juxtaposed in terms of duration and number of
edits in order to deliver the films mood or message through pacing
· As the Russian filmmaker Lev Kuleshov discovered, we have a natural
tendency to link images together and interpret them, we project our
own meanings onto the visual ‘clues’ we see. For instance, if we see
a shot of a man's face and then a shot of a woman we assume he is
looking at her or is, perhaps, in love (this is called the Kuleshov
effect). We interpret them according to our mental perceptual set.
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4. · This juxtaposition of images is called montage. We can either link
shots obviously or more subtly to make the audience think. A shot of
a criminal may be juxtaposed with one of a rat for instance.
· Editing dictates the pace of the film – action may be speeded up or
slowed down for emphasis by the number of edits
Some ways of joining and editing shots;
· Cut - to new shot; Cut in – when an object in or part of a previous
scene is shown again in close up e.g. a cigarette lighter in a man’s
hand. Cut away – when an object visible or potentially visible
outside the scene is shown e.g. a man sat at a campfire followed by a
shot of the moon (but if he looks as if he is looking at the moon it is
an eyeline match!)
· Fade out - at the end of the shot to a colour – usually black
· Fade in – new shot gradually fades in and is usually used to evoke a
similar emotion that is expressed on screen – for example when
someone is grieving the loss of someone or a relationship has “faded
away”.
· Dissolve – the end of Shot A is superimposed over Shot B giving a
sense of continuity.
· Lap dissolve – the image changes in steps instead of smoothly
· Wipe - a line goes across the screen replacing one shot with another
quite quickly.
· Black and white shots may be used to underline that we are in the
past and are flashing back (we dream in black and white apparently).
Now watch the example edited from a student film
Classical Hollywood continuity editing
· This system was established by practice, trial and error by early
Hollywood filmmakers such as D.W. Griffith as a common code for
film making that ensured narrative continuity for the audience. Each
filmmaker could take it for granted that their audience would be
familiar with this ‘code’ built on trial and practice
· Continuity editing involves cutting shots to tell a story in the
smoothest, simplest and least challenging way for the audience -
ensuring narrative flow and continuity. For instance keeping figures in
continuity so that they match from shot to shot, lighting remains
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5. constant and action stays central to the frame (e.g. we do not see
half of someone’s face)
· Master shot – this is a standard industry process – first a scene is shot
in medium or long shot, then shot again in close up and then again as
a two shot and then edited and cut together. This gives a lot of easily
editable material
· Long shots have longer takes than medium shots and medium shots
have longer takes than close ups because the spectator needs more
time to take in details The longer the shot the longer the take.
· The 180 degree rule - everything happens in the half circle in front
of the camera, which marks the centre line this stops the actors look
as if they are looking in different directions from shot to shot for no
apparent reason. This rule is only broken when the progress of action
is clear.
This ensures the same space is described in every shot and the characters
positions are not reversed
Let us now look at the opening of ‘Pulp Fiction’ (1994 – Dir. Quentin
Tarrantino) and try to spot some of these techniques.
· Titles - between scenes or overlaid to give information
· Opening shot e.g. of a landscape or cityscape without figures, gives a
sense of place.
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Technique Example
The camera cannot move to
this side of the line
The camera can be
anywhere this side of the
line
180o
Shot
30o rule - the camera must move -reverse
by more than this angle to prevent
a jump cut
180o rule – the camera cannot cross the line or the
positions of the actors and objects in the shot will appear
to be reversed

6. · Establishing shot – establishes the space in which action is to happen
and shows the physical relationship between characters
· The 30 degree rule - that the camera must move by more than this
angle to stop subsequent shots looking as if they have been shot from
almost the same angle and distance
· Shot/reverse shot - one shot looks down one end of the central line
between two characters the next shot is from the other end, this is
commonly used when characters talk to each other (see Pulp Fiction
or Rear Window) Often employed as an ‘over the shoulder’ shot
· Editing short shots with each other can create suspense e.g. shots of
a murderer juxtaposed with their victim
· Eyeline match – when character looks off screen the next shot shows
us what they see (see Rear Window)
· Match on action – a character begins to move in one shot, we see
continuation of this movement in next shot. This can also help to
create the illusion of the lapse of time e.g. we see a shot of a car
leaving then cut to a shot of it ‘arriving’ at its destination
· Cross cutting – when we move via editing from one set of actions
happening in one place to events happening elsewhere (see Sabotage)
· Flashback or flash-forward – moving backwards and forwards in
time (see Memento)
· Temporal elliptical editing – missing out events to compress time
e.g. we see a car pulling away from a house then cut to it arriving at
its destination
· Temporal expansion editing/Overlapping editing – where we see
the same action repeated from different angles time is expanded so
we pay more attention
· Punctuation shot – a blank screen between shots to show a scene has
ended
· Cutaway – a brief shot away from the action that relates to it e.g. a
man climbs some stairs and we see a brief cutaway of a woman
waiting in a room or two people argue and we get a cutaway to the
outside of the house
· Montage shots – dissolves of ‘external information’ (photographs,
newspaper clippings, shots from real or fake newsreels etc.) giving
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7. information in compressed form that is relevant to the film’s
narrative, ensuring orientation.
· Cheat cut – cuts that show an impossible temporal order e.g. A
trapdoor is obviously going to close in three seconds – cut to a five
second shot of Indiana Jones struggling – and he still makes it through
the trapdoor!
Montage editing
· The Russian film maker Sergei Eisenstein used the ideas of Kuleshov
and others to develop the idea of montage editing, juxtaposing two
images to create new thoughts and ideas in the mind of the viewer
consciously or subconsciously, the impression created by juxtaposing
these images was more important than telling the story. Ironically
though Eisenstein was interested in juxtaposing images of workers
and exploiting business men Montage with its striking use of images
has become a staple tool of advertising and MTV style video editing
Non-continuity editing – Anti Hollywood
· Often associated with European new wave cinema in the 1950s and
1960s, this is one way in which art house films challenge Hollywood
conventions. By breaking down continuity, filmmakers reveal that
film is ‘constructed’, not ‘natural’, and also challenges the
relationship between cause and effect and the assumed ideologies of
Hollywood
· Plot, subplot, logical progression is challenged by non sequential
editing which plays with time and events
· Non continuity editing started in European art house cinema and was
enthusiastically embraced by underground film makers and the
makers of music videos
Terminology
· Graphic match – the shapes in one-shot are matched with similar
shapes in the next e.g. a shot of the moon cots to a close up of a
face.
· The Jump cut/shot – Breaking the 30 degree rule and shooting a shot
from almost the same angle and distance, even though the action has
moved on (gives the impression that the camera is not ‘with’ the
action – i.e. it is ‘there’ – and makes the film feel jerky and shocks
the audience
· Shot patterns can be broken - a shot to shot sequence may be
repeated to lead the audience’s expectations a certain way and then
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8. one shot may be suddenly replaced with a new one to shock the
audience
· Film speed - slow motion or speeded up – film may be slowed down
or speeded up during production to expand or contract time or for
comic or other effect
· Non-diegetic insert – insertion of something from outside the plot,
i.e. A metaphorical image, intertitle, etc. to break up the action,
organise it for us or comment on it e.g. a rowing couple intercut with
a nuclear explosion
· ‘Poor editing’ - deliberate amateurishness to avoid slickness and give
an honest, amateur feel to a movie
· Overlapping dialogue - voices talking over one another, ‘poor’ sound
quality to make us listen and to reflect realism
· Now watch two contrasted film sequences and identify some editing
effects and their purposes
Sequence one film:
Editing technique Effect Purpose
1
2
3
4
5
Sequence two film:
Editing technique Effect Purpose
1
2
3
4
5
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9. Mise en Scene - ‘putting in the scene’
· This covers the visual aspects of what we actually see in a single
shot; objects, movements, lighting, colour, shadows. We can break it
down into a number of areas.
Setting
· What is the significance of a particular geographical and temporal
location used in a film? Is the setting real or fictional? How ‘realistic’
is it?
· Is the film shot on location or in a studio on an artificially
constructed set?
· What social rules manners and mores are being portrayed on screen?
What constraints are there on acting space? Is the environment
claustrophobic or open?
· Is the setting utopian (a wonderful world) or dystopian (a nightmare
vision of the future)?
· Colour schemes and themes may be significant within the film,
particular colours may recur or be repeated and contrasted in the
setting – harmony or disharmony
· Art direction is the process of setting up the sets and location
settings ready for filming placing props and objects and arranging
space
Identify examples of films with utopian or dystopian settings
Props
· What are the key props in a film and what is their significance to
plot?
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10. · Genre - props may provide genre iconography (an image associated
with a genre) e.g. gangsters usually have guns and cars, cowboys have
saddles and spurs
· Props can be used to anchor characters and act as a signature or
trademark - such as Indiana Jones’ whip and hat or James Bond’s cars
· Hitchcock called key props the ‘McGuffin’ - something that sets the
plot in motion. For instance in ‘Reservoir Dogs’ (1992 – Dir. Quentin
Tarrantino) a mysterious suitcase is fought over by various characters
· Think of some key props that are important in films that you know
Film: Prop
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3
Performance and Movement
o Acting styles have changed hugely from the old days of silent films when
dress, posture, hand gestures and faces had to convey all the
information about characters and events to the audience through mime
overcoming the barriers of early film technology. Theatrical acting styles
also predominated initially as actors were head hunted from the theatre
into the movies. To us old acting seems ‘stagey’ but it was based on a
range of identifiable stereotypes such as ingénue, villain, village idiot
etc. – this division into ‘types’ is the origin of the term ‘typecasting’ –
casting departments simply had a pool of ‘types’, ‘give me six Mexican
villains’ an old director of Westerns might have requested and a random
six would have been rounded up from the pool.
o In the late 20th century acting that aimed at realism, method acting (Lee
Strasberg), became the norm – actors ‘got into the role’ – in the case of
actors such as Robert De Niro this might involve doing their characters
job or gaining and losing weight for a part, in the ‘method’ the actor
immerses themselves in the role and becomes the character, though
despite the aim of realism some of these performances may come to be
regarded as stylised by future generations e.g. Marlon Brando in ‘The
Godfather’ (1972 – Dir. Francis Ford Coppola).
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11. A performance should be functional and appropriate in terms of style to the
film
· In analysing acting style we can look at a number of areas here;
posture, figure movement, facial expression and body language. How
actors position themselves, movement, posture.
Generally acting styles may be divided into;
· Performances that attempt to be naturalistic as if they were
improvised on the spot. Ask yourself is the acting character
driven/method acting? (Has the actor tried to live life like the
character and researched their background)
· Stylised performances e.g. for grotesque or fantastic characters –
The Grinch, The Penguin
· Personality driven acting - a ‘star’ who always plays a version of
themselves e.g. Arnold Schwarzenegger
· Theatrical style e.g. the use of a British stage actor e.g. Patrick
Stewart, Anthony Hopkins, Kenneth Branagh
· Understated performance – where the actor always under reacts to
the situation
· Overstated performance – overacting and mannered performances
The film actor’s ‘toolkit’
o Facial expression and eye contact
o The use of eyes and gaze to signal attention is a key feature of acting –
eyebrows are also important – actors playing a part tend to maintain eye
contact for a longer time than people do in real life, it is like hypnotising
the audience
o The mouth is another important area of focus
Posture
o Actors can convey a huge amount of information through their posture,
they can convey triumph or defeat, the change from youth to old age,
drunkenness etc.
Gesture
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12. o Hands are another vital aspect of the actor’s toolkit, always look at what
they are doing with their hands in medium shot or close up Gesture is
another key area which allows an actor to construct a performance,
convey anger or draw the audiences attention to events, people or
objects within the frame
Paralanguage
o Constructing an accent for a character and their style of delivery may be
important in constructing a character. The pace, volume pitch, tone and
speed of delivery may convey intelligence, femininity, masculinity or
sexuality – compare Forest Gump and any Hugh Grant character
Costume – comes under Mise en Scene as well
o The dress and appearance of characters conveys a great deal of
information about them and the film.
o Dress may be related to genre.
o Is it traditional/fantastic/fashion/stereotypical of character or not?
1 2 3
Compare and contrast the above. What can you deduce about each
character?
Image What is the costuming? What does the costume tell
you about the
character?
How is the character
similar or different
to the others?
1
2
3
Makeup
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13. o Alters the appearance and there influences our perception of character
o Is the makeup used in a film natural/theatrical/special e.g. sci-fi,
horror?
o Eye make up may be important for instance in a horror movie
o Pancake makeup alters characters colouring – the pallor of a character
may be sinister or indicate illness
o Unusual makeup made be needed for special projects e.g. The Grinch
o How is it appropriate to character? E.g. disfigurement and prosthetics
John Hurt in The Elephant Man
o Consider our change in perception of Cameron Diaz based on these
pictures.
Distance
o A good film actor knows how to adjust their expression and figure
movement according to their distance from the camera to convey
information from a distance but not to overwhelm the screen when shot
in close up
… and finally skilful Editing
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14. o Good performances are quite often made on the cutting room floor, bad
takes are left out, reaction shots are ordered to their best advantage,
close ups and medium shots give greater focus on the actors looks and
emotions. Some actors look a lot better on the screen than they ever
would in live theatre – the camera loves them
Special effects
o Special effects and CGI may be used within a shot – for instance the
crowds in Gladiator or the space ships in a science fiction film
o Stop action/stop motion – using clay or plastic figures which are moved,
shot and then moved again a frame at a time
Cinematography
o This covers the photographic elements of the film camera movement,
angles, framing and stock
o The use of colour or black and white footage – films may mix both,
black and white is sometimes used for period feel or for flashbacks
o Choosing a multi or monochromatic palette – where a single colour is
emphasised only in terms of purity and lightness e.g. shades of grey
o Exposure – over exposed film tends to be harsh and bleached,
underexposed film is dark and muddy
o Filters – can be used to change the colour composition of the film by
draining colours out or emphasising a particular colour
o Rate of projection - slows down or speeds up the film for effect
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15. o A shot may contain single, multiple, or overlaid images for effect e.g.
by juxtaposition – a man thinks of his past love and her face is overlaid
on the screen
o Camera position can suggest lots of different things;
o High or low angles can suggest power or inferiority
o Pan – when the camera moves from right to left or left to right on a
pivot - a high speed pan is called a whip pan
o Tilt – when the camera moves on a pivot to look up or down an object
o Zoom – a way of moving in and out on objects without moving the
camera – this has an amateurish feel to it as the camera tends to shake
or the zoom may be uneven and jerky – often used to suggest the use of
binoculars
o Tracking /dolly shot – when the camera moves to follow or track a
person or object – often this may involve the camera moving on a trolley
or dolly, sometimes on rails in order to minimise camera shake
o Crane shot – used to suggest scale or to track in or out on objects
o Helicopter shot – common in chase sequences or to convey landscape or
cityscapes
o Steadi-cam – a portable handheld camera system which minimises
camera shake when the camera is moved
o Static camera – the camera is in a fixed position and does not move
o Head on shot – shooting from the front
o Oblique angle – shooting from the side
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16. o Range of shots - Close up/medium/long shot/ECU/ELS/overhead/from
below
o Choice of Lens – the standard aspect ratio for most films is 1.33 – 1. A
lens may be standard or special/distorting –perhaps to suggest a no
human eye or a peephole in a door. Panoramic may be used to suggest
space and perspective - widescreen for action epics
Other aspects to consider
o Colour motif/palette – directors may choose to repeat a colour motif or
a narrow range of colours in a shot
o Space – screen space is two-dimensional but must usually suggest three
dimensions to the viewer – compositional balance of colours and objects
is important here. Colour and light shape our understanding of on screen
space
o Aerial shots – directors may shoot from a plane, helicopter or gantry to
open up the space in a scene and suggest scale
o Size diminution – aerial shots may make objects appear smaller than
they are and seem more vulnerable
o Shallow or deep focus - are all the objects in a shot in focus or just
some of them?
o Depth cues – objects which tell us the distances between the front,
middle and back of a shot
Standard Lens Types
o Wide angle - 28-35mm provides distortion and depth
o Normal - 35-50mm like the human eye – represents normality
o Telephoto - 70-600mm – give close ups over distance - less depth creates
a telescope effect
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17. o Magnification lenses– magnifying lenses for special purposes
A fly’s POV suggested by a lens
Film Formats
o Film stock – the type of film used gives a feel and texture to the film
o Different stocks provide different contrasts between colours and shapes.
The grain of a film may be either fine and give sharp detail or coarse and
grainy with an amateurish feel
o 35mm is the standard feature film format
o Other film formats include – 8 or 16mm (amateur)
o 70mm (widescreen)
o 3D – special format for gimmick films
Colour and Black and White
o Film makers may also employ Colour/BW/filters – to give effects of the
past or dreams - in Hollywood bars always have a red glow, blue filters
are used for night shots
o Technicolor - an old colour process used up until the 1960s producing
bright primary colours
o Film may be subjected to washes and effects to mix colours – many old
films have been modernised by tinting
o Black and white is used for flashbacks, the past or that touch of ‘class’
Focus
o Directors can use focus effects to draw our attention to a particular
thing in a shot or to create a busy screen in which we have to absorb a
number of elements on different planes of focus
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18. o Depth of focus – deep or narrow/shallow plane of focus? Are the fore,
middle or background of the film in focus – or is everything clear in deep
focus? Deep focus photography in films like Citizen Kane has been much
admired by film scholars
o Soft or sharp focus? – soft focus is sometimes used to give romantic
feel, a smear of Vaseline may be applied to the lens to suggest a misty
eyed perspective - ageing actors and actresses used to insist on soft
focus to hide their facial lines
o Racking/pulling focus - planes of focus alter in the shot - an object in the
foreground may initially be sharply focussed whilst the background is
fuzzy, then the focus is pulled to reverse this and now the foreground is
out of focus
o Special effects/Trick photography may be employed within a shot to
transcend the limits or reality – scale models may be employed and shot
to make them seem full sized
In Titanic a one quarter sized replica was built and shot
o CGI – Computer Generated graphic Imagery as used in Star Wars or LOTR
is increasingly popular in fantasy and Sci-fi films to allow imaginary
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19. landscapes and characters to be realised – this is replacing matte work
(see below)
o Superimposition – images may be superimposed on each other e.g.
Superman imposed on a background of clouds to suggest he is flying
Superimposition in ‘Man With A Movie Camera
Process composite shots
· Back/front projection – an image may be projected on a screen in
front of or behind the characters to overcome filming difficulties and
provide mise en scene – this is not common nowadays. Front
projection, invented in the 1960s uses mirrors to make the
background more realistic
Spot the back projection!
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20. · Matte work – where a part of the screen is left blank and then filled
in by artists e.g. Who Framed Roger Rabbit
Characters were matted in next to Bob Hoskins
· Special effects – as well as CGI - old style stop motion, stunts,
pyrotechnics etc.
Framing
Again we can consider aspect ratio the shape of the screen which may be;
· Standard Academy 1.33-1 this is a standard ‘talking heads’ drama
ratio
· 1.85 – 1 is a common modern ratio
· Anamorphic widescreen - a special lens ‘squeezes’ the image into a
widescreen shape – widescreen is used for action movies
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21. Check on your DVD or video boxes for information about this
· employing masking – the top and bottom of the film is masked to
shape the screen, hence the black lines you get at the top and
bottom of some films
· Split screen – more than one image may be the screen at once and we
must scan and compare them for information – for instance in Sliding
Doors
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22. · Onscreen and offscreen space - Directors can use evidence on
screen to inform an audience about what is (supposedly) going on
outside the four edges of the screen or in front of, or behind the
camera or the set. A plume of cigarette smoke drifting into a shot can
tell us a mysterious character is present off screen
Shot types
· Camera angle of framing – straight on, high or low (see above)
· Camera level is the camera level or canted (sometimes called a
Dutch angle) at an angle e.g. to suggest the rolling of a ship or
madness
· Camera height - eye level usually but sometimes close to the ground
or at stomach height to suggest the perspective of a child or someone
sat down
· Camera distance from the action – may suggest intimacy or
remoteness from events
Terminology
· ELS - Extreme Long Shot – bird’s eye view of a landscape
· LS - Long Shot – background dominates image
· MLS - Medium Long Shot - shots of the human figure from the knees
up
· MS - Medium Shot –the human figure shot from the waist up
· MCU - Medium Close Up – from the chest up
· CU - Close Up – e.g. of head, hands or feet
· ECU - Extreme Close Up – of a detail e.g. an eye
· OHS – Over Head Shot
· Mobile frame – within the image the framing of the object changes -
See above – pan, tilt, track, crane shot motion control and hand held
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23. camera are all mobile framing methods employed as the camera
moves through time and space establishing its own patterns. Shots
follow characters reframing them for us as a scene progresses
· Long take/plan sequence – a method of film making in which there is
little editing, the camera moves around in the scene and there is
little cutting within a scene which may last several minutes – a whole
film may involve no more than a dozen shots
Lighting – consider quality, direction, source & colour
o Hard or soft lighting – is the image harsh and glaring or soft and
romantic?
o High key lighting – bright lighting with little contrast between light and
shadow creates a sunny mood e.g. in a musical or a romantic comedy
o Low key lighting – dark shadowy and atmospheric e.g. in a thriller,
Action or horror movie
o Side lighting – self explanatory – shapes the characters face and creates
shadow
o Back lighting edge or rim lighting – creates silhouette shapes -
suspenseful
o Under lighting – can be quite sinister e.g. under a face
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24. Scary enough?
o Top lighting – casting shadows on the floor quite glamorous
Types of lighting - systems
· Key light – main light in the scene primary source of light and shadow
· Fill light – softens and fills in shadowy areas
· Backlight – obviously from behind
· Three point lighting system– where objects are lit using back, key
and fill lighting
· Single source lighting e.g. a torch, or spotlight
· Natural lighting- sunlight
· Artificial lighting– light bulbs, interiors
· Shadow – used to suggest mood, character or hide objects
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25. · Lighting effects – shadow, movement
· Now watch the short sequence from Blade runner and comment on
the lighting style you can deduce
Look at your sequence:
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What is the lighting style?
What does it tell the spectator about the mood/character or other themes
represented?

26. Framing
Consider screen shape and framing devices within a shot how are the
characters or objects in the shot are framed
Composition
o Patterning and positioning of people and objects within the
scene/frame/artistic style or reference/juxtaposition e.g. man and pig
o Balance - are the dominant objects in the scene central, balanced
against each other or off centre? Who or what is fore grounded or back
grounded?
Off Screen Space
o Imaginary space surrounding the action/or space looked at by the
characters off screen may be suggested by sound
Sound
Sound is an extremely important aspect of the film – music can convey
emotion and enhance action, consider ‘Star Wars’ or ‘Indiana Jones’
without their music. Dialogue anchors the meaning of the image
Areas of focus MUST include:
· Music
· Dialogue
· Sound effects
We can consider
· Loudness – volume of music, dialogue and effects
· Pitch – high or low
· Timbre – bass or depth, the tone or musicality of the sound e.g. of a
voice
· Fidelity - how accurate is the sound and how directly does it relate
to the image
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27. · Sound perspective – how does sound suggest the space on the screen
– e.g. sound can convey the sheer scale of a spaceship
· Synchronous sound/asynchronous – how far is sound synchronised
with the image is the sound simultaneous with, before or after the
image?
· Diegetic sound - Sound may be contained within the text of the film
itself for instance sound effects, dialogue or one of the characters
playing music.
· Non-Diegetic Sound – Sound may then be dubbed onto a film in post
production e.g. a soundtrack this is called non diegetic sound as it is
not a part of the action.
· Ambient sound – the general background sound that goes on in a
scene is described as ambient sound
Music can convey a number of things, especially the non-diegetic lyrics as
they will often anchor the meanings represented through the other micro
features within the scene itself.
· To mirror, comment directly upon and relate to action
· To punctuate and signpost action and to dictate pace of film and
mood
· To counterpoint and contrast with action and be used ironically – jolly
music contrasting with a tragic scene
· To provide direct mise en scene e.g. in a nightclub
· Suggest the mood of a film tragic, optimistic etc
· Symbolic use e.g. military style music, national anthems or songs with
particular associations
· Themes and motifs related to characters – for example a themetune
that immediately recognisable by the audience as being being
associated to a character – for example a ‘Prince’ (Propp) or hero
like Indiana Jones
· Convey Genre e.g. stereotypical horror music, romantic music
· Suggest a particular historical time period or convey a culture or to
suggest ethnicity and social class
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28. · “Mickey Mousing” – when characters move in time to the music
(cartoon rather than dance style)
· Sound Effects- are very important in creating suspense, suggesting
action or conveying off screen space
Other Terms
· Diegetic Dialogue – two or more people speaking and sound that
belongs in the narrative.
· Monologue – one person speaking – this can be to themselves OR
directed at the camera. For example:
· Inner Monologue – “Inner Voice” - Where a character is directly
talking to themselves, expressing their thoughts OR narrating
something for the benefit of the audience – Only they and the
spectator can hear this.
· Multilogue – a group of characters speaking over each other – this
could be to convey antagonism or is often used in a heated
conversation/debate.
· Direct address to camera – breaks realism and is a deliberate ploy to
engage the spectator
· Paralanguage and style of delivery – tone of voice, pitch, speed,
hesitation phenomena, volume
· Sound Bridge – when the sound carries over from one scene or shot to
another to provide continuity
· Non-Diegetic Voice-over – a common device to fill in details of the
plot and introduce characters thoughts and feelings for the benefit of
the spectator.
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29. · Overlapping dialogue – a realistic effect - people talk over each
other in real life, dialogue may also, less realistically, overlap from
scene to scene
· Improvised dialogue (improv) – made up on the film set to suggest
realism and interplay of character
· Silence – to create tension or draw attention to the visual image
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30. AS Film Studies: Planning a Reading FM1: Exploring Film Form
Student: ________________________ Group: ____________
My chosen Film is:
My two micro features:
Micro reading notes (one or more areas)
· Mise-en-scene (Setting, props, costumes, human figure)
· Editing (Continuity; Cutting; Montage – Condensing of Narrative)
· Sound (Diegetic; Non-Diegetic; Ambient)
·
· Cinematography and Lighting (High Key; High Contrast/Low Contrast
– impact this has on the ‘mood’ of the text)
· Performance
My reading title is (See Exemplar for Guidance):
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31. My chosen sequence is: Scene:_____________________________________
Notes: - Scene 1)
Mise-en-scene Editing Sound Cinematography Performance
Notes: - Scene 2)
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32. Mise-en-scene Editing Sound Cinematography Performance
Film: genre and narrative; macro features; the basics
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33. Obviously in the course of making meanings through their manipulation of
filmic codes, films have bigger and broader intentions: largely to entertain
us, to sell us their various ‘wares’. They do this through expensive
marketing and merchandising through contracting A-list stars and big name
directors. However they still perhaps most significantly do this by offering
us experiences we can depend on and by telling us ‘interesting’ stories.
This section focuses on the ways films might work through their codes
(camera, lighting, costume etc) to:
a) establish a genre identity (eg Horror/ Slasher/Gangster/Romantic
Comedy)
b) construct and develop narratives (stories)
Where is genre?
A Genre is a variety of film, a set defined by content, style and point-of-view.
Genre is to be found within each code in terms of a set series of
components: certain costume, certain props, certain attitudes.
Genre generates expectation in the audience: what comes next, how to
react, what meanings are possible and likely.
Genre may be linked to certain kinds of narrative, certain directors and
certain stars.
e.g. Gangster = stories of family dynasties/ revenge narratives and De Niro
and Scorcese
What is narrative?
Narrative is story-telling: a narrative is a story.
A story is a sequence, a ‘list’ of things arranged in an order.
A story is an interaction (or a series of interactions) between people, places
and things.
All theories of narrative assume that all stories share certain similarities.
Narrative Theories: where is narrative ?
1. Narrative is in the structure of a film (in the ‘skeleton’ or frame)
The Russian theorist Todorov claimed that most stories followed the
following structure:
· Equlibrium
· Disruption of equilibrium - Disequilibrium
· Recognition of this disruption
· Attempts to repair this disruption
· New equilibrium – Closure in the narrative and the problem is solved.
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34. e.g. : Star Wars
· Luke Skywalker is living calmly with his relatives
· Their dwelling is destroyed
· He pledges himself to the Force
· He joins the Rebel Alliance and attacks the Death Star
· The Death star is disabled and an uneasy peace ensues
2. Narrative is played out in interactions between stock characters
(archetypes) and stock actions
The Russian critic Vladimir Propp (1969) identified 8 character ‘roles’ and
31 narrative function.
Character roles:
The hero - Prince
The villain
The Donor
The dispatcher
The false hero – fake prince
The helper
The princess
Her father
(clearly these are based on fairy tales)
3. Narrative is to be found in every frame of every film: it dictates how
and why the film is as it is.
The French critic Roland Barthes suggests that narrative works through a
series of codes:
Two codes that move the film forward;
a. The Action code (proiaretic)
b. The Suspense code (hermeneutic)
Three codes that ‘fatten’ it as it goes:
c. The Descriptive code (semiotic)
d. The referential code, which relates what we see to reality
e. The Symbolic code, which assigns meanings and interprets
e.g. in the opening sequence of Gladiator
· We are waiting for an attack to happen (suspense)
· The Romans attack (action)
· We see the soldiers prepare (descriptive)
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35. · War is dirty and violent (referential)
· The Russell Crowe character almost kills his lieutenant
(symbolic)
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36. How to read a Film: Macro features
Film: (Title, Date and Director)
Sequence: What the scene is? (From a Mise-en-scene perspective)
Mode of address: How this sequence or the text addresses the audience?
How significant a role the texts/sequence ‘Protagonist’ plays in what is being re-presented.
Discourse of Realism: The texts relationship with the audience – Is there a sense
of reality in what you are seeing?
Narrative: Narrative structure – Equilibrium; Dis-equilibrium – Compare this to
your own basic expectations (fibula)
Genre: What Genre is the text? Give examples of evidence (Repertoire of
Elements) Does this genre conform or go against your expectations?
Star/Auteur:
Issues of Representation: Does this text address ‘real’ issues and/or reflect social
values?
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37. Narrative Devices
Films use narrative devices, strategies and conventions to tell the story
for instance
Predictability
· In narrative predictability and unpredictability must be balanced; if
we look at the sequence A, B, _? What is the next element in the
sequence? It could be C or A or even jump to D? A film needs to be
predictable but not too predictable in order to create suspense.
Think of films that balance or fail to balance these two elements, we
can watch sequences and make predictions based on evidence and
our experiences as film viewers. If a film is too predictable we get
bored, extreme unpredictability though can become silly and
irritating (Jeepers Creepers)
· Can you find any examples of particularly predictable or
unpredictable films?
Structuring
· ‘Screenplays are structure’ (screenwriter William Goldman). Is having
a definite beginning, middle and end (Linear) important to a film or
any kind of story? Why? What is the purpose of each section?
· Films often commence with an establishing sequence. What should a
good opening or establishing sequence contain? What should its
function be?
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38. · In Medias Res – do you open with action in the thick of things or with
some kind of explanation of coming events?
· Who are the significant characters etc. at the start of the film?
· Foregrounding and back grounding - particular events, people,
objects or places may be fore grounded in the narrative as
significant
A Dramatic Structuring Model
In theatre plays can be broken down into a number of narrative stages;
Plot and Structure
An effective plot should;
· Maintain audience interest
· Move the action on
· Arouse interest in the characters and situations
· Should contain high points and critical moments
· Create expectation and surprise
Can you think of an example of a film that exemplifiers this?
Example of a film:
How does it exemplify the above narrative structure?
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39. Key Elements of a Film (and Film Sequence) Structure
1. Exposition – introduces the characters and situation
2. Dramatic incitement – an incident that provides the play’s starting
point
3. Complication – the main action of the play in which the characters
respond to the situation
4. Crisis – the climax of the play
5. Resolution – the final working out of events and conclusion of the
play
Can you apply this structure to a particular film?
Film:
Applying the above theory:
A Film Theory – Sid Field’s (a script writer) three act structure
Great scripts (which hopefully become great films) have distinct beginnings, middles
and ends. Act One, Act Two and Act Three - a three act structure. In fact these acts are so
distinct that you can spot where each of these acts start and finish.
Choose a film and break it down using this structure
· Set up - Who? What? When? Where? Why?
· Confrontation and complication
· Resolution and conclusion
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Set Up:
Confrontation:
Resolution:

40. Closure
· Closure and aperture – does a film’s resolution offer a closed
narrative where all the loose ends are tied up or is the ending left
open for the audience to interpret, or for a sequel? Think of an
example of each
Character functions – The hero’s journey (Joseph Campbell)
· Film’s may be driven by characters (character driven) or plot driven
· How do the films characters fit into the narrative? – What do they
represent in terms of their function in the film and the values they
symbolise and represent? Research suggests that characters may have
similar roles in very different films – the hero with a thousand faces
as one analyst described it. They can be divided into protagonists
(heroic figures) and antagonists (villains), heroines – (‘the princess’)
and her father, there may also be helpers and individuals/donors with
special or magical powers who dispatch the hero on his journey
(Gandalf or Trinity figures), false heroes etc. George Lucas used
these ideas to structure Star Wars
Choose a film and identify the roles of the main characters
Role Film:
Characters in this film and how they fulfil the role
Hero/Protagonist
False hero
Villain/Antagonist
Princess
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Closure
Aperture

41. Father/Dispatcher
Donor
The hero’s journey undergoes several stages:
A Case Study: Shrek/Lord of the Rings
Stages of the hero’s journey Stage of the film uncovered
Preparation – the initial events
Complication – the action begins
Transference – hero is tested
Struggle – final combat is joined with
the villain
Return – the hero returns
Recognition – the hero is recognised, the
villain is exposed
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42. Contemporary theories
· Contemporary films employ a wider range of devices than classical
narrative theories imply
Transitive (Single Stranded) and intransitive (Multi-stranded) narrative
· Transitive narratives have one unified point of view, intransitive
narratives may tell the story using different ways, viewpoints and
styles. Can you think of a film of each type?
Transitive
Intransitive
Open ended narratives
· Are we offered traditional closure at the end of the film or is the
ending open and ambiguous?
Can you think of any films that fit these modern narrative criteria?
Barthes’ Narrative Codes
This is a system for analysing film narrative by breaking it down into five
codes
· Hermeneutic or Enigma codes (Roland Barthes) – a variation on the
above is the theory that films are based around the solution of
mysteries or ‘enigmas’ for the audience which are set up early on in
the film such as ‘Who is the killer’?, ‘How is Indy going to escape
from this?’ or ‘Will Austin get his Mojo back?’. We gain satisfaction
from the solution of the enigma
· Choose a film and identify its main enigma codes
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43. · Semic Codes – Codes of character construction and iconography used
to suggest individuality e.g. gangster or cowboy dress
· Proairetic Codes – analysing patterns of behaviour within a film for
predictable and unpredictable elements e.g. stereotypical character
or genre behaviour
· Cultural Codes – Reference to the cultural world outside the film text
and what we know about the world e.g. The Japanese or American
way of life or historical periods
· Symbolic codes – meanings created by binary opposition or other
symbolic elements within the text e.g. religious references or
symbols
Semiotics – ‘Signs act as signifiers’ (Ferdinand De Saussure)
· Semiotic theories (signs and symbols) – people and objects will have
particular symbolism, connotations, myths and values within the
narrative, for instance in Terminator 2; leather jackets, guns
motorbikes symbolising rebellion, aggression and violence. Objects
are chosen and combined from a paradigm or list of related items
e.g. clothes.
· Semiotically analyse two of the images above
· What myths and expectations about society are contained in the
film, for instance about gender – are marriage and career major
values for the heroine, are men meant to be ‘heroic’ and honourable
- does the film celebrate or attack socially accepted values or
behaviour?
Structuralism
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1.
2.

44. · Films and storytelling rely on systems of binary opposition (Levi
Strauss) – opposites that make sense and meaning when placed next
to each other for instance male/female, good/evil, dark/light
· Think of a film where opposites are important. What kinds of
opposites are there? Can you think of any other binary oppositions
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