3. AO1
An example of media influences of pro-social behaviour
is social modelling. Research in this area looks at the
likelihood that a child uses pro-social behaviour when
exposed to a pro-social model
AO2/3
Researchers looked at 6 year old children, 3 groups
watched a different television programme, two groups
looked at a program of Lassie, one included a puppy
rescue and the other didnt. The other group of children
acted as a control group and watched an episode of the
Brady Bunch. All children then played a prize winning
game and came across distressed puppies as part of
this. The group that watched the Lassie puppy rescue
spent longer caring for the puppies than the other
children.
4. AO1
Another explanation is parental influence, this is the
suggestion that parents can hugely impact a child’s
decision to imitate pro-social behaviour. Sing suggests
that parents can enhance the impact of behaviour if they
discuss the programme with them afterwards.
AO2/3
Coates looked at 4 year old children and found that they
were more likely to imitate the pro-social behaviour when
their parents discussed it with the throughout the
programme.
Researcher actually found that younger people find it
more difficult to focus on the pro-social acts on TV than
anti-social.
7. EXCITATION TRANSFER AO1
Zillman proposed the idea of excitation-transfer
which suggests that media messages create a
general emotional arousal that can influence any
behaviour an individual engages with while the
arousal lasts. The behaviour can transfer and
intensify into another and non-aggressive arousing
adds can trigger increased aggression- short term
imitation.
This can be concluded as watching something
violent, being physically aroused, this stays for a
while and inclines us to act differently.
8. EXCITATION TRANSFER AO2/3
A researcher looked at male university students
between 18 and 21. They either watched a film
containing sex and violence, a non-violent sex film or
a film containing neither of them. Later they were
given the opportunity to retaliate against a woman
who had angered them earlier by giving her electric
shocks. It was found that males in the sexually violent
condition gave the highest shocks suggesting that
watching these types of films can make men more
prone to being physically violent towards women.
Individual differences and gender bias.
10. EMOTIONAL DESENSITISATION AO1
People who watch a great deal of anti-social
TV containing lots of violence become less
aroused to those acts and therefore become
more accepting of the behaviour. Therefore
meaning they would not find violent films
disturbing. Research has shown that having a
negative emotional response to violence has
an inhibitory effect but more thats watched the
more this diminishes and makes the person
more likely to be accepting of violence.
11. EMOTIONAL DESENSITISATION AO2/3
Drabman showed children violent films. Found that they
produced a less emotional response to and a great
tolerance to subsequent violent scenes. We do not know
whether the effects of watching violent films is long
lasting as there needs to be more research in this field. It
has also been found that children who are more used to
watching violent programmes are slower at intervening in
the playground when they witness another fighting.
This research was done in 1974 which was a long time
ago, films may not have been as violent then as times
have changed, they may be more or less influenced
today. Also has ethical issues because of violence.
12. ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
Gender Bias: Research often focuses
on acts of male on male physical
violence, samples often male students.
Reductionist: Often researchers are
merely counting the number of violent
acts that occur during the
experimental set up. This means that
the researchers are ignoring all of the
other factors.
14. Player has more active role when gaming compared to
just watching violent images. Evidence that paying
violent games leads to increased physiological arousal,
reduced helping behaviours, desensitisation to violence,
etc.
Explanations of effects of violent gaming:
General aggression model says that a person’s reaction
to violent games depends on input variables (mood and
personality) and situational variables (provocation).
Exposure to games may effect the behaviour by
increadig their arousal (physiologically), priming
aggressive thoughts (cognitively) and increasing hostile
feelings (affective).
15. AO2/3
Increased physiological arousal:
Just like watching violence, playing these games lead to
increase in physiological arousal as shown by the heart beat
and blood pressure. A researcher found that both men and
women showed increased arousal when music was playing.
Reducing helping behaviours:
Researcher used 48 participants, played either a violent or
doctored, non violent version of the game. They were given
the option to co-operate, exploit each other or withdraw from
the game. Found the those who had played violent version
were more likely to exploit another rather than co-operate.
They argue that playing violent games may undermine
cooperative pro-social behaviours,
16. Alternatively..
Research found that 346 children found no
relationship between the time spent playing
games and aggression levels.
However, time spent playing was positively
correlated with a child’s intelligence.
Benefits have also been found:
computer gaming can improve certain cognitive
skills, games allow children to use more energy
than watching television. Some risks include
obesity problems, poor relationships with friends
and family and addiction.
19. HOVLAND-YALE MODEL AO1
Recruited by US war department. Helps find ways of
persuading American public to increase support near
the end of WWII. Found it could be cone by focusing
on who says what to who, the persuasive message
and the audience. Hovland believed attitude changes
when this sequential process happens:
Attention (attends to the message).
Comprehension (target understands the message).
Reactance (target reacts to the message) either
negatively or positively. This then leads to acceptance
if positively reacted. The message is perceived as
credible.
20. HOVLAND-YALE MODEL AO2/3
This research highlights factors in the role of persuasion. Credible experts are
important if persuasion occurs.
SOURCE FACTORS:
Insko: Students must hear a specialist over a non-specialist to be persuaded.
Morton: Children who were 10 years old received information from teachers,
doctors or a parent. Children reported more favourable attitudes towards the
child when they received the information from the doctor rather than their parent.
MESSAGE FACTORS:
As a child gets older, they understand that adverts try to persuade them and
become less influenced. Supported by Lewis who found that the effectiveness of
fear arousing messages in a drink driving campaign.
AUDIENCE FACTORS:
An audience who is persuaded has several different factors:
Could be self esteem, how good you feel about yourself. Hovland originally
believed low self esteem meant that they were easily persuadable. Researcher
found that its those with moderate self esteem that are persuaded the most.
Age, despite conflicting research, most easily persuaded in early adulthood.
22. ELABORATION MODEL AO1
Refers to the extent to which people think about
arguments. Contained in persuasive messages. ELM
states that two models of thinking when it comes to
attitude change.
The central route is when a person having thoughtful
consideration over the message thinks about the core
argument- about prior knowledge and considers the new
message. This route is very active and without interest in
the topic, the recipient will not go through this route.
The next route is the peripheral route. This route requires
less mental effort. People stayed by superficial things,
change seen as a temporary one, they could later
change their mind.
23. ELABORATION MODEL AO1
THE CENTRAL ROUTE
Message most important here,
communication to be effective it must be
convincing. If an individual finds a
message interesting or personally
involving, they understand the argument
being used and it is likely they will
process the message through this route.
24. ELABORATION MODEL AO1
THE PERIPHERAL ROUTE
Individuals more likely to be
influenced by context cues like
mood and image. Attitudes
acquired via this route are
more susceptible to change.
27. PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AO1
A parasocial relationship is one in which an individual is
attracted to another individual even when they’ve never
met them. The target individual is usually unaware of the
existence of the person who has created the
relationship.
Such relationships,common among celebrities, might be
particularly appealing to some individuals because the
relationships make few demands, a fan does not usually
have a ‘real’ relationship with a celebrity, they do not run
he risk of criticism or rejection, like in real relationships.
A meta-analysis was done of studies of PSR’s, by
Schiappa, and they concluded that PSR’s are more likely
to form with tv celebrities who were seen as attractive
and similar in some way to the viewer. An important
additional factor appeared to be that they were
perceived as real, or acted in a believable way. The
researcher believed that if the celebrity acted in a
believable way, viewers were able to compare how they
28. PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AO2/3
They are commonly believed to be dysfunctional as the
person is lonely. However research does not support
this. Schiappa’s work shows loneliness is not as
predictor of PSR’ forming. Some research shows that
those who are socially able are more likely to engage in
PSR’s.
Many social benefits actually come from PSR’s.
Attachment Style and parasocial relationships were
found by Cole. Cole came up with anxious-ambivalent
and anxious-avoidant. Anxious-ambivalent is the most
likely, they have concern that others will not reciprocate
ones desire for intimacy. They turn to TV chars as a way
of satisfying their unrealistic and often unmet relational
needs. Anxious-avoidant is another style. This is the
least likely and is where they find it difficult to develop
intimate relationships and are therefore less likely to seek
them with real of fictional people.
30. MCCUTCHEON ET AL AO1
Some people go beyond normal admiration of a celeb.
The researcher said that some people with a
‘compromised identity’ become completely absorbed in
a celeb in order to identify their own identity. They lack
meaningful relationships in real life and they become
addicted to the relationship. As with any addiction we
become more extreme in our need for the ‘fix’.
Giles and Maltby outlined 3 levels in this process:
Entertainment Social: When a fan becomes attracted
because they are entertaining and are a source of social
interaction and gossip.
Intense-Personal: Fan has intense and compulsive
feelings about the celebrity and leads to development of
passive PSR.
Borderline-pathological: Typically there is uncontrollable
behaviour and fantasy about the celeb. Believes they are
in a real relationship.
31. MCCUTCHEON ET AL AO2/3
The model links to mental health. Maltby
used EPQ to test personality and celebrity
worship. Found that entertainment social was
linked to extraversion and intense-personal
linked to neuroticism (anxiety and depression
related). Supporting the idea that higher
levels were lined to poor mental health.
The type of interaction a person has with a
celeb has also seen to have effects on body
image.. The findings from Maltby suggest
that the strongest effects is for adolescents
who have an intense-personal relationship.
34. CELEBRITY GOSSIP AO1
This is related to
reproduction as it allows
us to find out about a
potential mate. Gives us
a chance to gossip about
others without offending
people.
35. CELEBRITY GOSSIP AO2/3
Research support surveyed 800
participants and pps said that gossip
was a useful way of getting
information about the social group.
Amount of media exposure was also
a predictor of interest in celebrities.
They concluded that media exposure
leads to misperception that celebs
are part of a social group, therefore
explain the interest in celeb gossip.
38. STALKING AO1
3 levels of absorption-addiction
model:
1) Entertainment social, 2) Intense
personal and 3) Borderline
Pathological.
The difference between intense
personal and borderline pathological
is that in the later relationship are
imagines whereas the former involves
lack of emotional autonomy.
39. STALKING AO1
Can be define as someone who obsessively
follows another person- with a sinister purpose.
Repeated unwanted behaviour and in most
cases is does not involve celebrities. Types of
stalkers:
Rejected: Ending of a relationship (usually
romantic), usually ambivalent feelings, may also
want revenge.
Resentful stalker: Distress or to frighten their
victim, victim may be chosen at random and
may have a prototype.
Predatory Stalker: Usually men that have PSD
and have a sexual attack in mind.
40. STALKING AO1
ABSORPTION ADDICTION MODEL
Stage 1: Absorption. Attention is
entirely focused on the celebrity, they
want to find out everything they can.
Stage 2: Addiction.
The individual craves closeness.
Delusional thinking and behaviour is
common, motivation is to achieve full
sense of identity and a social role.
41. STALKING AO2/3
Evidence to support the view that stalking is
related to disturbed attachment patterns is
McCutcheon: Childhood insecure attachment is
associated with attachment to celebrities and
tendencies to condone celebrity stalking. By
measuring childhood attachments, tendencies to
celebrity stalking and celebrity worship of a smile
of 299 students. Researcher found that those
who were secure in childhood were most likely to
excuse celebrity stalking. McCutcheon also
suggested that those who had insecure
attachments as an infant also have more
parasocial relationships, the key here is the
safety and security of these relationships in
essence, they cant be let down.
42. STALKING AO2/3
Evidence of stalking is Kim
Kardashian stalker Dennis
Bowman. He is aged 27 and is an
unwanted admirer. He was
interested in a romantic relationship
meaning he is a predatory stalker
and believes he and Kim are
getting married. He is not resentful
but often frightened Kim. This
persisted from 2009 to 2013.
