Rowena CullenSchool of Information Management Victoria University of Wellington

1. Concepts of privacy in
Japan and New Zealand
Rowena Cullen
School of Information Management
Victoria University of Wellington

2. Modern Japan a complex (possibly
conflicted) society
• Popular belief that Japanese lack concept of privacy -
but this an over-simplification
• Opportunity as Research Fellow, University of
Tsukuba, December 2006-March 2007 to explore an
element of this ambivalence
• Concerns about privacy of personal information held by
government

3. Context of research . . .
• Japan has a highly developed telecommunications
infrastructure, an extensive broadband network, and
high internet usage rates (67.2% of the population in
2005)
• By contrast, other aspects of Japanese culture suggest
an overall lack of trust in government
• Impact of this, and generally expressed concerns about
internet security, on the confidence of citizens that
government agencies will handle their personal
information appropriately, especially in the online
environment

4. Definition of privacy
• Westin (see refs at end)
"the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to
determine for themselves when, how and to what
extent information about them is communicated to
others”
• Research explored
– perceived risks in submitting information to
government agencies
– impact of breaches of privacy on trust in
government

5. Research ‘instrument’ used based on earlier NZ
project - Reilly and Cullen (E-govt web site)
• New Zealand citizen’s concerns about the privacy of their
personal information provided to government
• Impact of breaches of privacy on trust in government
• Questionnaire and focus group discussions seeking
responses to scenarios illustrating breaches of privacy
• Findings:
– face to face communication with government preferred
– low levels of confidence in the privacy of online
communication but use for convenience sake
– greater confidence in government than commercial
organisations (distinctions between individual agencies)
– Little awareness of existing protections
– Breaches of privacy shown to have a negative impact on
trust in government.

6. Data sought for purposes of comparison, cultural
differences that might emerge
• Same questions on concerns, knowledge of protections, trust
in govt, impact of breaches, distinctions made between
agencies, channel preference
• Same questionnaire, scenarios altered to suit Japanese
context (e.g. Juki-Net)
• Explore differences between responses in NZ and Japan
• Explanations in responses, and in literature for differences
• Examine common perception - privacy is a new (‘Western’)
concept in Japan

7. Some points noted in literature
(English language only)
• Trust in govt commonly linked to Hofstede’s model of ‘power
distance’ and ‘collectivism’
• Conflicting views of Bellman and Milberg
• Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor discuss the introduction of
'loanword' puraibashii
• Argue that in Japanese culture there are related concepts
concerning secret and forbidden matters
• Concept of privacy more of self-imposed restraint vis-a-vis
affairs of others (“See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil”)
• Concept less individualised, but equally strong, however,
group culture may have slowed extension of concern to
Internet

8. Nakada and Tamura’s concept of plurality
• Explain apparent contradiction between attitudes to privacy
and individualism
• Dichotomy between Seken and Shakai
• Seken - the aspect of the world that consists of traditional and
indigenous ways of thinking and feeling)
• Shakai - modernized ways of thinking influenced by thoughts
and systems imported from ‘Western' countries.
• 3rd element Ikai - aspect of the world from which evil,
disasters, crime comes, along with freedom and spiritual
energy
• Also include contrast between Ohyake (impartial, open public
domain) and Watakusi (partial, secret, selfish domain)

9. Nakada and Tamura’s analysis
• When the word puraibashii was introduced to Japan, it was
often compared with its ostensible opposite Ohyake
• This linked the dichotomy of public/private, as used in
Western thinking, thus Japanese concepts of
Ohyake/Watakusi seen to express this dichotomy
• Media tend to link the use of ICTs to the concept of
puraibashii
• Nakad and Tamura argue that puraibashii has come to
include "expectations of data privacy", but not in the wider
democratic sense in which it is used in western discourse

10. Japanese privacy legislation
• Personal Information Protection Act passed 30 May 2003;
came into effect on 1 April 2005
• Establishes mandatory guidelines for central, local and
regional government agencies - individual ministries to
develop equivalent guidelines for business in their sector
• Protects only living individuals, confined to information that
distinguishes an individual from others - name, date of birth,
address, job title, photograph, employment information, etc.
• Focused on responsible management of information in
databases, not privacy protection for ‘sensitive’ personal
information, e.g health or financial
• Right to control one's personal data also included as a part of
the ‘right to privacy’ guaranteed under Article 13 of the
Japanese Constitution

11. Findings
• 34 people interviewed, 28 in English and 6 in Japanese
• 19 males and 15 females
• age range from 20-29 (5 respondents) through to over 65 (5
respondents)
• Occupations: Ret’d, 4; Housewife, 5; Student, 6; Academic, 6;
Non-professional worker (retail or office), 2; Scientific
research, 3; Engineering and IT, 4; Teacher, 4.
• 33/34 used Internet, 12/34(35%) Used Internet banking;
27/34 (79%) used online retail, trading
• Males used online banking more than females, but no
difference in online retail, small difference between those
under/over 45 in online retail.

12. 24/34 (72.7%) concerned about the privacy of personal
information exchanged on the Internet
Number of respondents strongly agreeing (SA), agreeing (A),
disagreeing (D), or strongly disagreeing (SD) that their
personal information would be handled properly and
adequately protected by business and government
SA A N D SD
Business 0 12 13 8 0
Government 0 9 15 7 2

13. Negative responses to follow-up questions
• Only 9 respondents agreed that they trusted government
employees with their personal information, (no strongly agree
responses)
• Just over 50% (n=17) agreed or strongly agreed “I am
generally concerned about the amount of information that
various government organizations hold about me”, (5 were
neutral, 11 disagreed)
• This did not lead to checking security/privacy statements on
govt web sites
• Only 12 checked for these on govt web sites; 20 checked on
business web sites
• Less than a third (n=9) strongly agreed or agreed that the
rules governing the way in which government organisations
collect and exchange information about people are adequate

14. Japanese Refuseniks
• Over 50% sometimes refuse to provide information to an
agency if they felt there was not an adequate reason to ask
for it. (Age and gender little impact)
• Communication medium for exchanging information
– 22 (64.7%) preferred ‘in person’
– 19 (29.4%) preferred the postal system
– None preferred telephone; 2 (5.9%) selected the Internet
• Distinctions between government agencies in the level of trust
accorded
– Well trusted were Ministry of Justice, and the judiciary
– Less trusted, the ministry in charge of pensions, the
police, and the newly created Ministry of Defense
– Concerns expressed about trustworthiness of local
government, although 5 trusted “City Hall’ most

15. Respondents explain what
privacy means to them
• Information they would like to keep private, or ‘have
control over the disclosure of’
• Commonly: name, address, age, date and place of
birth; income, assets and savings (etc); family (ages of
their children (etc), health data, education and career.
(fears expressed about the rising crime rate, and recent
abductions.)
• Some added ‘personal habits, thoughts, religious ideas,
and philosophies’
• Some had employer in mind - wanted practices in the
workplace sharpened up, concerned that pool of
people who had access to their personal, income and
health data increased every year

16. Eloquent explanations of concepts held
• One man said: keeping personal information safe
within ‘my castle’ (wood, not stone), highlighting
difference in protections offered by Japanese law and
privacy laws in other countries
• Many said: privacy a ‘western’ concept introduced into
Japan with modernization, and the post-War
Constitution. Concept, not well understood in Japan,
and differed from the way it was perceived in other
countries
• A small number ( old and young) said they had ‘nothing
to hide’, and therefore no concerns.

17. Little knowledge of privacy protection
• 50% knew of some law or regulation, but could not
name it
• Some were aware the act worked in conjunction with
the Constitution to ensure privacy in relation to
government held information
• Some also knew commercial companies responsible
for their measures to ensure the protection of personal
information
• Some believed maintaining privacy was a personal
responsibility, (possibly linked with high rates of
withholding personal information requested by
government?)

18. Scenarios
1. A letter from an agency which contained personal
financial information was sent to another person in
error, the intended recipient was notified by phone and
an apology offered
2. An incident in the offices of the local prefecture where
papers containing information about a neighbor’s
property tax affairs, and a heated dispute about it, were
left lying around and were seen by the participant
3. A breach of privacy concerning personal health data in
a hospital
4. The prosecution of a government employee who had
sold tax information to a debt recovery firm
5. The introduction in 2002 of the online database for
registering residents, Juki Net. (55% did not have Juki
card)

19. Have attitudes to privacy changed in Japan in
recent years?
• Most agreed there was greater concern, prompted
by three factors
• breaches of privacy by government or
individuals, reported in the media
• public discussion that took place at the time the
Personal Information Protection Act was passed
• concerns about the security of credit card
information in the media
• Older respondents inclined to think young people
less concerned about privacy (although some young
had major concerns & personal experience of
privacy violations)

20. Contrast between ‘modern’ concepts of
individuality and privacy and older traditions
• Some older respondents (over 50s) spoke of traditional
Japanese society, rural and urban, as more
community minded
• Developing concepts of individuality and privacy
accompanied by a loss of the sense of community and
mutual caring of traditional Japanese society
• In traditional society, close-knit communities, people
were expected to exercise personal restraint, (‘hear no
evil, see no evil, speak no evil
• Similar to ‘drawing down the veil’ if they heard
something untoward about a neighbor

21. Comparisons with New Zealand data
Respondents engaged in online
activity in the two studies
Online
Activity
Japanese
participants
NZ
participants
Online
banking
35.3% 50.0%
Online
trading
or
shopping
79.4% 36.2%

22. Comparison in attitudes Japan/New Zealand
Japan(total
agree)
NZ (total
agree)
Concern about
privacy online
73% 86%
Conf in
business
35% 57%
Conf in govt 27% 60%
Trust govt
employees
27% 59%
Concern about
amt of info held
52% 52%
Rules are
adequate
27% 48%
Sometimes
refuse
58% 71%

23. Despite overall low levels of trust . . .
• Japanese respondents less active in assuring
themselves, of privacy protection on govt web sites
(36% vs NZers 65%)
• More likely to seek statements on privacy /security on
business sites (61%), NZers 78%
• Many comments referred to poor attitude of employees,
declining standards, individualism, rather than agencies
themselves – privacy statements not believed?

24. Conclusions
• Individual comments about scenarios reflect attitudes to
privacy identified by Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor, and
Nakada and Tamura
• Affront felt on behalf of neighbour (scenario 2), and
comments on traditional community values used
language that fits with philosophical framework
described by Mizutani, Dorsey and Moor
• Group-based concepts of privacy may be so strong that
regulations have failed to provide protection in online
world
• Possibly reflected in overall lower rates of concern
about the online environment among Japanese
respondents. Concerns are more personal

25. Other factors
• Possible endorsement of Nakada and Tamura framework–
growth in self-centered individualism, alienation from
more caring society of the past, even if essential to
Japan’s advancement
• Less emphasis on ‘democratic values’ than in western
concept of privacy
• Some impact of low level of trust generally in politicians
in Japan – corruption commonly reported (Japan 17th
on Corruption Perceptions Index)
• High level of dissatisfaction reported here, needs to be
addressed

26. References
• Reilly, P and R. Cullen. Information Privacy and Trust in Government: a citizen-
based perspective. Wellington: State Services Commission, 2006. Retrieved
16 January 2006 from:
http://www.e.govt.nz/resources/research/trust-and-privacy
• Westin, A. Privacy and Freedom. New York: Atheneum, 1967, p 7
• Hofstede, G. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1991
• Bellman, S., Johnson, E.J., Kobrin, S.J. and G.L.Lohse, "International
differences in information privacy concerns: a global survey of consumers."
The Information Society 20, 2004, pp 313-324
• Milberg, S.J., Smith, H.J., and S.J.Burke. "Information privacy: corporate
management and national regulation." Organization Science 11(1), 2000, pp
35-57
• Mizutani, M., J. Dorsey, and J.H.Moor. "The Internet and Japanese conception
of privacy." Ethics and Information Technology 6, 2004, pp121-128
• Nakada, M. and T. Tamura. "Japanese conceptions of privacy: an intercultural
perspective." Ethics and Information Technology 7, 2005, pp 27-36
• Transparency International. Corruptions Perception Index 2006
http://www.transparency.org
Thank you!
Marcelo Gomes Freire