Ethics in psychology

1. Legal/Ethical Issues
Dr. Nastaran Otared

2. What’s the difference between Moral and Ethics?
Moral is related to beliefs about what is right or wrong.
A moral person behaves in a way that is believed by most people to be good and
right. Moral character can be conceptualized as an individual’s disposition to think,
feel, and behave in an ethical manner. Benevolence, honesty, politeness, unity and
generosity are some of the characteristics of such a person.

3. What’s the difference between Moral and Ethics?
when we talk about Ethics, we mean ethical principles of our profession. Every
profession includes specialized training and Ethics, as an important part of these
specialized trainings, are regulations that have been set for professionals in that field.
Ethics are the boundaries set in order to protect clients and participants from
psychological harm and it is a psychologist duty to ensure that these guidelines are
followed.
So a person may not be a moral person but observe ethics or vice versa, be a moral
person, but don't follow ethics.

4. In psychology, ethics pertains to the rules and guidelines established by the organization of
psychologists and the ethical and lawful duties that scientists and practitioners owe to the people
or patients they work with. Psychologists use methods that guarantee human dignity, privacy
rights, and confidentiality when conducting research, teaching, and practice following specific
principles.
Examples
Withdrawal Rights: Clients have the right to stop therapy at any time without facing the
consequences related to breach or forfeit of confidentiality.
Informed Consent: Ethical psychologists always obtain informed consent from their clients
embarking on any research, therapy, or other type of professional intervention.

5. Let’s use a five-color model to differentiate those who work in the field of
psychology based on professional ethics. We can divide them into 5 groups in
a danger- health spectrum.
Pop psychologists
+
Psychologists who intentionally harm clients

6. They could be potentially harmful- They
don’t take professional ethics seriously.

7. Psychologists who are capable of being effective but they
need training and supervision

8. These are well-educated, responsible and productive
psychologists

9. They follow ethical principles at an extra-standard level

10. Let’s evaluate ourselves for a few seconds.
Where are we on the spectrum?

11. Books

12. Ethical actions are not an outcome of a single decision-making process, but rather a
combination of cognitive structures and psychological processes. Rest’s four-step
model provides the foundation for moral reasoning and includes the following steps:
1) identification of the ethical dilemma (ethical sensitivity)
2) application of moral judgment
3) engagement of moral motivation
4) acting with moral intent

13. 1) identification of the ethical dilemma (ethical sensitivity)
Ethical sensitivity is an attribute that enables the identification of ethical challenges and
emotional and mental perceptions of vulnerable situations of people, and awareness of ethical
outcomes of decisions made by others.
Example: Imagine you just realized that one of your colleagues has unprofessional relationships
with his female clients (behaviors like hugging, kissing, going to a café, etc.). How do you feel in
this situation?
Example: Let’s say one of your research colleagues has manipulated the research data and has
changed the results in favor of his hypothesis. What do you do in this situation?

14. 2) application of moral judgment
Moral judgment is an individual's ability to discern between good and bad actions. For example,
when given two responses to a particular event – one being harmful and one helpful – a person
with strong moral judgment will be able to identify which action is more morally correct for that
event.
So in the previous examples…

15. 3) engagement of moral motivation
Moral motivation refers to whether a person who makes a moral judgment subsequently acts
accordingly. Once we have deliberated and formed judgments about what is right or wrong,
good or bad, these judgments tend to have a marked hold on us. At this phase, we examine the
options and make a decision.

16. 4) acting with moral intent
Moral action means transforming the intent to do the right thing into reality.
This involves moral ownership, moral efficacy, and moral courage.

17. Well, think for a few minutes and describe a situation where you behaved ethically.
Determine how each of these steps has been done!
Class work

18. Understanding the APA Code of Ethics
The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code
Code of Conduct which outlines aspirational principles as well as enforceable standards that
psychologists should use when making decisions. In 1948, APA president Nicholas Hobbs said, "[The APA
Code of Ethics] should be of palpable aid to the ethical psychologist in making daily decisions. In other
words, these ethical codes are meant to guide mental health professionals in making the best ethical
decisions on a regular basis.
When Did the APA Publish Its Code of Ethics?
The APA first published its ethics code in 1953 and has been continuously evolving the code ever since.

19. What's in the APA's Code of Ethics?
The APA code of ethics is composed of key principles and ethical standards:
 Principles: The principles are intended as a guide to help inspire psychologists as they
work in their profession, whether they are working in mental health, in research, or in
business.
 Standards: The standards outline expectations of conduct. If any of these are violated, it
can result in professional and legal ramifications.

20. Who Is the APA Code of Ethics For?
The code of ethics applies only to work-related, professional activities including research, teaching,
counselling, psychotherapy, and consulting. Private conduct is not subject to scrutiny by the APA's
ethics committee.

21. The APA Code of Ethics' Five Principles
1. Principle A: Beneficence and Non-Maleficence
2. Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
3. Principle C: Integrity
4. Principle D: Justice
5. Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

22. Principle A: Beneficence and Non-Maleficence
The first principle of the APA ethics code states that psychologists should strive to protect the rights and
welfare of those with whom they work professionally. This includes the clients they see in clinical practice,
animals that are involved in research and experiments, and anyone else with whom they engage in
professional interaction. This principle encourages psychologists to strive to eliminate biases, affiliations,
and prejudices that might influence their work. This includes acting independently in research and not
allowing affiliations or sponsorships to influence results.

23. Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
Principle B states that psychologists have a moral responsibility to ensure that others working in their
profession also uphold high ethical standards. This principle suggests that psychologists should participate
in activities that enhance the ethical compliance and conduct of their colleagues.
Serving as a mentor, taking part in peer review, and pointing out ethical concerns or misconduct are
examples of how this principle might be put into action. Psychologists are also encouraged to donate some
of their time to the betterment of the community.

24. Principle C: Integrity
Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty and truthfulness in the science, teaching and
practice of psychology.

25. Principle D: Justice
The principle of justice says that mental health professionals have a responsibility to be fair
and impartial. It also states that people have a right to access and benefit from advances that
have been made in the field of psychology. It is important for psychologists to treat people
equally. Psychologists should also always practice within their area of expertise and also be
aware of their level of competence and limitations.

26. Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
Principle E states that psychologists should respect the right to dignity, privacy, and
confidentiality of those they work with professionally. They should also strive to minimize
their own biases as well as be aware of issues related to diversity and the concerns of
particular populations. For example, people may have specific concerns related to their age,
socioeconomic status, race, gender, religion, ethnicity, or disability.

27. The 10 Standards Found in the APA Code of Ethics
1. Resolving Ethical Issues
2. Competence
3. Human Relations
4. Privacy and Confidentiality
5. Advertising and Other Public Statements
6. Record Keeping and Fees
7. Education and Training
8. Research and Publication
9. Assessment
10. Therapy

28. 1: Resolving Ethical Issues
This standard of the APA ethics code provides information about what psychologists should
do to resolve ethical situations they may encounter in their work. This includes advice for
what researchers should do when their work is misrepresented and when to report ethical
violations.

29. • Standard 1.01: Misuse of Psychologists’ Work
• Standard 1.02: Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or other governing legal
authority
• Standard 1.03: Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands
• Standard 1.04: Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations
• Standard 1.05: Reporting Ethical Violations
• Standard 1.06: Cooperating With Ethics Committees
• Standard 1.07: Improper Complaints
• Standard 1.08: Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents

30.  STANDARD 1.01: MISUSE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS’ WORK
 If psychologists learn of misuse or misrepresentation of their work, they take reasonable
steps to correct or minimize the misuse or misrepresentation.
 Psychologists have professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific
individuals, organization and communities with whom they work to ensure that their work
products are not misused.
 Psychologist would be aware of misuse of mis-interpenetration of their work, a claim of
ignorance would not be an acceptable defense against a charge of violation.

31. Case Study
A school psychologist completed a report summarizing her assessment of a child whose
test did not clearly meet diagnostic criteria for serious emotional disturbance. Several
days later, she learned that the principle of her school had forwarded to the
superintendent of school only parts of the assessment report that supported the
principles desired to classify the student as emotionally disturbed to fill a special
education quota.
What psychologist should do?

32. Standard 1.02: Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or other governing legal
authority
If psychologists' ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal
authority, psychologists make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take steps to
resolve the conflict. If the conflict is unresolvable via such means, psychologists may adhere to
the requirements of the laws, regulations, or other governing legal authority.

33. Case Study
A psychologist who had received a court order for confidential information sent a letter
to the judge explaining the relevant confidentially standards in the ethics code and
requesting judicial review to determine whether a limited release of information would
meet legal requirements.

34. If the demands of the organization with which the psychologist is affiliated or for whom they
are working conflicts with ethical code, psychologist clarify the nature of the conflict, make
known their commitment to the ethics code, and to the extinct feasible, resolve the conflict in a
way that permits adherence to ethical code.
• Standard 1.03: Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands

35. Case Study
An industrial psychologist recently employed by an organization to handle employment
testing is asked to share clients private problems with the head of department.
What should psychologist do?

36. • Standard 1.04: Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations
When psychologists believe that there may have been an ethical violation by another
psychologist, they attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that
individual, if an informal resolution appears appropriate and the intervention does not
violate any confidentiality rights that may be involved.

37. Case Study
A professor of psychology had not established a timely, specific process for providing
feedback to evaluate students performance. After discussion with the department chair,
the professor agreed to develop such a plan.

38. • Standard 1.05: Reporting Ethical Violations
If an apparent ethical violation has substantially harmed or is likely to substantially harm a
person or organization and is not appropriate for informal resolution under Standard 1.04,
psychologists take further action appropriate to the situation. Such action might include referral
to state or national committees on professional ethics, to state licensing boards, or to the
appropriate institutional authorities.

39. Case Study
A psychology professor reviewing an assistant professor’s application materials discovers
that the faculty member has several publications that plagiarized articles written by a
senior colleague. The psychologist presents the evidence to the chair of department. The
chair and the professor inform the faculty member that they dad discovered the
plagiarism and would be forwarding information to the university committee on the
ethical conduct, and if the committee found that plagiarism had occurred, they will
inform the journal in which the articles were published.

40. • Standard 1.06: Cooperating With Ethics Committees
Psychologists cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings, and resulting requirements of
the APA or any affiliated state psychological association to which they belong. In doing so,
they address any confidentiality issues. Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation.

41. Case Study
A patient submitted a complaint to the APA charging a psychologist that has
misinterpreted the results of an assessment and has lead to inaccurate diagnosis.
What’s our responsibility?

42. • Standard 1.07: Improper Complaints
Psychotherapists do not file or encourage the filing of ethics complaints that are made with
reckless disregard for or willful ignorance of facts that would disprove the allegation.

43. • Standard 1.08: Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents
Psychologists do not deny persons employment, advancement, admissions to academic or other
programs, tenure, or promotion, based solely upon their having made or their being the subject
of an ethics complaint.

45. 2: Competence
It is important that psychologists practice within their area of expertise. When treating clients or working with the
public, psychologists must make it clear what they are trained to do as well as what they are not trained to do.
An Exception to This Standard
This standard stipulates that in an emergency situation, professionals may provide services even if it falls outside
the scope of their practice in order to ensure that access to services is provided.

46. 3: Human Relations
Psychologists frequently work with a team of other mental health professionals. This standard of the ethics
code is designed to guide psychologists in their interactions with others in the field.
This includes guidelines for dealing with sexual harassment, and discrimination, avoiding harm during
treatment and avoiding exploitative relationships (such as a sexual relationship with a student or subordinate).

47. 4: Privacy and Confidentiality
This standard outlines psychologists’ responsibilities with regard to maintaining patient confidentiality.
Psychologists are obligated to take reasonable precautions to keep client information private.
However, the APA also notes that there are limitations to confidentiality. Sometimes psychologists need to
disclose information about their patients in order to consult with other mental health professionals, for
example.
While there are cases where information is divulged, psychologists must strive to minimize these intrusions on
privacy and confidentiality.

48. 5: Advertising and Other Public Statements
Psychologists who advertise their services must ensure that they accurately depict their training, experience,
and expertise. They also need to avoid marketing statements that are deceptive or false.
This also applies to how psychologists are portrayed by the media when providing their expertise or opinion in
articles, blogs, books, or television programs.
When presenting at conferences or giving workshops, psychologists should also ensure that the brochures
and other marketing materials for the event accurately depict what the event will cover.

49. 6: Record Keeping and Fees
Maintaining accurate records is an important part of a psychologist’s work, whether the individual is working in
research or with patients. Patient records include case notes and other diagnostic assessments used in the
course of treatment.
In terms of research, record-keeping involves detailing how studies were performed and the procedures that
were used. This allows other researchers to assess the research and ensures that the study can be replicated.

50. 7: Education and Training
This standard focuses on expectations for behavior when psychologists are teaching or training students.
When creating courses and programs to train other psychologists and mental health professionals, current
and accurate evidence-based research should be used.
This standard also states that faculty members are not allowed to provide psychotherapy services to their
students.

51. 8: Research and Publication
This standard focuses on ethical considerations when conducting research and publishing results. For example
APA states that psychologists must obtain approval from the institution that is carrying out the research, present
information about the purpose of the study to participants, and inform participants about the potential risks of taking
part in the research.

52. 9: Assessment
Psychologists should obtain informed consent before administering assessments. Assessments should be used to
support a psychologist’s professional opinion, but psychologists should also understand the limitations of these tools.
They should also take steps to ensure the privacy of those who have taken assessments.

53. 10: Therapy
This standard outlines professional expectations within the context of providing therapy. Areas that are addressed include
the importance of obtaining informed consent and explaining the treatment process to clients.
Confidentiality is addressed, as well as some of the limitations to confidentiality, such as when a client poses an immediate
danger to himself or others.
Minimizing harm, avoiding sexual relationships with clients, and continuation of care are other areas that are addressed by
this standard.
For example, if a psychologist must stop providing services to a client for some reason, psychologists are expected to
prepare clients for the change and help locate alternative services.