The Use Of Polymers

The Use Of Polymers
Ever since the first polymer was fabricated in 1907, scientists have been seeking new applications
for classic polymers (Brewer, 2006). Recently, in 2010, an enhanced structure of the photovoltaic
cell (PVC) was proposed: synthesising new polymers from regular polymers for advanced donating
and electron–accepting (D–A) moieties in PVCs (Mike et al., 2010). Also, in 2005, another
additional application for traditional polymers has been discovered. By adding cinnamic acid to a
flexible polymer, a material is produced which changes shape in response to different wavelengths
of ultraviolet (UV) light (Lendlein, 2005). Hence, an 'old' polymer can be taught new applications
and 'tricks' if modified in some way. Polymers, known as plastics, are ... Show more content on
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Likewise, polybenzobisoxazoles (PBBO)s, found in zylon, are multifunctional materials commonly
applied in electrical structures for their high tensile strength, thermal stability, efficient electron
transport, and high electron affinity (Intemann et al., 2011). So, when the thiophene and
benzobisoxazoles (BBO)s from these compounds are combined with other molecules such as
aldehydes, and two new polymers, namely poly[(3,4–didodecylthiopene vinylene)–alt–benzo[1,2–
d;5,4–d']–bisoxazole]–2,6–diyl (PTVcBBO) and poly[(3,4–didodecylthiopene vinylene)–alt–
benzo[1,2–d;4,5–d']bisoxazole]–2,6–diyl (PTVtBBO) are formed, D–A moieties with a low band
gap and high electron transfer are produced (Kim et al., 2015). These moieties are then used to
enhance PVC efficiency and electron transfer. Firstly, the direct conversion of sunlight into energy
using PVCs has been recognised as an imperative component of future global energy production. As
a result of their optical and electrical properties, conjugated organic materials are being suggested to
replace inorganic materials in PVCs due to their ability to manipulate their electron properties
through chemical synthesis (Mike et al., 2010). So, to improve the electrical properties of regular
PVCs, the band gap (the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of
the conduction band) must be lowered
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Fulvalene Synthesis
What fulvalenes are and how can we synthesis fulvalenes containing chalcogen on their molecule
type. Compounds like benzophenon, thiobenzophenone and selenobenzophenone are some
fulvalenes that contain Oxygen, Sulfur and Selenium. The preparation of those compounds is
different for each one, however, benzophenone can be the counteract to synthesise the others. A
fulvalene is a hydrocarbon obtained by formally cross–conjugating two rings through a common
exocyclic double bond. The name is derived from the similarly structured fulvenes which lack one
ring. The fulvalene molecule is interesting as an example of a conjugated hydrocarbon for which
only dipolar resonance structures can be written, apart from the basic neutral structure, and it has ...
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Acetonitrile was the solvent of choice, as it showed optimal performance in the selective
epoxidation of functionalized alkenes with TBHP. In such solvent, the primary product of the
reaction observed at short reaction times was the corresponding trans–stilbene epoxide (3), as
expected. This product is due to epoxidation of the C–C double bond catalyzed by titanium(IV)
centers in the presence of alkyl hydroperoxides and such behavior is fully consistent with several
previous observations. In addition, thanks the use of anhydrous TBHP, the reaction proceeded
mainly following a heterolytic oxidation pathway and hence with a good selectivity to the desired
epoxide. However, at longer reaction times (72 h), the reaction proceeded further and the major
observed product was surprisingly benzophenone (5). Even if thiobenzophenone is quite stable,
although it photoxidizes in air to form benzophenone and sulfur. Thiobenzophenone is deep blue and
dissolves readily in many organic solvents. One of the first reported syntheses of thiobenzophenone
involves the reaction of sodium hydrosulfide(2equal) and benzophenone dichloride.However, in the
reaction scheme of the second method, a mixture of gaseous hydrogen chloride and hydrogen
sulfide are passed into a cooled solution of benzophenone in ethanol. Thiobenzophenone can also

Using Polystyrene ( Ps ) Standards For Calibration Essay
Introduction: Polyimides are high performance polymers with excellent electrical properties, high
thermal stability, and high strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures. They also have a high
chemical resistance and are therefore typically not soluble in common solvents. Because of
solubility issues the molecular weight (MW) and molecular weight distribution (MWD) of
polyimides is near impossible to obtain and in some cases the data listed is based on soluble
precursors to the particular polyimide of interest. These precursors are typically only soluble in
amide solvents and because of this the results obtained are questionable due to strong interactions
that the polymer, mobile phase/eluent, and stationary phase/column have with one another due to the
polyelectrolyte effect. This article aims to determine MW and MWD of polyimides via gel
permeation chromatography (GPC) by using solution imidization and thus not having to deal with
the occurrence of the polyelectrolyte effect. Therefore, the overall objective of this paper is to
establish the proper chromatographic conditions required to carry out this analysis with the use of
polystyrene (PS) standards for calibration.
Experimental:
Polyimide samples were prepared in N–methylpyrrolidine (NMP) by using a step wise reaction and
end capping with m–ethynylaniline in order to control the molecular weight. Via this process,
theoretical molecular weights of 5000, 10000, and 15000 g/mol were achieved and analyzed with
the

Adipic Acid
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. HISTORY AND GENERAL INFORMATION ON ADIPIC
ACID 1. History on The Production Adipic acid is an important organic chemical raw material. In
China, it is used as raw material in the production of Nylon 6/6 salt, polyurethane, plasticizers,
high–grade lubricants and food additives. With the rapid growth of development, the application of
adipic acid keeps expanding. The production of adipic acid is controlled in the hands of
multinationals. An American chemical company (DuPont) is the biggest supplier in the world. On
2004, total capacity of adipic acid in the world was recorded to be as much as 2.74 million tons and
Du Pont alone caters about 1.1 million tons which is almost ... Show more content on
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Currently in Malaysia, it is not producing or manufacturing any adipic acid but they only become
the supplier for the local industries. For this matter, Malaysia should build at least one manufacturer
plant of adipic acid to decrease the import of the adipic acid from other countries. There are not
many adipic acid plants in the world and therefore local manufacturer should grab this opportunity
and not just depending on outside sources. This would make Malaysia one of the largest productions
of adipic acid in the world. 2. General Description Generally, adipic acid has a structure of Carbon 6
straight–chain with two carboxylic acid (–COOH) groups. Due to its long aliphatic chain, it is
slightly soluble in water, alcohol and acetone. Adipic acid can also be called as 1,4–
butanedicarboxylic acid, 1,6–hexanedioic acid, adipinic acid, acifloctin, acinetten,
octafluorohexanedioic acid as well as hexanedioic acid. It is expected to have a chemical formula of
C6H10O4 and a structural formula of HOOC(CH2)4COOH with a total molecular weight of 146.14
gmol–1. Figure 1.2 is the structures of adipic acid: Figure 1.2: Molecular structure of adipic acid
Commercial adipic acid is one of the purest chemicals produced on a large scale (99.8%) because of
the extreme sensitivity of polyamide synthesis to impurities. Typical impurities include

Markovnikov's Code Lab Report
Maci Mullins CHEM2130–001 11/10/2017 Testing Markovnikov's Rule Statement of Problem:
Does Markovnikov's rule explain the formation of product for the hydration of 1–hexene?
Hypothesis: Markovnikov addition can be observed in an acid–catalyzed hydration reaction, and an
anti–Markovnikov addition can be observed through the process of a hydroboration–oxidation
reaction. For this experiment, 1–hexanol or 2–hexanol were the possible products. After evaluating
the chemical formulas of both, it was identified that 1–hexanol is formed through anti–Markovnikov
addition, and 2–hexanol is formed through Markovnikov addition. Since the undergone reaction was
hydroboration–oxidation, it was hypothesized that the formation of product would be formed ...
The fingerprint region on both mine and the 1–hexanol IR collected from the Spectral Database for
Organic Compounds SDBS showed the exact same C–O single bond peak of 1057 cm–₁. This
confirmed that the product formed in the experiment was in fact 1–hexanol due to the anti–
Markovnikov addition reaction of hydroboration–oxidation (HBO). The HBO reaction always
attaches the OH group to the less substituted carbon. There was also another extremely sharp peak at
about 1109 cm–₁ on my products IR spectrum that compared very closely to the 1–hexanol sharp
peak of 1114 cm–₁. These similar sharp peaks and stretches gave confirmation that my product was
the 1–hexanol

Hydroboration: Atom and Hydrogen Peroxide Essay
Hydroboration–Oxidation
Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to analyze the results of hydroboration oxidation on a terminal
alkene.
Overall Reaction:
Compound | MW | Density | BP | MSDS | 1–octene | 112.24 | .715 | 121 | Flammable, irritant | BH |
13.84 | .898 | 90 | Irritant | Tetrahydrofuran | 72.1 | .889 | 66 | Irritant | Hydrogen Peroxide | 34.0 |
1.135 | 152 | Corrosive, harmful | 1–octanol | 130.2 | .824 | 195 | Irritant | 2–octanol | 130.2 | .819 |
160 | Flammable |
Discussion:
Hydroboration–oxidation is a one step, conservative organic reaction that converts an alkene into a
neutral alcohol by the addition of water across the double bond. This reaction is anti–Markovnikov,
which leads to the hydroxyl ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus one of the hydrogen atoms from BH now bears a partial negative charge, and hence becomes
more nucleophilic. The breaking pi bond transfers its free electrons to form a bond between the
partial positively charged boron atom and negatively charged carbon while the electrons from the
boron–hydrogen bond help create the bond between the partially positive carbon and negatively
charged hydrogen. This whole process occurs two more times, resulting in a boron atom attached to
three of the same alkyl groups along with its vacant 2p orbital. After hydroboration, treatment of the
alkylborane with hydrogen peroxide in a base leads to the replacement of the borane atom with a
hydroxyl group. Note that the stereochemistry is preserved. The first step is the deprotonation of
hydrogen peroxide to give HOO because HOO is a better nucleophile and will speed up the rate of
reaction for the next step. The nucleophilic HOO will then attack the trialkylborane compound and
cause an alkyl shift where one of the alkyl groups bonds to the attacking oxygen. The hydroxyl
group leaves at the same time this occurs, and this happens two more times. The end result is a
trialkoxyborane compound. The trialkoxyborane is then attacked by a nucleophilic hydroxide and
induces a negative charge on boron.

Evidence Outline
Admiralty Outline – Fall 2003
Overview
Admiralty is federal law, originating in Article III, § 2 of Constitution.
i. First Congress included Cases of Admiralty/Maritime in Judiciary Act. ii. Supremacy Clause.
b. If say that case is admiralty/maritime case, governed by admiralty law, is to say that substantive
admiralty law applies.
i. Differences: statute of limitations, comparative laws for recovery, etc.
a. Main: trial by judge. From very beginning, admiralty cases are w/o juries. May be why someone
brings suit in admiralty – to avoid the jury. ii. Admiralty cases can't be removed from state to
federal courts.
a. but most admiralty cases can be brought in state courts unless qualify under diversity.
b. But ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nexus factor: wrong must bear relationship to admiralty, must have maritime nexus. (Since 1972) o
almost anything occurring on navigable waters will meet the nexus test. Jerome B. Grubart, Inc. v.
Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co. (SCOTUS, 1995): o Two pronged test for nexus developed.
a. Was event disruptive to maritime commerce?
b. Was it a maritime activity? Look up foremost & Sisson – determine exact jurisdictional tests for
admiralty jurisdiction, differences in contract & tort. After Executive Jet must have: Incident out of
which claim grew must have had disruptive influence on maritime commerce. Substantial
relationship to maritime activity.
o Navigable Waters Jurisdiction inquiries rely on issue of whether matters in the suit had sufficient
involvement with navigable waters – the maritime nexus. Navigable waters – classic definition in
The Daniel Ball: waters navigable that are either navigable in fact or can do so in conjunction with
other waters in which they flow. Leblanc v. Cleveland (2nd Circuit, 1999): Navigable requires that
the body of water be capable fo supporting commercial maritime activity now, not just historically.
Can have seasonable non–navigability. But if not normally navigable and just occasionally
navigable, then no admiralty jurisdiction.
o Vessels 1

3-Hexylthiophene Lab Report
Poly (3–hexylthiophene) Molecular Bottlebrushes via Romp Macromolecular Architecture
Enhanced Aggregation is a process, which uses the Grignard metathesis polymerization. Grignard
metathesis polymerization is a technique that uses a living chain growth mechanism in order to
produce the regioregular polymer poly (3–hexylthiophene). The synthesis demonstrates the addition
of poly (norbornene) backbone and rr–P3HT side chains. Grignard metathesis is conducted in order
to allow the polymerization of poly (3–hexylthiophene) to take place in a room temperature and to
decrease the cost and increase the efficiency of the technique. Poly (3–hexylthiphene) the product of
head to tail coupling is a class of polymers that maintain a great level of solubility, ... Show more
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The reason for not reaching the goal was due to the loss of solvent during the reaction. A step in the
procedure was to reflux the reactant with the Tetrahydrofuran solvent and during the reflux process
the condenser wasn't attached properly, which thus caused the solvent to escape. Due to the reduced
level of moisture the reaction didn't perform properly. Also, when the product was measured under
the mass spectrometry the molecular weight of the product didn't match up to the expected results
and this thus indicates the presence of impurities in the product. The reaction was repeated second
time in order to avoid the mistakes and to produce a greater amount of the product. This time the
reaction was performed during the day and insight in order to avoid any error that may cause if the
reaction is continued into the night. We also made sure the reaction was given the exact amount of
time nothing more or nothing less than the required amount to avoid any side reactions and any
mishap from occurring. At the end of the reaction we produced three grams of product with no sign
of impurity indicated through the

Grignard Reaction Lab Report
For this experiment, an organometallic reagent was used for the synthesis and isolation of benzoic
acid. The Grignard reaction is the addition reaction of an organometallic reagent, which in this case
was an organomagnesium reagent. An organometallic reagent is a carbon bonded to a metal. This
reagent was combined with an electrophile, a carbonyl compound such as a ketone or aldehyde.
Carbons are electrophilic when bound to a nonmetal thus the atoms are more electronegative than
the carbon and metals are less electronegative than carbon. When the organometallic carbon is used
to attack an electrophilic carbon, a new C–C bond forms and the C=O double bond breaks. By
adding an alkyl or aryl halide, bromide, to magnesium metal in an aprotic solvent ... Show more
This allows for a weak acid to attach to form the unknown carboxylic acid. Sulfuric acid, a dilute
acid solution, was added to protonate the solution. To minimize the amount of bubbling that
occurred from the exothermic reaction, it was added slowly so that the sulfuric acid reacted with the
excess magnesium. Anhydrous diethyl ether, containing no water, was used as the solvent in
preparing the Grignard reagent because the oxygen contains a lone pair that can interact with the
partial positive on the magnesium which stabilizes the metal complex. Another potential solvent
could be THF, tetrahydrofuran, or hexane, but diethyl ether is a better solvent since it contains
oxygen. The reaction was then reduced with acid to protonate the carboxylate salt which yields a
carboxylic acid product. By adding acid, it also dissolved any excess magnesium metal, so a liquid–
liquid extraction can occur to isolate the product. A liquid–liquid extraction was used since the
experiment involved a liquid solvent that removed a liquid component from the liquid mixture. A
solid–liquid extraction would have been used if components were being removed from a solid by
using a

Grignard Reaction Lab Report
The Grignard Reaction Abstract Through the use of the Grignard reaction, a carbon–carbon bond
was formed, thereby resulting in the formation of triphenylmethanol from phenyl magnesium
bromide and benzophenone. A recrystallization was performed to purify the Grignard product by
dissolving the product in methanol. From here, a melting point range of 147.0 °C to 150.8 °C was
obtained. The purified product yielded an IR spectrum with major peaks of 3471.82 cm–1, 3060.90
cm–1, 1597.38 cm–1, and 1489.64 cm–1, which helped to testify whether the identity of the product
matched the expected triphenylmethanol. The identity of the product being correct was further
confirmed by way of both proton and carbon–13 NMR spectra. This is due to the fact ... Show more
As the acid was being added, the mixture was being stirred over a stir plate. Once completed, the
reaction mixture was poured from the round bottom flask into a 500 mL separatory funnel and its
top (organic) layer was extracted into another beaker. The bottom (aqueous) layer was placed back
into the funnel and extracted twice with 50.0 mL of ethyl ether each. The newly extracted layers
were combined and dried over magnesium sulfate (MgSO4). The dried solution was the decanted
into a beaker to remove the MgSO4 salts and the product solution was collected via Buchner
vacuum filtration. The resulting product was transferred into an Erlenmeyer flask with an inverted
beaker on top and stored in a drawer. The week after, a recrystallization was performed on the
previous week's crude product. The product ethereal solution was first heated on a steam bath until
dry. During the heating, a beaker of methanol was collected and also placed on the steam bath. Once
the product was dry, it was cooled to room temperature and then placed in an ice–water bath. The
now boiling methanol was added to the crude crystals and a recrystallization was performed. Once
completed, the now purified product was collected via Buchner vacuum filtration and stored in
drawer to dry for a week. Afterwards, a melting point range of the purified product was obtained by
using a Mel–temp apparatus. Lastly, an

Phosphonium Saltss Reaction Lab Report
Synthesis of tetrakis (pyrrolidino) phosphonium tetrafluoroborate (Py4P1+BF4–), tetrakis
(piperidino) phosphonium tetrafluoroborate (Pi4P1+BF4–), and tetrakis (morpholino) phosphonium
tetrafluoroborate (Mo4P1+BF4–).
Stoichiometric pyrrolidino, piperidino, and morpholino were reacted with PCl5 in absolute CH2Cl2
or chlorobenzene at various temperatures. After the completion of the reactions, NH4BF4/H2O was
added at room temperature. The resulting products were washed with solvents, and the white solids
thus obtained were isolated by filtration and dried in vacuum. The reactions with three phosphonium
salts are shown by Equations (2), (3), and (4). 1H–NMR (Py4P1+BF4–, 400MHz, CDCl3, 30 °C,
TMS): δ = 1.94 ppm (m. 16H. NCH2CH2), 3.21 ppm (m, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The catalysts were mixed with a KBr salt pellet. FTIR spectra were generated from 32 scans in the
wavenumber range 4000–400 cm–1 at a resolution of 4 cm–1.
2.4.2 NMR
1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra were recorded using a Bruker Biospin AG, Magnet System 400
MHz/54 mm spectrometers at 25 °C, using chloroform–d (CDCl3) as the solvent and trimethylsilane
as the internal standard.
2.4.3 Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)
GPC Measurements were performed using a Waters 1515 Isocratic HPLC using tetrahydrofuran
(THF) as an eluent at 35 °C, at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The polymers were dissolved in THF at a
concentration of 6 mg/mL. The system was calibrated using a series of monodisperse linear PPO
standards with molecular weights in the range 200–12000 g/mol.
2.4.4 Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI–MS)
ESI–MS Measurements were performed using a Micromass LCTTM Liquid
Chromatography/Time–of–Flight Mass Spectrometer equipped with a Waters 600 Liquid
Chromatography System.
2.4.5 The degree of unsaturation (C=C)
The degree of unsaturation was calculated by 1H–NMR. 1H–NMR (PPO, 400 MHz, CDCl3, TMS):
δ = 1.12 ppm (m. CH3), 3.20–3.80 ppm (CH2, CH), 3.13 ppm (CH2CHOH), 3.90 ppm
(CH2CHOH), 5.14 ppm (CH2=CH–CH2), 5.27 ppm (CH2=CH–CH2), 5.87 ppm (CH2=CH–CH2)
(Figure

The Hagen Farm Superfund Site is Used for Agricultural Needs
The Hagen Farm Superfund Site is located in the town of Dunkirk in Dane County, Wisconsin. The
28–acre Hagen Farm is centered in a rural community with about 350 people residing within 1 mile
of the superfund site. Approximately 1 mile west of Dunkirk is the city of Stoughton which has an
extraterritorial jurisdictional boundary that incorporates the Hagen Farm Site. This area has been
utilized primarily for agricultural needs, but has also been used for sand and gravel mining and
commercial business. The site is located in the Yahara River watershed, and the southerly flowing
Yahara River is located about 1.5 miles to the west of Hagen Farm, and the groundwater flows
south, west, and east away from the site. The Stoughton Airfield is also located in proximity to the
northwestern portion of the site. The Hagen Farm acquired its name when the property was sold to
farmer and sheep grazer Orrin Hagen in 1970.
Prior to the late 1950s the site was used as an excavation pit for sand and gravel. The quarry was
subsequently used for the disposal of waste materials from 1950 until 1966. 10 acres of the 28–acre
site has been used as a disposal area for several hazardous waste contaminants that included volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, tetrahydrofuran, toluene, vinyl chloride and xylene;
other organics such as phenols and PCBs as well as lead. The main area of contamination is in the
southern half of the 10 acre area which encompasses about 6 acres which

Grignard Lab
A Grignard–Like Organic Reaction
The Synthesis of 1–phenyl–3–buten–1–ol
Introduction
The Grignard reaction is an important synthetic process by which a new carbon to carbon bond is
formed. Magnesium metal is first reacted with an organic halide forming the Grignard reagent. The
Grignard reaction is the addition of an organomagnesium halide (Grignard reagent) to a ketone or
aldehyde, to form a tertiary or secondary alcohol, respectively. For example, the reaction with
formaldehyde leads to a primary alcohol. Grignard Reagents are also used in the following
important reactions: The addition of an excess of a Grignard reagent to an ester or lactone gives a
tertiary alcohol in which two alkyl groups are the same, and the addition of a ... Show more content
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The reaction is carried out in saturated aqueous ammonium chloride solution. Thus no special drying
of solvents, reagents, or glassware is required. The reaction mechanism for this experiment can be
seen below (Fig. 2)
DATA | | | | | | Obtained Values | | | | | | Weight of Zinc powder | 0.165 g | | | | | Volume of NH4Cl (aq) |
1.0 mL | | | | | Volume of Benzaldehyde | 0.105 mL | | | | | Volume of THF | 0.5 mL | | | | | Volume of
Allyl Bromide | 0.205 mL | | | | | Weight of Final Product | 0.0514 g | | | | | | | | | | | Percent Yield * | | | | |
| Compound | Expected | Actual | % | | | 1–phenyl–3–buten–1–ol | 0.153 g | 0.0514 g | 33.60% | | | | | | |
| | TLC | | | | | | solvent system: 30% ether–hexane | | | | | Compound | Rf Value | | | | | Benzaldehyde |
0.75 | | | | | 1–phenyl–3–buten–1–ol | 0.25 | | | | | | | | | | | * Please see calculation section Fig. 3 for
further details. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Density (g/cm3) ++ | | | Formula Weight (g/mol) ++ | Compound | | |
Zinc | 65.38 | | Benzaldehyde | 1.04 | | Benzaldehyde | 106.12 | | 1–phenyl–3–buten–1–ol | 0.992 | |
Allyl Bromide | 120.99 | | NH4Cl (aq) | 1.53 | | 1–phenyl–3–buten–1–ol | 148.2 | | THF | 0.8892 | |
Allyl Zinc Bromide | 186.37 | | Allyl Bromide | 1.40 | | | | | Diethyl Ether | 0.7134 | |

Wittig Reaction Lab Report
Chapter Two – Results and Discussion 2.1 Synthesis of 1,3–butadienes 1,3–butadienes can be
synthesised from aldehydes and ketones using the Wittig reaction. The Wittig reaction facilitates the
synthesis of new carbon–carbon double bonds at specific locations in aldehydes and ketones
(Bernard & Ford, 1983). The overall reaction mechanism is shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. The Wittig
Reaction – Formation of a transitional oxaphosphetane and resultant formation of a new carbon–
carbon alkene bond resulting in the synthesis of 1,3–butadienes from aldehydes and ketones.
Protocols for synthesising 1,3–butadienes from aldehydes and ketones have been established in the
literature. The synthesis protocol identified by Greatrex et al. (2014) was ... Show more content on
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034 100 5% 6 2.947 0.707 17 4% a) Yield determined by purity determined from 1H NMR spectrum
analysis following isolation by column chromatography. Table 4 –Summary of 1,2–dioxines
synthesis reaction outcomes The general approach involved transforming each of the 1,3–butadienes
at the site of the terminal alkene bond via reaction with the singlet oxygen. Meso–
tetraphenylporphyrin was used as the photosensitiser to generate the singlet oxygen. The prepared
butadienes were added to a volume of dichloromethane and cooled using a water–cooled jacketed
flask. Reactions were followed by TLC and reaction times varied for each reaction based on
observations. Reactions were ceased on the basis of an increasing prevalence of a new product
appearing at the baseline of the TLC. Products of the reactions were purified via column
chromatography. Two cycloaddition products were observed in each reaction. These were the 1,2–
dioxine resulting from the Diels–Alder [4+2] cycloaddition reaction, and an aldehyde resulting from
the ene cycloaddition

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Vinylimidazole
1–Vinylimidazole (VIm), 1–idobutane (IB), 2–aminoethanethiol (AET), acetylacetate, N,N'–
dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC), N–hydroxysuccinimide (NHS), posstasium carbonate (K2CO3),
and azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (Milwaukee, WI, USA).
4,4′–Bis(4–hydroxylphenyl) valeic acid (HPV), 4,4′–difluorobenzophenone (DBP), chloroform,
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), dimethylacetamide (DMAc), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), toluene,
hydrochloric acid (HCl), tetrahydrofuran (THF), iso–propanol (IPA), and dimethylformamide
(DMF) were purchased from TCI company (Tokyo, Japan).
1.1 Synthesis of amino terminated PBVIm–I and NHS terminated PAEK (PAEK–NHS)
The amino terminated PBVIm–I was prepared from ido–butylvinylimidazole (BuVIm–I) ... Show
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The white solid PAEK was dissolved in THF/0.2 M HCl (25 mL/8 mL) and then precipitated in 600
mL of IPA solvent. The white precipitated solids were filtered and washed with de–ionized (DI)
water three times and then dried at 70 °C under vacuum. The dried PAEK was used to prepare
PAEK–NHS. To produce PAEK–NHS, the following solutions were prepared: (1) 2.32 g of dried
PAEK in 25 mL of DMF solvent; (2) NHS (0.69 g, 0.006 mole) in 3 mL of DMF, and (3) DCC (1.24
g, 0.006 mole) in 3 mL of DMF. After all the solutions were stirred at room temperature for 8 h
separately, the NHS solution (2) was added into the reactor and continuously stirred for 4 h. Then,
the DCC solution (3) was added slowly and stirred for 12 h. The temperature of the reactor was
raised to 40 °C for 1d. The solution from the reactor was filtered using a filter paper to remove white
solids, and then the pure solution was precipitated in 600 mL IPA several times. The PAEK–NHS
product was obtained after drying in a vacuum oven at 40 °C for 1d.
1H–NMR (PAEK–NHS, DMSO–d6): 7.02 (H–1), 7.85 (H–2), 7.04 (H–3), 7.32 (H–4), 1.62 (H–5);
2.45 (H–6), 2.01 (H–7), 2.85 (H–8).
1.2 Synthesis of PAEK–g–[PBVIm–I] and preparation alkaline anion exchange membrane (PAEK–
g–[PBVIm–OH])
PAEK–g–[PBVIm–I] was synthesized from 0.01 mole of PAEK–NHS and the excess amount of
PBVIm–I (0.015 mole) as shown in Fig. 1B. PAEK–NHS and PBVIm–I were dissolved in DMAc
and stirred at room temperature for 1 d

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Naproxen
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
A great number of drugs available on the market contain an active ingredient that is poorly soluble
in water and has a low dissolution rate. Various approaches to improve these properties exist. One of
the most common approaches is the production of a solid dispersion (SD), whereas the use of porous
carriers, such as calcium carbonate, also proved to be potential.
Since naproxen is a substance with good permeability and low solubility (Class II according to
BCS), dissolution is the limiting factor that determines the speed and extent of absorption of the
active ingredient.
In the context of the master's thesis it will be investigated whether, by incorporating naproxen,
which is practically insoluble in water, into calcium ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The maximum plasma concentration is reached after 2 to 4 hours, whereas the equilibrium
concentration (steady state) is established after 4 to 5 doses, respectively within 2 to 3 days. Plasma
concentrations of naproxen are increasing in proportion to a dose of up to 500 mg, while higher
doses were less proportionate. Plasma protein increases the creatinine clearance due to the saturation
binding of naproxen.
Distribution
Plasma concentrations of naproxen are in the usual dose between 23 mg/L and 49 mg/L. 99 % of
plasma proteins bind naproxen at concentrations of up to 50 mg/L, whereas at higher concentrations
the unbound drug amount is increased. Thus, at a concentration of 473 mg/L 2.4 % of unbound
naproxen were measured. Due to the strong binding to plasma proteins, the volume of distribution is
low and amounts to only 0.9 L/kg of body weight.
Metabolism and excretion
There is no presystematic metabolism. Naproxen is extensively metabolized by the liver and
excreted almost entirely via the kidneys (97.5 to 99 %) and only a very small proportion through
feces. Less than 10 % of the active substance is excreted unconverted and 60 % in the particular
form of conjugates with glucuronic acid. The remaining portion (30 %) is subjected to
demethylation by the liver, resulting in the production of 6–O–desmethyl naproxen or its conjugates.
This metabolite is pharmacologically

The Synthesis Of 13 Butadienes
CHAPTER TWO RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2.1 Synthesis of 1,3–butadienes
Dienes can be synthesised from aldehydes and ketones using the Wittig reaction. The Wittig reaction
facilitates the synthesis of new carbon–carbon double bonds at specific locations in aldehydes and
ketones (Bernard & Ford, 1983). The overall reaction mechanism is shown in Figure 1.
Protocols for synthesising 1,3–butadienes from aldehydes and ketones have been established in the
literature. The synthesis protocol proposed by Greatrex et al. (2014) was used and reactions using
several aldehydes (cinnamaldehyde, piperonaldehyde, and 2–chloro–benzaldehyde) were
successfully performed to synthesise the required butadienes 1, 2, and 3, Scheme 2.
The general approach involved transforming the aldehydes at the site of the carbonyl group. Use of
an appropriate triphenylphosphonium halide (methyl for cinnamaldehyde, and allyl for piperonal
and 2–chloro–benzaldehyde) afforded the correct 1,3–butadiene. Deprotonation of the
triphenylphosphonium halide was achieved using potassium tert–butoxide reacted under an
atmosphere of nitrogen. An observable colour change was observed on addition of the
triphenylphosphonium halide to the solvent, and subsequently on the addition of an aldehyde.
Reactions were followed by thin liquid chromatography (TLC), and the butadienes were purified via
chromatography (1 and 2 via column chromatography, and 3 via dry flash chromatography). Both
the e– and z– isomers of the butadienes

The Chemistry And Development Of A Current Technology Essay
Demonstrate understanding of the chemistry used in the development of a current technology
In this assessment I have chosen to research pharmaceuticals as a material that has been developed
in the last twenty years. This is a report that will demonstrate my understanding of the chemistry of
the material. In this report I shall include the historical development, the properties of the material
that makes it useful to society, whether there was experimentation or discoveries that led to its
development, any other notes and a personal opinion, and references to my findings.
The birth of the modern pharmaceutical industry trace back to two sources being apothecaries that
moved into production of drugs like morphine in the 19th century and dye and chemical companies
that established medical applications for the starting products in the 1880s and the research labs that
made it possible.
What is morphine? Morphine is pain medication; called a narcotic sometimes. This particular
medication is used to treat minor pain to extreme pain. Morphine isn't used for short term pain after
surgery; the only exception is if before surgery you were taking morphine.
Morphine is used alot in clinical pain management, especially for post–surgery pain and terminal
cancer pain. Morphine has many side effects in the body including reduction of pain, loss of hunger.
History:
In 1804, morphine was discovered when a German scientist named Friedrich Sertürner; dissolved
opium in acid

Ir Spectrum Lab Report
For both of the unknown compounds the techniques of IR Spectroscopy and both Carbon and
Hydrogen NMR were used to identify the compounds. In IR Spectroscopy infrared waves are shot
through a compound and a spectrum of peaks are created on a computer. Depending on where the
peaks are located and what shapes they are one can identify the functional groups of the compound.
In Carbon NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) Spectroscopy the number of unique carbons the
compound has are found. Each peak on the spectrum is a unique carbon. Depending on the location
on the spectrum different functional groups that that carbon is a part of can be identified. It can also
bring some enlightenment on the symmetry of the molecule. If the Carbon NMR says that ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The structure of the molecule worked perfectly with what was known from the IR, CNMR, and
HNMR spectra. It has a C–O stretch and alkanes as suggested from the IR Spectrum. It has an ether
as shown by Carbon NMR and has a hydrogen adjacent to a single bonded oxygen as revealed by
the Hydrogen NMR. The molecule also had symmetry which was a necessity. Lastly, it has the
correct chemical formula C4H8O. It was known which carbons and hydrogens went where for a
couple of different reasons. First, Carbon 1 was an ether which meant it had to be part of the ether
and adjacent to the oxygen. That left Carbon 2 to take the alkane spot. Hydrogen A was adjacent to a
single bonded oxygen which meant it needed to be with Carbon 1. Again, this left Hydrogen B to fill
the alkyl spot because it was bonded as a CH2. All of this is shown in Figure 11. Unlike, Unknown 1
the splitting patterns in Unknown 13 did not offer much insight. This was because both of the
hydrogens were triplets. However, information from the splitting pattern was not needed to figure
out

Alumnium-based Adjuvants Produce Long-lasing Vaccinations
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Aluminium based adjuvants have been used extensively to induce long lasting protective immunity
through vaccination and billions of doses have been administered over the years (Lindblad, 2004).
But reported incidences of toxicity and side effects of aluminium have raised concerns regarding
their safety in childhood vaccines. These effects include minor local reactions such as pain and
erythema, a nodule at the site of injection and systemic reactions which may entail fever, malaise,
shivering, general aches and headache (Clements and Griffiths, 2002) and is one of the most
common reasons for dropout rates, resulting in incomplete immunisation and hence suceptibility to
various diseases (Aguado, 1993). A small proportion of vaccinated people also suffered from
delayed onset of diffuse myalgia, chronic fatigue and cognitive dysfunction. In some persons, at site
of intra–muscular immunization, a granulomatous lesion called macrophagic myofasciitis (MMF)
has also been observed. Clinical symptoms associated with MMF is recently delineated as
"autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants"(ASIA) (Gherardi and Authier, 2012).
Despite of this fact, the choice of adjuvants for human vaccination still reflects a compromise
between a requirement for adjuvancity and an acceptable level of side–effects (Clements, 1996). At
present, in human vaccinations, aluminium based adjuvants are being used primarily in Diphtheria,
Tetanus, Pertussis, Hepatitis B,

Hydrate Essay
Hydrate–based CO2 separation is a new technology by which the exhaust gas containing CO2 is
exposed to water under high pressure forming hydrates. The mechanism is based on the differences
of phase equilibrium. Gas hydrates are crystalline solids, in which low molecular weight guest
molecules are trapped inside cages of hydrogen–bonded water molecule. A given hydrate structure is
typically determined by the size and shape of the guest molecule. Carbon dioxide is known to form
structure I. Each cavity may encapsulate one–or in rare cases more–guest molecules of proper sizes.
It is the presence of the guest molecule that stabilizes the crystalline water structure at temperatures
well above the normal freezing point. As a separation method, gas hydrates may be used with treated
flue gas from power plants in which CO2 is separated from N2 and O2. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
CO2 is preferentially encaged into the hydrate crystal phase compared to the other components. For
instance, the equilibrium pressure of N2 hydrate is three times greater than that of CO2. This
difference allows to separate CO2 from treated flue gas, i.e. a CO2–N2 mixture [14].
Flue gas from power plants usually contains from 15% to 20% mol. of CO2 and are released at
atmospheric pressure. The gas/hydrate equilibrium pressure for this kind of gas mixture is relatively
high. For example, the equilibrium pressures for a gas mixture containing CO2 at 17.61% mol. are
7.6 MPa and 11.0 MPa at 274 K and 277 K, respectively [15]. These pressures are not compatible
with the industrial reality, since the operative cost will be expensive if it is necessary to compress
the gas to the hydrate formation pressure. Consequently, the main challenge is to obtain a decrease
in the operating pressure. This task can be achieved using specific

Pitavastatin Research Paper
LIVALO (pitavastatin) is an inhibitor of HMG–CoA reductase. It is a manufactured lipid–bringing
down specialist for oral administration. The compound name for pitavastatin is (+) monocalcium bis
{(3R, 5S, 6E) – 7–[2–cyclopropyl–4–(4–fluorophenyl)– 3–quinolyl]–3,5dihydroxy–6–heptenoate}.
The basic recipe is: The experimental equation for pitavastatin is C50H46CaF2N2O8 and the atomic
weight is 880.98. Pitavastatin is unscented and happens as white to light yellow powder. It is
uninhibitedly solvent in pyridine, chloroform, weaken hydrochloric corrosive, and tetrahydrofuran,
dissolvable in ethylene glycol, sparingly solvent in octanol, marginally solvent in methanol,
somewhat solvent in water or ethanol, and for all intents and purposes insoluble ... Show more
Thus, the declaration of LDL–receptors took after by the take–up of LDL from blood to liver is
quickened and afterward, the plasma TC diminishes. Further, the supported hindrance of cholesterol
amalgamation in the liver declines levels of low–thickness lipoproteins. Identify the drug as either a
competitive or allosteric inhibitor. How it works? 1. Pitavastatin is a powerful aggressive inhibitor
of HMG–CoA reductase little used in hepatic microsomes. Pitavastatin lactone, which can be
changed over back to the unaltered shape, is the real metabolite of pitavastatin in people. To
elucidate the instrument of the lactonization of pitavastatin and the metabolic properties of the
lactone, we performed explores in vitro. 2. On expansion of UDP–glucuronic corrosive, human
hepatic microsomes created pitavastatin lactone and an obscure metabolite (UM–2). UM–2 was
changed over to its unaltered shape by enzymatic hydrolysis and to a lactone frame non–
enzymatically. Utilizing a few human UGT–communicating microsomes, UGT1A3 and UGT2B7
were mainly in charge of glucuronidation of pitavastatin prompting

Organic Extraction Distillation Process With Abe Extraction
ABSTRACT
Conventionally, Butanol is made with the Acetone–Butanol–Ethanol process using Clostridium
species to ferment sugars from biomass. Conversely, the route is linked with some shortcomings
such as low butanol yield and by–product formation (acetone and ethanol). The low productivities
and butanol yields of ABE batch fermentation can be increased by continuous fermentation with cell
recycle and integrated product removal. In order to facilitate an effective and energy–efficient
product removal, we suggest to apply a hybrid extraction–distillation process with ABE extraction in
an external column.
INTRODUCTION
Butanol (ethyl alcohol) is a four–carbon alcohol which has been mainly used as a solvent, chemical
intermediate, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The total ABE titer is 15–18 g/L with 10–13 g/L butanol. ABE fermentation by Clostridia usually
has two phases, acidogenesis and solventogenesis (Lee et al., 2008). In the acidogenesis phase,
glucose or other sugars are converted into acids such as acetate acid and butyrate acid, which leads
to rapid decrease in pH. Under certain critical pH, Clostridia shifts to the solventogenesis phase
during which it consumes acids to produce solvents (acetone, ethanol and butanol). The most
important factor that triggers the shift from acidogenesis to solventogenesis is external and internal
pHs. Some metabolically engineered Clostridia do not have this shift mechanism .
As a fuel, butanol can be used in pure form or blended in gasoline in any concentration unlike
ethanol that can be blended only up to 85%; however, a higher blend would necessitate motor
engine modification . In addition, the energy content of butanol being 29.2 MJ/L is 30% higher than
that of ethanol (21.2 MJ/L) and much closer to gasoline (32.5 MJ/L). Also, butanol's low vapor
pressure, hydroscopic nature, less volatility and less flammability facilitates its blending and supply
in existing gasoline channels and pipelines.
BIOBUTANOL PRODUCTION
MATERIALS:
C. acetobutylicum (ATCC) 824;
d–(+)–Glucose
Bacto yeast extract
Ammonium acetate
NaCl
KH2PO4
K2HPO4

KOH pellets
Cysteine HClH2O
MgSO47H2O

The Preparation Of Grignard Reagents
The preparation of Grignard reagents typically involves the reaction of an alkyl halide or aryl halide
with magnesium metal in an anhydrous ethereal solvent. This reaction results in the formation of a
carbon–magnesium complex within an alkyl magnesium halide or aryl magnesium halide. Grignard
reagents are considered to be strong nucleophiles and strong bases that have the ability to react with
acidic proton sources and carbonyl functional groups. The preparation of Grignard reagents must be
conducted in aprotic solvents to minimize interactions with strong proton sources that may result in
undesired products. Furthermore, the solvent chosen for the reaction must dissolve everything in
solution. Commonly used solvents in Grignard reactions are diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran
(THF). They are preferred over hexane solvents due to the presence of an oxygen atom which
contains a lone electron pair that attracts the partially positive magnesium metal, resulting in
increased stability. As mentioned previously, Grignard reagents are strong nucleophiles. Thus, there
is a possibility that they may react with other molecules in side–reactions. One such side–reaction
involves the Grignard reagent reacting with molecular oxygen (O2) to form a peroxide molecule. In
another side–reaction, the Grignard reagent may react with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form a
carboxylate molecule. These side–reactions can pose a problem since molecular oxygen and carbon
dioxide are in excess under normal

Dispersion of Different Silane Modified TiO2 Rutile...
Figure 3 shows dispersion of untreated, APS, FHES and TMSO treated TRNPs in different solvents
after centrifuging at 1000 rpm for 15 minutes. After centrifuging, if most of the particle settles down
it is an indicator of poor dispersion of the particle in the solvent. When the relatively large particles
settles down and small particles remains in the suspension it is an indicator of medium dispersion. If
all the particles remains in the solvent and no precipitation is found it is an indicator of very good
dispersion. From Figure 3 it is found that, untreated TiO2 is best dispersed in DMF and DMAc polar
aprotic solvent which is also supported from small Z average diameter and acceptable PDI value.
For untreated NP medium dispersion is found in DI water and ethanol and poor dispersion in TCB,
Toluene, DCM, choloroform, THF and isopropanol. As the untreated TRNP is hydrophilic in nature
the particles tends to disperse well in relatively polar solvent. APS treated titania nanoparticle
renders hydrophobic behavior to the surface [20] and essentially doesn't dissolve in DI water, DMF
and DMAC etc. highly polar solvent. The best solvent for APS modified titania is ethanol,
isopropanol and formic acid which is conspicuous both from digital image and small mean diameter
value of the nanoparticle. Due to the presence of –NH2 functional group at the end of organic
surface of APS treated TRNPs the hydrogen bonding force is the dominant dispersion force. As a
result, APS treated NPs

Solid Phase Of Polymer Bound 2
A 1,3,4–thiadiazole library was constructed by solid–phase organic synthesis. The key step of this
solid–phase synthesis involves the preparation of polymer–bound 2–amido–5–amino–1,3,4–
thiadiazole resin by the cyclization of thiosemicarbazide resin using p–TsCl as the desulfurative
agent, followed by the functionalization of resin by alkylation, acylation, alkylation/acylation, and
Suzuki coupling reaction. Both the alkylation and acylation reactions chemoselectively occurred at
the 2–amide position of 2–amido–5–amino–1,3,4–thiadiazole resin and the 5–amine position of 2–
amido–5–amino–1,3,4–thiadiazole resin, respectively. Finally, these functionalized 1,3,4–thiadiazole
resins were treated with trifluoroacetic acid in dichloromethane, ... Show more content on
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Lee et al. compared the binding affinity of compounds containing 1,3,4–oxadiazole or 1,3,4–
thaidiazole in the same chemical structure toward CB1 receptor in the process of development of
obesity drug.9 Both 1,3,4–oxadiazoles and 1,3,4–thiadiazoles were also used for the development
potent antibacterial agent by Kumar et al.10 Asai et al. reported dramatic difference in the binding
affinity between 1,3,4–oxadiazole and 1,3,4–thiadiazole toward signal transducers and activators of
transcription.11 Because of these biologically interesting properties of 1,3,4–thiadiazole and 1,3,4–
oxadiazole, these core skeletons have been targeted for synthesis by organic and medicinal chemists,
and as a result, many synthetic methodologies have been developed in the literature.12 Among these
synthetic methodologies, solid–phase synthesis effectively facilitates the generation of various
1,3,4–thiadiazoles and 1,3,4–oxadiazoles in a short time.13 In our own research area, we have
developed solid–phase synthetic methodology to produce 1,3,4–oxadiazoles and 1,3,4–
thiadiazoles.14 However, unfortunately our methodology was limited to synthesize diverse 1,3,4–
thiadiazole derivatives. It was only suitable to generate p–nitro substituted 1,3,4–thiadiazoles
(Scheme 1a). To improve over

Morphine
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) ID of morphine is (5α,6α)–7,8–
didehydro– 4,5–epoxy–17–methylmorphinan–3,6–diol. The general formula for Morphine is
C17H19NO3 and it is recognized as a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid with two additional rings
attached to complete the overall structure.
As shown in Figure 2, morphine is a five member ring system that acts as a backbone for the
structure. This includes a benzene ring (A), two cyclohexane rings (B and C), the piperidine ring
(D), and tetrahydrofuran ring (E). It seems that due this type of configuration, the compound proved
to be slightly flexible because of the phenantherene ring system (A,B, and C)[6]. Furthermore,
several functional groups exist in the morphine structural configuration. For instance, the ether
linkage between C4 and C5, the 3o amine group adjacent to C16, hydroxyl groups located on C3
(ph3nolic alcohol) and C6 (allylic alcohol), and the unsaturated double bond between C7 and C8.
Shown below, in Figure 3, are the primary functional groups in morphine: ... Show more content on
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In addition, it was determined that morphine consists five chiral centers[6] which involves the C5,
C6, C9, C13, and C14 sites.
Consider, each chiral structure has its own pharmacological profile, and therefore, posses different
properties and physiological effects on the human body. Further examination and extensive studies
show that the pharmaceutical active structure is (–)–Morphine[6]. The essential difference between
these two structures is the placement of the piperidine ring (D) between the C9 or C10 and C12 and
C13. For example, if ring D is attached on C9 and C13, it will yield
(–)–Morphine. On the other hand, if the piperidine ring is attached on C10 and C12, it will be
detected as

Air Quality Monitoring Of Memphis And Surrounding Areas
Air Quality Monitoring in Memphis and Surrounding Areas in 2014, Analyzed by Gas
Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) By Ebtsam Seteh Abstract Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere have been determined to be a human risk factor in urban,
suburban, and industrial environments. This study aims to characterize the distribution and
concentrations of ambient air toxics in Memphis and identify major sources of VOCs. During four
seasons in 2014, about 530 ambient air samples have been collected in various locations in Memphis
and surrounding areas for the analysis of VOCs with the TO–15 method. GC–MS was used with a
preconcentrator outfitted with a glass bead trap and a Tenax trap in cryogenic mode to analyze the ...
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Ambient air in urban, rural, and industrial areas contains an array of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs). They spread in the air as gases from some solids or liquid
materials. Society and environment are directly healthy affected in short– and long–term by VOCs
at trace level concentrations (2). Air pollutants toxic are class of chemicals that may consider health
problems in a significant way. There are many chemical pollutants released into the ambient air
from various sources, such as power plants, and spraying pesticides. There are two types of air
pollutants that are primary pollutants, which are emitted directly into the air from pollution sources,
and secondary pollutants, which are from primary pollutants, but after they passing from many of
the chemical changes in the atmosphere (12). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
compiled a list of 187 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). There are 30 HAPs threaten health
dramatically in metropolitan areas, such as benzene, 1,3–dichloropropene, 1,3–butadiene, and
chloroform that are classified as toxins (3). In accordance with the 2007 Environmental Pollution,
VOCs affect adversely on health and cause many diseases, such as immune and neurological
damage, cardiovascular diseases, and reproductive and endocrine disorders (8). Several methods
have developed for the

Notes On Carvedilol
4. Drug and Excipients Profile: 4.1 Drug Profile:62 4.1.1 Carvedilol phosphate: Synonyms:
Carvedilol; Carvedilolum [Latin] Chemical Formula: C24H26N2O4 Chemical Name (IUPAC):
(2RS)–1–(9H–Carbazol–4–yloxy)–3–[[2–(2–methoxyphenoxy)ethyl]amino]propan–2–ol phosphate
salt (1:1) hemihydrate. CAS Registry Number: 72956–09–3 Structural Formula: Description:
Carvedilol phosphate is a nonselective β–adrenergic blocking agent with α1–blocking activity.
Carvedilol phosphate is a white to almost–white solid with a molecular weight of 513.5 (406.5
carvedilol free base) and a molecular formula of C24H26N2O4H3PO41/2 H2O. Half life: 6–8 h
Melting Range: 148–150 °C Log P: 3.5 pKa: 7.4 BCS Class: Class II drug Bioavailability: 25–35%
Solubility: Free soluble ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ratio of free carboxyl groups to the ester is approximately 1 : 1 in Eudragit L (Type A) and
approximately 1 : 2 in Eudragit S (Type B). Both polymers are readily soluble in neutral to weakly
alkaline conditions (pH 6–7) and form salts with alkalis, thus affording film coats that are resistant
to gastric media but soluble in intestinal fluid. They are available as a 12.5% solution in propan–2–
ol without plasticizer (Eudragit L 12.5 and S 12.5); and as a 12.5% ready–to–use solution in propan–
2–ol with 1.25% dibutyl phthalate as plasticizer (Eudragit L 12.5 P and S 12.5 P). Solutions are
colorless, with the characteristic odor of the solvent. Eudragit L–100 and Eudragit S–100 are white
free–flowing powders with at least 95% of dry

Advantages And Disadvantages Of UPLC
Advantages of UPLC: UPLC is more sensitive and selective with rapid resolving power and high–
resolution performance. It decreases process cycle time and persuade quality of end–product with
reduced run time and decreased cost of operation. Through the use of a novel column material of
very small particle size, it provides quick analysis and increases sensitivity. It reduces the solvent
consumption and raises sample throughput and also supports real–time analysis in step with
manufacturing processes. Table: Comparison between HPLC and UPLC Comparison HPLC UPLC
Particle size 3–5 µm Less than 2 µm Maximum back pressure 35 to 40 MPa 103.5 MPa Analytical
Column Alltima C18 ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 Column dimensions 150 ×3.2 mm 150×2.1 mm
Column temperature 30 °C 65 °C Injection Volume 5 µL 2 µL Analysis time more less Sensitivity
less higher Analytical method development approaches In pharmaceuticals industry, reverse phase
chromatographic separation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Based on the functional group observing the molecule, it can be determined either the molecule is
neutral, acid or base. pH of the mobile phase can be selected based on the nature of the compound.
Acidic mobile phases are preferable if the compound is acidic. Low pH and basic mobile phases are
preferable if the compound is basic. Neutral mobile phase is suitable for neutral compounds. The
compound elution is based on its polarity. If the compounds have more hydrophobic nature, the
longer time it is retained. If the compounds have ionic nature, it becomes less hydrophobic in nature
and hence, its retention decreases. If the compounds have very hydrophobic compounds, under
reversed phase conditions it is strongly retained and may require the use of non–aqueous

Organometallic Reactions : Identification Of An Unknown...
LAB 7: ORGANOMETALLIC REACTIONS: IDENTIFICATION OF AN UNKNOWN
BROMIDE (Preparative) Introduction The first purpose of the lab was to prepare an unknown
organomagnesium bromide, an organometallic reagent, reacting an unknown aryl bromide with
magnesium in anhydrous ether. The unknown was chosen from a predetermined list of benzoic acid
derivatives with varying molecular weights and melting points (see Supplement C). The second
purpose of this lab was to prepare an unknown carboxylic acid by reacting the unknown aryl–
magnesium bromide with carbon dioxide and diethyl ether then protonating.The third purpose of
this lab was to determine the neutralization equivalence point of the unknown carboxylic acid by
titrating with sodium hydroxide. The fourth purpose of this lab was to ascertain the identity of the
unknown carboxylic acid, and thus the original unknown aryl bromide, using its molecular weight
determined from neutralization and melting point. Data and Results Compound Molecular Weight
(g/mol) Melting Point (°C) Unknown Carboxylic Acid (R––COOH) 121.18 116–119 Discussion
Organometallic reagents are compounds with carbon–metal (R––M) bond. In the carbon–metal
bond, carbon is more electronegative than the metal atom which creates a dipole moment where
carbon possesses a partial negative charge and the metal atom possessing a partial positive charge
(Rδ–––Mδ+). The partial negative charge on the carbon allows it to act as a strong nucleophile or
base similar to

Analysis Of Exelon ( Rivastigmine Tartrate )
Exelon (Rivastigmine Tartrate) is a hydrogen tartrate salt of Rivastigmine that acts as a reversible
cholinesterase inhibitor. As a cholinesterase, it is administered in an increasing amount over a set
period of time. Through the inactivation of butyrlcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase, Exelon
prevents the breakdown of the chemical acetylcholine which is thought to be important in memory,
thinking, and reasoning. Due to these capabilities, it is frequently employed to combat the effects of
dementia due to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases where patients tend to have a lower
concentration of acetylcholine. Rivastigmine is also under evaluation in clinical trials as a treatment
for cocaine dependence. It can be employed both orally and as a transdermal patch. The patch is
more popular due to fewer side effects. In addition, Exelon has a size of about 250Da per molecule;
this is small relative to the benchmark of 500Da for transdermal transfer. Its small size combined
with its lipophillic and hydrophilic nature makes it ideal for topical administration. Rivastigmine has
a halflife of about 1.5 hours and when taken in a transdermal patch, it has a lag phase of between 0.5
and 1 hour. When taken orally, it has a bioavailability that is linear until about 3mg at 40%. It then
follows a nonlinear pharmacokinetic model, as its bioavailability will increase with an increase in
dosage; when administered via transdermal patch, approximately 50% of the active ingredient is

Drug Profile: Carvedilol: Drug And Excipients Profile
4. Drug and Excipients Profile: 4.1 Drug Profile:62 4.1.1 Carvedilol phosphate: Synonyms:
Carvedilol; Carvedilolum [Latin] Chemical Formula: C24H26N2O4 Chemical Name (IUPAC):
(2RS)–1–(9H–Carbazol–4–yloxy)–3–[[2–(2–methoxyphenoxy)ethyl]amino]propan–2–ol phosphate
salt (1:1) hemihydrate. CAS Registry Number: 72956–09–3 Structural Formula: Description:
Carvedilol phosphate is a nonselective β–adrenergic blocking agent with α1–blocking activity.
Carvedilol phosphate is a white to almost–white solid with a molecular weight of 513.5 (406.5
carvedilol free base) and a molecular formula of C24H26N2O4H3PO41/2 H2O. Half life: 6–8 h
Melting Range: 148–150 °C Log P: 3.5 pKa: 7.4 BCS Class: Class II drug Bioavailability: 25–35%
Solubility: Free soluble ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ammonium groups are present as salts and give rise to pH–independent permeability of the
polymers. Both polymers are water–insoluble, and films prepared from Eudragit RL are freely
permeable to water, whereas, films prepared from Eudragit RS are only slightly permeable to water.
They are available as 12.5% ready–to–use solutions in propan–2–ol–acetone (60 : 40). Solutions are
colorless or slightly yellow in color, and may be clear or slightly turbid; they have an odor
characteristic of the solvents. Solvent–free granules (Eudragit RL 100 and Eudragit RS 100) contain
≥97% of the dried weight content of the

Reactivities Of Some Alkyl Halides
Karen Dennie
Professor Tjandra
Chemistry 75A
Due: November 18, 2013
Experiment 20: Reactivities of Some Alkyl Halides
Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to examine the reactivities of various alkyl halides under
both SN2 and SN1 reaction conditions. The alkyl halides will be examined based on the substrate
types and solvent the reaction takes place in.
Procedure: For the first part of this experiment, six dry test tubes were obtained and labeled
accordingly to test the following halides: 2–chlorobutane, 2–bromobutane, 1–chlorobutane, 1–
bromobutane, 2–chloro–2–methylpropane, and bromobenzene. To each of the six test tubes 2ml of
15% sodium iodide in acetone was added. 4 drops of the appropriate halide was added to the test
tube labeled for that specific halide. After adding the halide, the test tube was then shaken to mix
thoroughly. If a precipitate formed the time it took was recorded. Since none of the solutions formed
a precipitate at room temperature after five minutes, the test tubes were placed inside of a hot bath at
about 50°C. After one minute, the test tubes were taken out of the hot bath and allowed to cool. If
any test tubes formed a precipitate, the time it took was recorded on a table. For the second part of
the experiment, again six dry test tubes were obtained and labeled accordingly to test the following
halides: 2–chlorobutane, 2–bromobutane, 1–chlorobutane, 1–bromobutane, 2–chloro–2–
methylpropane, and bromobenzene. To each of the six

HPLC And Analytical Techniques
1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction to HPLC
1.2 Types of HPLC techniques
1.3 HPLC instrumental parameters
1.4 Significance of Analytical Method Validation
1.5 ICH Guidlines
Pharmaceutical analysis: It is the interdisciplinary subject and it is derived from various branches of
sciences like chemistry,physics, microbiology, nuclear science and electronics which deals with
analysis of biological, chemicals, foods, drugs and pharmaceuticals qualitatively and quantitatively.
Pharmaceutical Analytical Techniques are categorized into: Pharmaceutical Analytical Techniques ...
Eg:UV–visible spectroscopy, I.Rspectroscopy ,NMR spectroscopy, Flourimetry.
 Chromatographic methods : Where we study affinity or artition co–efficient differences of drugs
and pharmaceuticals. Eg:TLC(Thin layer chromatography),HPLC(High pressure liquid
chromatography), GC(Gas chromatography), HPTLC(high pressure thin layer chromatography),
UPLC(Ultra pressure liquid chromatography). Chromatography
Column planar
Gas Liquid SFC Affinity planar

The Use Of Polymers

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