Subcultural theories suggest that youth may develop their own set of norms and values within subcultures that differ from mainstream society. Albert Cohen argued that working class boys who experience failure to achieve middle class goals may develop delinquent subcultures characterized by rejection of mainstream values and embrace of deviant behaviors. Cloward and Ohlin expanded on this, identifying criminal, conflict, and retreatist subcultures that emerge based on opportunities for illegitimate or legitimate success. Later theorists like Matza challenged the idea of a coherent delinquent subculture, arguing that most youth drift in and out of minor offenses.

2. What You Need to Know
• Subcultural theories suggest that youths often act in accordance with a
different set of values and beliefs that invariably conflict with the dictates
of the larger society, thus leading them to be considered deviant.

3. Whether or not using the term "delinquent
subculture," many people evoke the concept
when attributing delinquent boys' behavior to
bad environmental influences. The influence
of culture is often taken for granted. Codes of
behavior, beliefs, tastes, prejudices, etc. are to
some degree determined by culture. Within
cultures, there are subcultures. A delinquent
subculture indicates one in which delinquency
has become a tradition. Some delinquent boys
grow up to be law-abiding citizens; others
merely graduate to more professional and
adult forms of criminality.

4. The delinquent subculture is carried on by
successive age groups. According to
psychogenic theories, the impulse for
delinquent behavior is common to all
persons; those who become delinquent
are those who lack a development of
social values. Some observers assume
that the impulse for delinquent behavior
is inborn; others say it results from
problems in adjusting to society.

5. Subcultural Theories
• Subcultural theories argue that certain groups
develop norms and values that are different
from those held by other member of society.
• How good is your knowledge of some well-
known subcultures?
• How many can you recognise on the following
slides?

14. Subcultures
• Stanley Cohen (British sociologist) – not to be
confused with Albert K Cohen (USA
Sociologist) performed studies on the Mods
and Rockers in the 1960s and 1970s and found
that the media had a significant part to play in
amplifying deviance which in turn created
more Mods and Rockers and more violence.

16. Subcultural Theories
• Subcultural theorists focus directly on the fact of
diversity in the population.
• Defining subculture is not easy.
– In its simplest sense, a subculture is a smaller part of a
larger culture.
– Subculture exists within and is part of the larger culture.
– Typically refers to a set of values, beliefs, ideas, views,
and/or meanings that a group of individuals holds and that
are to some degree different from those of the larger
culture.
• Delinquency and criminality are the result of
individuals attempting to act in accordance with
subcultural norms.

17. Subcultural Theories
Lower-class Gang Delinquency
• Cohen (1955)
• Lower-class boys feel ill-equipped to compete in and
cannot succeed in a middle-class society.
• Lower-class boys are expected to follow the goals
and aspirations of the middle class.
• The failure to succeed in terms of middle-class values
leads to feelings of failure and diminished self-worth.
• The result is culture conflict: by following one set of
cultural (or subcultural) practices, the individual is
violating the proscriptions of another culture.

18. Subcultural Theories
• Aspects of “lower-class gang delinquency”:
– Malicious: act with the intent of causing trouble and harm
for another person, not for what it brings the person.
– Negativistic: much of the deviant activity is a means of
tormenting others.
– Nonutilitarian: immediate “hedonistic” pleasure instead of
supplying any long-term need or solution.
• In general, there appears to be little point in the
behavior besides causing trouble for the larger
middle-class culture.

19. Albert K Cohen
• What we are really interested in today though,
is the work of Albert K Cohen.
• In 1955, Albert Cohen published Delinquent
Boys: The Culture of the Gangs

20. Rise of Delinquent Subculture
• After World War II, and with the country returning to
normalcy, Americans were possessed once again by
the "American Dream.“
• People believed that a prosperous future could be
attained by education and employment.
• Values that emphasized ambition and material
success became dominant, and anything else was
not accepted as normal.
• Behind this promising climate, however, a great fear
about a rise in juvenile delinquency lurked.
http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/cohen.htm

21. The Delinquent Subculture
• Cohen’s work is a modification of Merton’s
position and of the Chicago School’s work on
social disorganisation.
• From his studies on delinquency, Cohen makes
two criticisms of Merton’s work:
1. Delinquency is a collective, not individual
response
2. Merton fails to account for non-utilitarian crime
such as vandalism and joy riding that produces
no monetary reward.

22. A Working Class Problem
• In "Delinquent Boys," Cohen asserted that
"the delinquent subculture was mostly to be
found in the working class"(Cohen, 1955:73).

23. Albert K Cohen (1950s)
• According to Cohen when groups of working
class youths’ realise they are unable to
achieve the goals (success) of society through
legitimate means they develop status-
frustration.
• Goals are rejected and new and deviant goals,
norms and values are created and a
delinquent subculture is formed.

24. Albert K Cohen
• Delinquent subcultures are formed mainly
amongst working class boys where material
deprivation and cultural deprivation leads to
educational failure.
• This failure can be explained by their position
in the social structure.
• Stuck at the bottom, they experience status
frustration and dissatisfation.

25. Albert K Cohen
• The delinquent subculture not only rejects the
mainstream culture, it reverses it.
• Activities condemned in the wider society
have high value within the subculture:
stealing, vandalism, truancy etc.
• Where youths may not gain prestige from
peers in mainstream, they do get prestige
from subcultural peers.
Gang / Delinquency in London
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ooti-PC8dEk

26. Gang / Delinquency in London
• Published on Jul 14, 2012
• Over 190 different gangs are engaged in battles
across London's poorest areas. Gang members are
getting increasingly younger. This video asks - why is
a highly developed country losing control of its
youth?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ooti-PC8dEk
• Watch the following video. What are some the
reasons the young people give for deviant
culture. What are the effects?

27. Subcultural/Structuralist
• Merton and Cohen both start from a
structuralist perspective – viewing deviance as
a result of unequal access to opportunity.
• Cohen, however, departs from the structural
view when he sees deviance as originating
from subcultural values and not society’s.
• His theory can be seen as a combination of
interactionist and structuralist.

28. Subcultures
• Cloward and Ohlin identify 3 different types of
subculture:
1. Criminal emerge in areas where there is an
established pattern of organised adult crime.
Children learn from their parents and are
concerned with utilitarian crime – financial
reward.

29. 2. Conflict develop in areas where adolescents
have little opportunity for access to illegitimate
opportunity structures. Lack of cohesiveness.
Response is often gang violence.
3. Retreatist some lower class adolescents form
subcultures around illegal drug use because
they have failed to succeed in both the
legitimate and illegitimate structures. Double
failures – as they have failed in terms of
criminal and conflict subcultures.

30. Cloward and Ohlin
• Cloward and Ohlin (1961) provide other
explanations for working class delinquency
• Cohen could not explain why delinquent
subcultures take different forms - for example
some are mainly concerned with theft while
others focus on violence
• Cloward and Ohlin identify 3 types of
delinquent subcultures:

31. Cloward and Ohlin
1. The first is criminal subculture - this tends to
develop in areas where an illegitimate
opportunity structure is present
2. There is conflict subculture - this tends to
develop in areas where an illegitimate
opportunity structure is absent. Delinquents
form conflicting gangs out of frustration at
the lack of available opportunity structures
3. Finally there is the retreatist subculture

32. Denial of Responsibility The youth may claim that the action was an accident
or, more likely, assert that he or she was forced into the action by
circumstances beyond his or her control.
Denial of Injury Focuses on the amount of harm caused regardless of violating
the law. The absence of harm to an individual may involve pointing to a lack
of physical injury, the action was a prank, or the person or business could
afford the loss.
Denial of the Victim The juvenile can deny the existence of a victim by
claiming self-defense or retaliation, the absence of a victim (such as
involving a business and not a person), and/or that characteristics of the
victim brought the harm on himself or herself (such as hazing a
homosexual).
Condemnation of the Condemners The youth turns the tables on those
individuals who condemn his or her behavior by pointing out that the
condemners are no better than he or she. In essence, the condemners are
also deviant.
Appeal to Higher Loyalties Conflict between the dictates of two groups will be
resolved through adherence to the ideas of one group. The juvenile may see
greater reward and more loyalty to the subcultural group on some issues
which, in turn, lead to deviant behavior.

33. 1. Denial of responsibility – “not my fault got in
with the wrong crowd”
2. Denial of injury – Nobody was hurt, “we only
stole a car for fun”
3. Denial of victim – The victim was a criminal so
“they deserved it”
4. Condemnation of the condemners – “the
police are just as bad”
5. Appeal to higher loyalties – criminal behaviour
is justified “as a means to an end” such as
political action

34. Cloward and Ohlin
which emerges among those who have failed to
succeed either by legitimate means or by
being part of a criminal or conflict subculture.
They tend to retreat to drug and alcohol abuse

35. Cloward and Ohlin
• Cloward and Ohlin's theory is good in that it
shows that working class delinquency is not
just concerned with material gain.
• The theory also identifies and explains a
number of different subcultures.
• However, Cloward and Ohlin fail to realise that
the different subcultures can overlap. For
example gangs involved in conflict subculture
often deal in drugs, and make large sums of
money in the process.

36. Trouble Refers to the fact that lower-class males spend a large amount of time
preoccupied with getting into and out of trouble. Trouble may bring about desired
outcomes such as attention and prestige.
Toughness Emphasis on physical prowess, athletic skill, masculinity, and bravery. Partly
a response of lower-class males raised in [single] female-headed households.
Smartness Basically the idea of being “streetwise.” The concern is on how to
manipulate the environment and others to your own benefit without being
subjected to sanctions of any kind.
Excitement Refers to the idea that lower-class individuals are oriented around short-
term hedonistic desires. Activities, such as gambling and drug use, are undertaken
for the immediate excitement or gratification that is generated.
Fate The belief that, in the long run, individuals have little control over their lives. Luck
and fortune dictate the outcome of behavior. Whatever is supposed to happen will
happen regardless of the individual’s wishes. This allows for a wide latitude in
behavior.
Autonomy While the individual believes in fate, there is a strong desire to resist
outside control imposed by other persons. Individuals want total control over
themselves until fate intervenes.

37. Subcultural Theories
Lower-class Male Subculture
• Miller (1958)
• The lower class operates under a distinct set of cultural
values, or focal concerns (next slide).
• At the same time that these values provide positive
reinforcement in the lower-class world, they bring about a
natural conflict with middle-class values.
• Goal of the lower-class individual is not to violate the law or
the middle-class norms.
• Goal is to follow the focal concerns of their class and peers.
• Deviant behavior, therefore, is a by-product of following the
subcultural focal concerns.

38. Walter Miller
 For example, one of the focal concerns is autonomy.
 The lower classes believe in freedom and
independence, and do not like being told what to do.
This may bring them into conflict with authority
figures, such as police
 Miller’s ideas assume all lower class males are seen to
act out this subculture with little reference to
mainstream society
 Yet not all working class boys want to fail in education.

39. • Toughness – Miller said that people within the
lower-class subculture value toughness as an
important trait; however this can manifest
itself in assault and violence.
• Smartness – This culture also value the ability
to outfox each other. This will often lead to
people trying to con, pickpocket or steal from
each other in ‘clever’ ways.
• Excitement – This culture constantly searches
for excitement and thrills. This often means
gambling, alcohol and sexual adventures.

40. Matza’s delinquency and drift
• Therefore ‘techniques of neutralisation’
suggest mainstream values are followed
because they justify their actions through
mainstream values.
• Therefore there is little evidence to suggest
there is a distinctive subculture of delinquency
• Instead Matza talks of ‘delinquency and drift’
where young people drift in and out of crime.
• This fits in with crime stats which show young
men are more likely to be criminal

41. Matza’s delinquency and drift
• Therefore ‘techniques of neutralisation’
suggest mainstream values are followed
because they justify their actions through
mainstream values.
• Therefore there is little evidence to suggest
there is a distinctive subculture of delinquency
• Instead Matza talks of ‘delinquency and drift’
where young people drift in and out of crime.
• This fits in with crime stats which show young
men are more likely to be criminal

42. Matza
• Matza ignores Hispanic gangs which are
actively criminal and permanent
• When you examine UK crime data, yes young
men under 30 commit, BUT as many as 1 in 3
young men are delinquent which tends to
imply more of a subcultural drive than an
opportunist or transient one