This document discusses legal and ethical issues in psychology. It begins by defining the differences between morals and ethics, noting that ethics refer specifically to the rules and guidelines of a profession. Several key principles from the APA Code of Ethics are outlined, including beneficence, integrity, justice, and respecting rights/dignity. The document also provides examples of ethical standards like informed consent and withdrawal rights. Rest's four components of ethical decision making are defined. Finally, a case study example is presented to illustrate applying ethics in practice.

1. Legal/Ethical Issues
Dr. Nastaran Otared

2. What’s the difference between Moral and Ethics?
Moral is related to beliefs about what is right or wrong.
A moral person behaves in a way that is believed by most people to be good and right.
Moral character can be conceptualized as an individual’s disposition to think, feel, and
behave in an ethical manner. Benevolence, honesty, politeness, unity and generosity are some
of the characteristics of such a person.

3. when we talk about Ethics, we mean ethical principles of our profession. Every profession
includes specialized training and Ethics, as an important part of these specialized trainings, are
regulations that have been set for professionals in that field. Ethics are the boundaries set in
order to protect clients and participants from psychological harm and it is a psychologist duty
to ensure that these guidelines are followed.
So a person may not be a moral person but observe ethics or vice versa, be a moral person, but
don't follow ethics.

4. In psychology, ethics pertains to the rules and guidelines established by the organization of
psychologists and the ethical and lawful duties that scientists and practitioners owe to the people
or patients they work with. Psychologists use methods that guarantee human dignity, privacy
rights, and confidentiality when conducting research, teaching, and practice following specific
principles.
Examples
Withdrawal Rights: Clients have the right to stop therapy at any time without facing the consequences
related to breach or forfeit of confidentiality.
Informed Consent: Ethical psychologists always obtain informed consent from their clients before
embarking on any research, therapy, or other type of professional intervention.

5. Let’s use a five-color model to differentiate those who work in the field of psychology based
on professional ethics. We can divide them into 5 groups in a danger- health spectrum.
Pop psychologists
+
Psychologists who intentionally harm clients

6. They could be potentially harmful- They don’t
take professional ethics seriously.

7. Psychologists who are capable of being effective but they need
training and supervision

8. These are well-educated, responsible and productive psychologists

9. They follow ethical principles at an extra-standard level

10. Let’s evaluate ourselves for a few seconds.
Where are we on the spectrum?

11. Ethical actions are not an outcome of a single decision-making process, but rather a
combination of cognitive structures and psychological processes. Rest’s four-step model
provides the foundation for moral reasoning and includes the following steps:
1) identification of the ethical dilemma (ethical sensitivity)
2) application of moral judgment
3) engagement of moral motivation
4) acting with moral intent

12. 1) identification of the ethical dilemma (ethical sensitivity)
Ethical sensitivity is an attribute that enables the identification of ethical challenges and
emotional and mental perceptions of vulnerable situations of people, and awareness of ethical
outcomes of decisions made by others.
Example: Imagine you just realized that one of your colleagues has unprofessional relationships
with his female clients (behaviors like hugging, kissing, going to a café, etc.). How do you feel
in this situation?
Example: Let’s say one of your research colleagues has manipulated the research data and has
changed the results in favor of his hypothesis. What do you do in this situation?

13. 2) application of moral judgment
Moral judgment is an individual's ability to discern between good and bad actions. For example,
when given two responses to a particular event – one being harmful and one helpful – a person
with strong moral judgment will be able to identify which action is more morally correct for
that event.
So in the previous examples…

14. 3) engagement of moral motivation
Moral motivation refers to whether a person who makes a moral judgment subsequently acts
accordingly. Once we have deliberated and formed judgments about what is right or wrong,
good or bad, these judgments tend to have a marked hold on us. At this phase, we examine the
options and make a decision.

15. 4) acting with moral intent
Moral action means transforming the intent to do the right thing into reality.
This involves moral ownership, moral efficacy, and moral courage.

16. Well, think for a few minutes and describe a situation where you behaved ethically. Determine
how each of these steps has been done!
Class work

17. Understanding the APA Code of Ethics
The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes the Ethical Principles of Psychologists
and Code of Conduct which outlines aspirational principles as well as enforceable standards that
psychologists should use when making decisions. In 1948, APA president Nicholas Hobbs said, "[The
APA Code of Ethics] should be of palpable aid to the ethical psychologist in making daily decisions. In
other words, these ethical codes are meant to guide mental health professionals in making the best
ethical decisions on a regular basis.
When Did theAPA Publish Its Code of Ethics?
The APA first published its ethics code in 1953 and has been continuously evolving the code ever
since.

18. What's in theAPA's Code of Ethics?
TheAPAcode of ethics is composed of key principles and ethical standards:
 Principles: The principles are intended as a guide to help inspire psychologists as they
work in their profession, whether they are working in mental health, in research, or in
business.
 Standards: The standards outline expectations of conduct. If any of these are violated, it
can result in professional and legal ramifications.

19. Who Is theAPACode of Ethics For?
The code of ethics applies only to work-related, professional activities including research,
teaching, counselling, psychotherapy, and consulting. Private conduct is not subject to
scrutiny by theAPA's ethics committee.

20. The APA Code of Ethics' Five Principles
1. PrincipleA: Beneficence and Non-Maleficence
2. Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
3. Principle C: Integrity
4. Principle D: Justice
5. Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

21. Principle A: Beneficence and Non-Maleficence
The first principle of the APA ethics code states that psychologists should strive to protect the
rights and welfare of those with whom they work professionally. This includes the clients they see in
clinical practice, animals that are involved in research and experiments, and anyone else with whom
they engage in professional interaction. This principle encourages psychologists to strive to eliminate
biases, affiliations, and prejudices that might influence their work. This includes acting independently in
research and not allowing affiliations or sponsorships to influence results.

22. Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
Principle B states that psychologists have a moral responsibility to ensure that others working in
their profession also uphold high ethical standards. This principle suggests that psychologists should
participate in activities that enhance the ethical compliance and conduct of their colleagues.
Serving as a mentor, taking part in peer review, and pointing out ethical concerns or misconduct are
examples of how this principle might be put into action. Psychologists are also encouraged to donate
some of their time to the betterment of the community.

23. Principle C: Integrity
Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty and truthfulness in the science, teaching and practice of
psychology.

24. Principle D: Justice
The principle of justice says that mental health professionals have a responsibility to be fair and
impartial. It also states that people have a right to access and benefit from advances that have been
made in the field of psychology. It is important for psychologists to treat people equally. Psychologists
should also always practice within their area of expertise and also be aware of their level of
competence and limitations.

25. Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
Principle E states that psychologists should respect the right to dignity, privacy, and
confidentiality of those they work with professionally. They should also strive to minimize their
own biases as well as be aware of issues related to diversity and the concerns of particular
populations. For example, people may have specific concerns related to their age, socioeconomic
status, race, gender, religion, ethnicity, or disability.

26. The 10 Standards Found in the APA Code of Ethics
1. Resolving Ethical Issues
2. Competence
3. Human Relations
4. Privacy and Confidentiality
5. Advertising and Other Public Statements
6. Record Keeping and Fees
7. Education and Training
8. Research and Publication
9. Assessment
10. Therapy

27. 1: Resolving Ethical Issues
This standard of the APA ethics code provides information about what psychologists should do to
resolve ethical situations they may encounter in their work. This includes advice for what researchers
should do when their work is misrepresented and when to report ethical violations.

28. governing legal authority
• Standard 1.01: Misuse of Psychologists’Work
• Standard 1.02: Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or other
• Standard 1.03: Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands
• Standard 1.04: Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations
• Standard 1.05: Reporting Ethical Violations
• Standard 1.06: Cooperating With Ethics Committees
• Standard 1.07: Improper Complaints
• Standard 1.08: Unfair DiscriminationAgainst Complainants and Respondents

29.  STANDARD 1.01: MISUSE OF PSYCHOLOGISTS’WORK
 If psychologists learn of misuse or misrepresentation of their work, they take reasonable steps to
correct or minimize the misuse or misrepresentation.
 Psychologists have professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific
individuals, organization and communities with whom they work to ensure that their work products
are not misused.
 Psychologist would be aware of misuse of mis-interpenetration of their work, a claim of ignorance
would not be an acceptable defense against a charge of violation.

30. Case Study
A school psychologist completed a report summarizing her assessment of a child whose test did
not clearly meet diagnostic criteria for serious emotional disturbance. Several days later, she
learned that the principle of her school had forwarded to the superintendent of school only parts
of the assessment report that supported the principles desired to classify the student as
emotionally disturbed to fill a special education quota.
What psychologist should do?

31. governing legal
Standard 1.02: Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or other
authority
If psychologists' ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal authority,
psychologists make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take steps to resolve the conflict. If
the conflict is unresolvable via such means, psychologists may adhere to the requirements of the laws,
regulations, or other governing legal authority.

32. Case Study
A psychologist who had received a court order for confidential information sent a letter to the
judge explaining the relevant confidentially standards in the ethics code and requesting judicial
review to determine whether a limited release of information would meet legal requirements.

33. • Standard 1.03: Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands
If the demands of the organization with which the psychologist is affiliated or for whom they are
working conflicts with ethical code, psychologist clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their
commitment to the ethics code, and to the extinct feasible, resolve the conflict in a way that permits
adherence to ethical code.

34. Case Study
An industrial psychologist recently employed by an organization to handle employment testing is
asked to share clients private problems with the head of department.
What should psychologist do?

35. • Standard 1.04: Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations
When psychologists believe that there may have been an ethical violation by another psychologist,
they attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that individual, if an informal
resolution appears appropriate and the intervention does not violate any confidentiality rights that
may be involved.

36. Case Study
A professor of psychology had not established a timely, specific process for providing feedback to
evaluate students performance. After discussion with the department chair, the professor agreed to
develop such a plan.

37. • Standard 1.05: Reporting Ethical Violations
If an apparent ethical violation has substantially harmed or is likely to substantially harm a person or
organization and is not appropriate for informal resolution under Standard 1.04, psychologists take
further action appropriate to the situation. Such action might include referral to state or national
committees on professional ethics, to state licensing boards, or to the appropriate institutional authorities.

38. Case Study
A psychology professor reviewing an assistant professor’s application materials discovers that the
faculty member has several publications that plagiarized articles written by a senior colleague.
The psychologist presents the evidence to the chair of department. The chair and the professor
inform the faculty member that they dad discovered the plagiarism and would be forwarding
information to the university committee on the ethical conduct, and if the committee found that
plagiarism had occurred, they will inform the journal in which the articles were published.

39. • Standard 1.06: Cooperating With Ethics Committees
Psychologists cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings, and resulting requirements of the APA or
any affiliated state psychological association to which they belong. In doing so, they address any
confidentiality issues. Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation.

40. Case Study
A patient submitted a complaint to the APA charging a psychologist that has misinterpreted the
results of an assessment and has lead to inaccurate diagnosis.
What’s our responsibility?

41. • Standard 1.07: Improper Complaints
Psychotherapists do not file or encourage the filing of ethics complaints that are made with reckless
disregard for or willful ignorance of facts that would disprove the allegation.

42. • Standard 1.08: Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents
Psychologists do not deny persons employment, advancement, admissions to academic or other
programs, tenure, or promotion, based solely upon their having made or their being the subject of an
ethics complaint.

43. 2: Competence
It is important that psychologists practice within their area of expertise. When treating clients or
working with the public, psychologists must make it clear what they are trained to do as well as what
they are not trained to do.
An Exception to This Standard
This standard stipulates that in an emergency situation, professionals may provide services even if it
falls outside the scope of their practice in order to ensure that access to services is provided.

44. 2.01 Boundaries of Competence
(a)Psychologists provide services, teach, and conduct research with populations and in areas only
within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience,
consultation, study, or professional experience.
(b)Where scientific or professional knowledge in the discipline of psychology establishes that an
understanding of factors associated with age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national
origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status is essential for
effective implementation of their services or research, psychologists have or obtain the training,
experience, consultation, or supervision necessary to ensure the competence of their services, or they
make appropriate referrals, except as provided in Standard.

45. Case Study
Dr. Collins is three months out of graduate school. In his first postgraduate, pre-licensure job, he works at a
church based counseling agency under the direct supervision of a newly licensed clinical psychologist. Three
months ago, the agency decided not to replace a therapist due to budgetary shortfall. This has meant not only
an increasing workload but also a more varied caseload for Dr. Collins. One patient, Jane, was assigned to
him with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. In the process of working with Jane, Dr. Collins was contacted by
Jane’s family regarding their increasing concern over Jane’s noncompliance with treatment for her diabetes.
Dr. Collins had no prior knowledge of Jane’s diabetes, nor did Dr. Collins have experience in working with
diabetic patients. Before Dr. Collins was able to staff the case with a physician, Jane fell into a deep
depression, failed to take her insulin properly, and went into a medical emergency. Dr. Collins received two
phone calls—one from the hospital requesting consultation and one from Jane’s family.

46. 2.02 Providing Services in Emergencies
In emergencies, when psychologists provide services to individuals for whom other mental health
services are not available and for which psychologists have not obtained the necessary training,
psychologists may provide such services in order to ensure that services are not denied. The services are
discontinued as soon as the emergency has ended or appropriate services are available.

47. • Psychologists planning to provide services, teach, or conduct research involving populations, areas,
techniques, or technologies new to them undertake relevant education, training, supervised experience,
consultation, or study.
 When psychologists are asked to provide services to individuals for whom appropriate mental health
services are not available and for which psychologists have not obtained the competence necessary,
psychologists with closely related prior training or experience may provide such services in order to
ensure that services are not denied if they make a reasonable effort to obtain the competence required
by using relevant research, training, consultation, or study.

48.  In those emerging areas in which generally recognized standards for preparatory training do not yet
exist, psychologists nevertheless take reasonable steps to ensure the competence of their work and to
protect clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others
from harm.
 When assuming forensic roles, psychologists are or become reasonably familiar with the judicial or
administrative rules governing their roles.

49. Case Study
Dr. Bell is employed full-time as an associate professor in a small undergraduate liberal arts college.
Of the three psychology faculty at the college, she is the only licensed psychologist while others are
nonclinical psychologists. Her training and dissertation is in gifted adolescents with learning
disabilities. The college is located in a very small rural township in the Midwest and is a 2-hour drive
from the nearest town. On Sunday, the campus awoke to the news that one of the fraternity houses
had an all-night party and a freshman woman was found dead. Dr. Bell is asked by the president of
this small college to enter into the fraternity house and freshman dormitory that day to conduct crisis
grief counseling for the students.

50. 2.03 Maintaining Competence
Psychologists undertake ongoing efforts to develop and maintain their competence.

51. Case Study
Dr. Murphy, being a bit overwhelmed by his very busy schedule, renewed his state psychology licensure
without checking for documentation but knew surely that he had attended and acquired the necessary CE
credits in the past year. Unluckily, his renewal was randomly drawn to submit proof of CE credits. Dr.
Murphy was alarmed to discover that he actually had not accumulated the required number of CE credits
through attendance at CE events. However, Dr. Murphy reasoned that he has done enough reading of
self-help books to qualify for self-guided CE credits.

52. 2.04 Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments
Psychologists' work is based upon established scientific and professional knowledge of the discipline.

53. Case Study
Daniel, a 22-year-old male, is in treatment with Dr. Bailey in order to work on the many ramifications of his
identity as a homosexual male. Daniel reported that his parents did not react well to their discussion regarding
his sexual identity and that, as always after a visit with his parents, he was feeling depressed and thoughts of
wishing to die crossed his mind. Upon hearing Daniel’s suicidal ideation, Dr. Bailey immediately proceeded to
have Daniel complete a signed suicide contract wherein Daniel promised not to attempt suicide. Dr. Bailey also
then inquired as to whether Daniel had considered conversion therapy.

54. 2.05 Delegation of Work to Others
Psychologists who delegate work to employees, supervisees, or research or teaching assistants or who use
the services of others, such as interpreters, take reasonable steps to (1) avoid delegating such work to
persons who have a multiple relationship with those being served that would likely lead to exploitation or
loss of objectivity; (2) authorize only those responsibilities that such persons can be expected to perform
competently on the basis of their education, training, or experience, either independently or with the level
of supervision being provided; and (3) see that such persons perform these services competently.

55. Case Study
Dr. Rivera noticed that his office is receiving insurance payments for client sessions that did not
occur. Dr. Rivera spoke to his part-time bookkeeper, Sandra, who does general office work, client
billing, and filing of insurance claims. Sandra claimed that she never submitted insurance claims
for the treatment sessions in question but that she would certainly contact the insurance company
to see what she could find out. After contacting the insurance company, Sandra reported that
Christopher, the tech support for the insurance software that Sandra has been using, was the
generator of the insurance claims for the erroneous sessions in question. Sandra also said that she
had been having some difficulties with the new claims software’s electronic interface with the
insurance company so she had been working with Christopher to work out these problems.

56. STANDARD 2.06: PERSONALPROBLEMSAND CONFLICTS
a) Psychologists refrain from initiating an activity when they know or should know that there is a
substantial likelihood that their personal problems will prevent them from performing their
work-related activities in a competent manner.

57. Case Study
Dr. Cooper has a very busy day with four clients in the morning and an additional three scheduled after lunch.
Toward the end of his half hour lunch break, as he was chatting with office mates, the building swayed from an
earthquake. Turning on the radio, a severe regional earthquake is confirmed. Dr. Cooper also learned the
epicenter of the quake is near his home and the elementary school his children attend. In the next treatment
session, Dr. Cooper is preoccupied with how to find his children to assure himself of their safety. Dr. Cooper is
unable to track his client’s conversation.

58. STANDARD 2.06: PERSONAL PROBLEMSAND CONFLICTS
. . . (b) When psychologists become aware of personal problems that may interfere with
their performing work-related duties adequately, they take appropriate measures, such as
obtaining professional consultation or assistance, and determine whether they should limit,
suspend, or terminate their work-related duties.

59. Case Study
Dr. Richardson is a newly licensed psychologist who has relocated in order to join a group practice.
Instead of moving to join her in the new city, as planned, her husband asked for a separation and filed
for divorce. Dr. Richardson has been distraught and shocked by this turn of events. She is reluctant to
discuss her personal life with any of her work colleagues and does not have her own consulting group
or personal psychotherapist. For the past 2 weeks, she has become increasingly depressed, anxious, and
is constantly tearful when not at work. One day in a couples’ session, a client disclosed that he was
having an extramarital affair and wanted to end the marriage. Dr. Richardson felt herself becoming
angry, outraged, and then tearful during the session at the male of the couple, and rather than continue,
she ended the session early. She now finds herself wondering whether her partner was having an affair
and if that is why he chose to file for divorce.