Targeting Of Host Organelles By Pathogenic Bacteri A...

Targeting Of Host Organelles By Pathogenic Bacteri A...
Scientific Literature Essay– Elise Foxall (Word Count=)
The review article chosen is titled, 'Targeting of host organelles by pathogenic bacteria: a
sophisticated subversion strategy'. It was published on the 23rd of November 2013 and written by
Pedro Escoll, Sonia Mondino, Monica Rolando and Carmen Buchrieser of the Institut Pasteur in
France. It explores how it has been discovered that bacterial pathogens have evolved to override
normal eukaryotic cell behaviour in order to enter these cells and replicate, as well as shutting down
the immune responses against these pathogens by reversing the roles of eukaryotic immune defence
cells. The article itself is directed towards the scientific community, ... Show more content on
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Evolutionary microbiology is the study of the evolution of microbes. This review focuses on how
bacterial pathogenic cells have evolved alongside normal eukaryotic host cells, leading to the
development of mechanisms that allowed bacterial cells to take over eukaryotic cells and counteract
host defences.
This review article is taken from Nature journal, under the Nature Publishing Group (NPG). NPG
publishes high impact scientific and medical information both online and in print. Nature was
founded in 1869 and is a leading international weekly scientific journal. In particular, this review is
taken from the Nature Reviews journal, which specialises in many different scientific disciplines,
including Nature Reviews Microbiology, from which this review was taken. As a result, this journal
directly corresponds to the sub–discipline of microbiology, making it relevant and useful for
microbiologists and other scientific professionals, as well as a broader public audience, seeking
specific articles on key topics in the field of microbiology.
The purpose of this review is to draw on many sources of information documenting the way in
which pathogenic bacteria targets a variety of host organelles such as the nucleus, the ER, Golgi and
mitochondria by exploiting eukaryotic cells through a number of different processes. It was
determined throughout the review that there is a wide range of host–pathogen interactions that allow
for bacterial infection to occur. The
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Summary: The Infectious Disease Of Typhus
Typhus
This infectious disease, Typhus has taken so many lives. It was a huge threat to people all over the
world. In just 1847 to 1848, Typhus managed to kill 20,000 people. People did not know how to
treat Typhus, and also most people didn't know that they needed to keep clean, and sanitary, along
with their home. History, Bacteria or Viral, Key People, and Treatment all play huge roles in the
disease of Typhus. 1. History
There are various types of Typhus that can infect people. Typhus is caused by rickettsia bacteria
such as, fleas,mites, lice, and ticks. The three main types of Typhus are Epidemic, Endemic or
Murine, and Scrub Typhus. Although, they're many types of this disease, they're all transmitted
differently. Epidemic Typhus is carried and transmitted by body lice. Endemic/Murine is transmitted
by fleas. Murine Typhus and Epidemic Typhus are more mild than others. Lastly, ... Show more
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Doctors could run blood tests to be sure that it is Typhus. Doctors and scientists recommend so
many different things like how to prevent it, treatment tips, etc. When trying to prevent Typhus, it is
recommended to control rodent population, and be aware of body lice. There is also attire that is
available for people that are going to be exposed to rodents, lice, or any infected arthropod, or any
person that is going to be at risk of getting Typhus. When a Typhus infected human has rashes or
scabs, do not scratch, because when they're opened bacteria is then able to get to your blood

Inflammatory Response Essay
While mounting of inflammatory response is critical in eradicating bacterial infection, systemic
bacterial infection can lead to an acute pro–inflammatory response, which may result in sepsis.
Currently, no effective therapy is available to inhibit the activation phase of the acute inflammatory
response to infection. A new group of host–protective lipids termed 13–series resolvins were
demonstrated to promote bacterial phagocytosis, reduce recruitment of neutrophils to the site of
inflammation, reduce inflammasome activation and augment host recovery from systemic infection
by accelerating the resolution of the acute inflammatory response (48). I.p. injection of resolvins
into mice infected with E. coli showed 40% increase in survival ... Show more content on
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MULTI–OMIC APPROACHES TO IDENTIFY HOST TARGETS THAT MEDIATE BACTERIAL
INFECTION Advanced high–throughput technological developments in the fields of
transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and imageomics (high throughput, high–content imaging
(HCI)) provide an unsurpassed opportunity for identifying host–pathogen interactors and
characterizing gene functions in the context of bacterial infection. Transcriptomics studies enable
quantitative measurements of the dynamic expression of the mRNA molecules and their variation in
different states at the genome scale (49, 90). Proteomics studies [e.g. mass–spectrometry (MS) and
Reverse–phase protein microarray (RPMA)] facilitate the characterization and quantitation of
proteome changes from complex samples (17, 38). Metabolomics studies reveal metabolites
(including lipids, small molecules) that are generated in response to infection (29). Importantly,
technological advances related to assay miniaturization, high–throughput and automated image
acquisition and quantitative analysis have made it possible to extract hundreds of functional and
morphological features that are associated with bacterial infections (9) (Figure 3). Specific HCI
imaging parameters has been applied in host–directed therapeutic discovery to study effects of
perturbations in bacterial infection cycle (13, 16, 41, 60, 79). Analysis of the data derived from the
omic studies will require

Q Fever Research Paper
Q fever, also known as Query fever, is a zoonotic bacterial infection normally acquired from farm
animals. It is caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii which is a gram negative, obligate parasite
related to the genus Rickettsia (CDC, 2015). Q fever is a world–wide disease that includes acute and
chronic stages. The organism is extremely resilient and resistant to drying, heat and many common
disinfectants because they dwell inside phagolysosome of phagocytes and form very resistant
structures around them that are similar to endospores. This enables the bacteria to survive for long
periods in the environment outside of the host cell. Humans are very susceptible to this disease and
only a few organisms are required to cause an infection (Jatin, 2016). (Gram stain of Q fever, ...
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It also become known in the United States in the early 1940's (Cafasso, 2016). The "Q" stands for
query which means to ask a question about something, especially in order to express one's doubts
about it or to check its validity or accuracy (Dictionary.com). Q fever was put forward by Edward
Holbrook Derrick who was the Director of the Laboratories of Microbiology and Pathology of the
Queenland Health Department in Brisbane, Australia. Derrick was asked to investigate an outbreak
of undiagnosed, febrile illnesses among slaughterhouse workers. He first tried to isolate the
etiological agent of the disease by producing the febrile illness in guinea pigs which ended up being
unsuccessful. Derrick's two associates were actually the first people to reproduce the disease in
guinea pigs, mice and monkeys by using all the information Derrick had been gathering. They
concluded that wild animals were the natural reservoir of Q fever with domestic animals being the
secondary reservoir. They also discovered that the disease could be transmitted through ticks or
other arthropod vectors (Clinical Microbiology Reviews,

Dna Biology : Forensic Science Essay
1.1.1.1 Forensic DNA Biology:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has revolutionized forensic science. Of all the disciplines in forensic
science, forensic biology has seen the most technological advances in the past thirty years. Forensic
biology is a field of study that uses DNA to identify victims and to associate suspects and victims to
crime scenes. The large forensic advantage of high copy number and the stability of the mtGenome
is a direct consequence of the mitochondrion's function and evolutionary history. Understanding the
necessary functions encoded in its genome enhances our appreciation of molecular genetics of
mitochondrial gene variation.
Mammalian mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNA) have two separate origins of replication. The origin of
the heavy strand (guanine rich) is located within a region termed the Displacement loop (D–loop)
and the light strand (cytosine rich) synthesis originates within a cluster of five tRNA genes nearly
opposite of the D–loop.
The single focus of current forensic typing is the D–loop. The D–loop consists of approximately
1100 base pairs of "noncoding" DNA and is commonly referred to as the hypervariable region due
to an increased frequency of mutation as compared to the remaining portion of the mtgenome. The
hypervariable region is further divided into three segments. Hypervariable region I (HV1) spans
nucleotide positions 16024–16365; hypervariable region II (HV2) span nucleotide positions 73–340;
and hypervariable region III (HV3) spans

Summer Research Report
The first weeks of the summer fellowship in the VDS stream was a bit hectic. They consisted of
learning protocols and techniques. Three plates of PNiC–BSa4 colonies were grown by my partner
and me that week. These were later used by the majority of lab students who had reached the
cloning stage. My first PCR with plasmid pgbr22 failed, but the second was successful. PCR with
pmCherry had to be completed 3 times to get a successful result and PNIC–BSa4 PCR had to be
completed twice to get a successful result. The three practice PCRs were completed the 5th week of
lab. Protein expression using PfDXR was started in week 3 and the sample of protein was purified
the following week. I received my target protein Rickettsia prowazskii FabG ... Show more content
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The PCR2 sample from the previous week was purified through PCR clean up and nano–dropped.
The concentration was 68ng/ul. The concentration of this sample was low (<100ng/ul) because I
had skipped the first step in the cleanup process that prepares the column filter for maximum DNA
binding. PCR2 and PCR clean up were completed again and the concentration of the sample was
averaged to be 147.9ng/ul. Since the concentrations of the samples were adequate, I moved onto
PNiC–BSa4 cloning and prepared a sample to be DNA sequenced. RE digest was completed on two
PNIcBSa4 prep samples, with the gel indicating that both samples were successfully cut and nano–
drop results indicating high purity levels with low concentrations (~32ng/uL). Results from
sequencing were nucleotide blasted and confirmed to be PNiCBSa4. I talked to a mentor about my
samples and was told that I probably needed a higher concentration ≥100ng/uL, for cloning to be
successful. In order to increase the concentration 4 samples of 50uL each were cut and PCR clean
up into one sample that had a concentration of 123.5ng/ul. The cloning protocol was completed that
week and when the plated were checked, no colonies were present on either of the two plates. My
first attempt at cloning failed. The process was completed again, and the sample concentration was
averaged to be 112.1ng/ul. The second time, only one

Notifiable Disease Case Study
Notifiable diseases:
Acute Encephalitis
Acute Infectious hepatitis
Acute meningitis
Acute poliomyelitis
Anthrax
Botulism
Brucellosis
Cholera
Diphtheria
Enteric fever (typhoid or paratyphoid fever)
Food poisoning
Haemolytic uraemic syndrome
Infectious bloody diarrhea
Invasive group A streptococcal
Legionnaires disease
Leprosy
Malaria
Measles
Meningococcal septicemia
Mumps
Plague
Rabies
Rubella
Severe acute respiratory syndrome
Scarlet fever
Smallpox
Tetanus
Tuberculosis
Typhus
Viral hemorrhagic fever
Whooping cough
Yellow fever
Acute Encephalitis– is caused by a viral infection or the body attacking it's own brain cells, the

incubation period is 4–10days viruses the disease ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Should see your GP if you suspect this.
Cholera–Cholera is an infectious disease that causes severe watery diarrhea, which can lead to
dehydration and even death if untreated. It is caused by eating food or drinking water contaminated
with a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae it is highly contagious and the incubation period is from few
hours to 5 days and you should see your doctor if you suspect this.
Diphtheria– Parents need to be informed as soon as possible if this disease is suspected as this
should be treated in hospital. Close contacts need to be tested and children should return to school
when advised clear to do so by the local HPU. Patients need to be isolated and treated with
antibiotics.
Enteric fever (typhoid or paratyphoid fever)– typhoid is caused by drinking and eating contaminated
water and food. It is a bacterial infection that spreads throughout the body. if it is treated early
enough antibiotics can be taken at home. It is highly contagious and the incubation period is from
3days to 1month.
Food poisoning– is an illness caused by eating contaminated food. It is not contagious and people
usually get better on their own within in a few days. Children should be sent home for rest and
return when they are feeling better.
Haemolytic uraemic syndrome–is a condition caused by abnormal red blood cells which then filter
into the kidneys and clog the filtering system. It develops in children after 5days of diarrhea.
Incubation

Close Relationships Between Bacteria And Archaea
. Bacteria and Archaea are split into separate domains because bacteria include all pathogenic
prokaryotes, as well as nonpathogenic prokaryotes that are found in soil and H2O. What are also
found in this domain are photoautotrophic prokaryotes. Archaea includes prokaryotes that do not
have peptidoglycan in their cell walls. Prokaryotes are mostly related to eukaryotes than they are to
different prokaryotes. This is when they were split into two domains.
2. Similar genetic sequence can indicate close relationships between different species because DNA
accumulates mutations over time like a molecular clock. Organisms are closely related. If these
sequences aren't conserved for a functional purpose, then they will suggest descent ... Show more
Red algae is found in the ocean deep, deep, deep down where usually no other algae really can grow
or be found. The red pigments in algae helps absorb the blue light that is able to reach deep depths
in the ocean.
12. Giardia is a parasite that attaches to the epithelium and then heads to the lumen. It absorbs all of
the nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine from the host it attached too. If Giardia doesn't
have a host to attach itself too, it will then create a dormant structure which is known as a cyst, in
order to keep itself alive. The cyst infects us as humans through the contamination of water, simply
because there isn't a host in the water with it to keep the vegetative cells alive.
13. Phages is not a human health concern because viruses tend to be very specific when choosing
who they want to infect. Human cells and bacteria are completely different from one another.
Bacteriophage is unlikely to bind to human molecules cells. Since they are unlikely to bond, there
isn't any notice of molecules so then the viruses will not be

The Black Death And The Plague Outbreak
Kaleb Erhardt
Allen
World History 101
20 April 2015 Diseases have always been a threat to humans, all throughout history. One of the most
destructive disease outbreaks in history was the plague outbreak which peaked in 1346 to 1353, in
Europe, commonly known as the Black Death. This plague outbreak was extremely deadly and
killed 30–60% of the European population at the time of the outbreak. The outbreak is commonly
believed to have been caused by the bubonic plague, but modern evidence suggests that the Black
Death was caused by pneumonic plague, a much more contagious and deadly infection. The Black
Death was the second major plague outbreak in history, the first being the Justinian Plague in 541.
The Black Death is believed to have been started in Central Asia. It was then spread to Europe with
trade and attacks from Mongol armies. Most notable of these attacks was an attack on the major
trade city of Caffa. Many believe that during the Siege of Caffa in 1346 Mongols catapulted infected
bodies into the city, as an early form of biological warfare, but the exact method of the outbreaks
entrance into Europe is unknown, as research on the Siege of Caffa has shown:
"Based on published translations of the de' Mussi manuscript, other 14th–century accounts of the
Black Death, and secondary scholarly literature, I conclude that the claim that biological warfare
was used at Caffa is plausible and provides the best explanation of the entry of plague into the city.
This theory is

Week 7 Microbiology Short Answers
Week 7: Microbiology Short Answer Questions
Specific Bacterial and Fungal Infectious Agents
1.
Making hand washing a habit. Wash hands with soap and water after potential contact with human
feces, handling pets, after gardening or contact with soil, before and after food handling, before and
after having intercourse. Use alcohol–based cleansers such as hand sanitizers or disinfectants may
also be used but not recommended for C.diff spores. Be extra careful with drinking water especially
when you go out of the country. Use of proper attire when traveling and going to the mountains to
protect self from unwanted animal bites. Make sure that you eat meat that was cooked thoroughly
and uncontaminated to avoid food poisoning. Also get vaccines ... Show more content on
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It can come from deer ticks, dog ticks, and horse ticks. Symptoms usually being a rash at the site of
the tick bite. It can expand as a bull's eye rash. Flu–like symptoms can occur and later symptoms
may include neurological defects. The other disease is Rocky Mountain spotted fever that is caused
by Rickettsia ricketsii, which is also transmitted by a tick. A fever and a maculopapular rash
beginning on the ankles and wrists and proceeding toward the body trunk accompany the disease.
Tick control is important in preventing these diseases. Also when going to the mountains it is
important to wear pants and long sleeves to protect self from unwanted animal

Franz Joseph Gall Research Paper
Linzile Sweezer Mrs.Johosky Advanced English 2 24 February 2016 Franz Joseph Gall Franz
Joseph Gall was born on March 9th, 1758 in the village of Tieffenbron. Gall was one of twelve
children but only seven of which lived to adulthood. He was a neuroanatomist, physiologist, and
pioneer in the study of the localization of mental functions in the brain, which later became called
phrenology (Swisher 23–24). He is claimed to be the founder of Phrenology and was the son of
Anna Maria Billingerin and Joseph Anthony Gall. His father was a merchant, but at times the town's
mayor ("Franz Joseph Gall"). Gall's interest in the study of people's psychophysical characteristics
began when he observed his siblings and friends noticing their different properties. ... Show more
Some of the basic beliefs of Galls system was that the brain is the organ of the mind which is
composed of multiple distinct capabilities and because they are distinct, each capability has a
separate "organ" in the brain (Foss). He also believed that the shape of the brain is determined by
the development of the various organs and as the skull takes its shape from the brain, the surface of
the skull can be seen as a directory of psychological abilities and tendencies (Swisher 43). It was
believed that by looking at the shape and unevenness of a head or skull, one could learn the
development of the "organs" responsible for different intellectual capabilities and character traits
(Wukovits 239). For example, a prominent bulge in the forehead at the position endorsed to the
organ of benevolence was meant to indicate that the individual had a "well developed" organ of
benevolence and would therefore be expected to exhibit benevolent behavior ("Franz Joseph Gall").
Any evidence which seemed to confirm the science, was readily accepted as "proof" of the "truth"
of phrenology. Contradictory outcomes, such as a not very benevolent and disagreeable person
having a well–developed organ of benevolence were always explained away, they did this by saying
that the activity of other organs counteracted benevolence (Gribbin). Phrenology involved

Typhus Research Paper
Typhus is a deadly disease. It is caused by infection, which comes from rickettsia bacteria. Fleas,
lice, ticks, and mites transmit rickettsia bacteria when they bite you. There are 3 types of Typhus.
The 3 types are endemic, epidemic, and scrub. Epidemic Typhus is caused by lice, ticks, and body
louse. Endemic Typhus is caused by flea, rats, and cat flea. Scrub Typhus is caused by louse, mites,
fleas, ticks, and lice. You can easily get scrub Typhus in lice–infected areas. Once the bacteria is in
the bloodstream, they continue to reproduce and grow. Typhus can last for 10–12 days at a time. All
of the symptoms can occur. Typhus leaves red dots on the human skin. It can become deadly if left
untreated. Although the 2 major (most common) types ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was in so many camps, because Typhus occurs in regions of poverty, with close human contact,
and not much sanitation. Those reasons are the definition of concentration camps. There was a huge
lack of medicine in those camps, so it kept spreading. This caused many people inside of the camps
to die slow, painful, and agonizing deaths. Many Jewish people lived in overcrowded spaces, and
that made it spread even faster. There was also much lack of healthcare, so they were forced to work
while dying from Typhus, or get beaten to death for not being able to walk. "Typhus outbreaks were
at their worst in the ghettos and labor camps..." (Ushmm, Raoul Wallenberg Place, 5/31/18). While
Jewish people were dying, Germans had disinfection baths to protect themselves from getting the
disease. Very rarely did people survive Typhus, because they had no treatment. It was pretty much
impossible not to get Typhus, because one person gets it, then their whole bunk would get it, then
the whole camp, then they would get transported to different camps, and it would spread even more.
Typhus wasn't only in camps and ghettos though, because of the bacteria, it did occasionally spread
to nearby

Q Fever Research Paper
Q fever is a disease caused by infection with Coxiella burnetii, a bacterium that affects humans and
other animals. This organism is uncommon, but may be found in cattle, sheep, goats and other
domestic mammals, including cats and dogs. The infection results from inhalation of a spore–like
small cell variant, and from contact with the milk, urine, feces, vaginal mucus, or semen of infected
animals. Rarely, the disease is tick borne. The incubation period is 9–40 days. Humans are
vulnerable to Q fever, and infection can result from even a few organisms. The bacterium is an
obligate intracellular pathogenic parasite.
Signs and symptoms
Incubation period is usually two to three weeks.
During its course, the disease can progress to an atypical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
This is an extremely low infectious dose, making C. burnetii one of the most infectious known
organisms. Disease occurs in two stages: an acute stage that presents with headaches, chills, and
respiratory symptoms, and an insidious chronic stage.
While most infections clear up spontaneously, treatment with tetracycline or doxycycline appears to
reduce the symptomatic duration and reduce the likelihood of chronic infection. A combination of
erythromycin and rifampin is highly effective in curing the disease, and vaccination with Q–VAX
vaccine is effective for prevention of it.
The bacteria use a Type IVB secretion system known as Icm/Dot to inject effector proteins called
Ank proteins into the host. These effectors increase the bacteria's ability to survive inside the host
cell. In Legionella pneumophila, which uses the same secretion system and also injects Ank
proteins, survival is enhanced because these Ank proteins interfere with fusion of the bacteria–
containing vacuole with the host's degradation endosomes.
Use as a biological

Typhus Fever Affect Humans
Typhus Fever and its Effects on Humans
The purpose of this paper is to discuss a disease called Typhus fever, it is caused mainly by bacteria
called Rickettsia typhi or R. prowazekii, in an article from AJN online website, James A. Dolce,
M.D. writes about the American scientist, Howars T. Ricketts, who identified them and who also
died of typhus fever while he investigated the way in which the infection spreads, hence the name
Rickettsia, in his honor. The disease is transmitted by ectoparasites such as fleas, lice, mites, and
ticks. The way it is transmitted is usually by bites, organisms from these ectoparasites will
contaminate the host, another way of contracting Typhus fever is by inoculation of fluids from these
vectors which are infectious ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In some specific cases chloramphenicol could be used as an alternative but its use is associated with
more deaths, specially for R. rickettsia, if this is the case than professional advice should be sought.
Prognosis is good for the patients who receive treatment early and should recover completely,
possible complications include; Pneumonia, renal insufficiency and central nervous system damage.
A few ways of preventing Typhus fever is to avoid being in places where fleas, mites, lice and ticks
gather or live, by having good sanitation and by vaccination with the typhus vaccine before people
travel to areas that are known as endemic. I couldn't end this paper without mentioning Mary
Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary, born in 1869, she was the first person considered as an
asymptomatic carrier, it is said that she infected at least 51 people, three of whom died, Mary was
placed in isolation twice in an attempt to prevent the spread of typhus, she passed away on
November 11, 1938 from pneumonia; writing this paper on typhus fever wouldn't have been the
same if it wasn't for

Cardiovascular Disease
Diseases of the cardiovascular and lymphatic system can present itself in many ways. Often these
diseases circulate through the body creating a vehicle for pathogens to spread. We will look at four
different diseases that affect the cardiovascular and lymphatic system. Plague is an infectious
disease; it had a deadly effect on human history. The plague was known as Black Death in the
middle ages. The causative agents of the plague are Yersinia pestis Gram–negative bacteria. This
bacterium is usually spread through contact with the vectors or in this case the oriental rat flea,
which usually have direct contact humans. The oriental rat fleas feed on the reservoirs such as
Rodents, rats, mice and squirrels that harbors to infectious agents. ... Show more content on
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The causative agent is Filoviridae ebolavirus. There is no known reservoir for the virus, although
scientists believe that fruit bats may be a possible reservoir because they harbor the disease without
showing any signs or symptoms. Once infected with the virus the symptoms, usually do not appear
for two to twenty–one days, which resembles the flu and often mistaken or misdiagnosed as the flu.
However, as the disease progress, bleeding from the inside is noticeable through stool, coughing up
blood, bleeding from the eyes and ears. Unfortunately, there is no treatment for this deadly infection
and usually involves treating the symptoms as they appear. Nursing interventions are a major part in
treating the patient and possible survival from this disease. Priority nursing interventions include,
watching for any changes in the patient's respiration rate and pattern, monitor the patient's fluid and
electrolyte imbalance, intake and output. Also, check and monitor complete blood count and
coagulation studies for signs of blood loss and coagulopathy, monitor and test stools, urine and
vomitus for blood; watch for bleeding. Teach the patient's family about Ebola virus infection;
monitor the patient's family and other close contacts for fever and other signs of

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Research Paper
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Rocky Mountain spotted fever is an illness that is spread to people by infected ticks. The illness
causes flulike symptoms and a reddish–purple rash. This illness can quickly become very serious.
Treatment needs to be started right away. When the illness is not treated right away, it can
sometimes lead to long–term health problems or even death.
This illness is most common during warm weather when ticks are most active.
CAUSES
Rocky Mountain spotted fever is caused by a type of bacteria called Rickettsia rickettsii. This type
of bacteria is carried by American dog ticks and Rocky Mountain wood ticks. People get infected
through a bite from a tick that is infected with the bacteria. The bite is painless and frequently goes
unnoticed.
The bacteria can also infect a person when tick blood or feces get into a person's body ... Show more
The most common early symptoms are:
Fever.
Muscle aches.
Headache.
Nausea.
Vomiting.
Poor appetite.
Abdominal pain.
The reddish–purple rash usually appears 3–5 days after the first symptoms begin. The rash often
starts on the wrists and ankles. It may then spread to the palms, the soles of the feet, the legs, and
the trunk.
DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis is based on a physical exam, medical history, and blood tests. Your health care provider
may suspect Rocky Mountain spotted fever if you have recently been bitten by a tick or if you have
been in areas with a lot of ticks or areas where the disease is common.
TREATMENT
It is important to begin treatment right away. Treatment will usually involve the use of antibiotic
medicines. In some cases, your health care provider may begin treatments before the diagnosis is

confirmed. If your symptoms are severe, a hospital stay may be needed.
HOME CARE INSTRUCTIONS
Rest as much as possible until you feel better.
Take medicines only as directed by your health care

The Theories Of Viruses : Viruses
Viruses are one of the oldest and most diverse creations in the world. Viruses which are obligate
intracellular parasites are studied by many who try to understand them and try to prove how they
work, where they come from and how to classify them. The Baltimore system classifies them by
how they replicate and the composition of their genome but classifying viruses is quite difficult.
Viruses are not able to replicate on their own and require a host in which they hijack their cellular
machinery and use it to their own benefit in making their own viral cells. Some viruses carry
enzymes along with them such as reverse transcriptase to perform reverse transcription. Some they
are finding are able to replicate to a small degree on their own so in the future they may not be
classified as nonliving and they may find their own domain among our studies. All viruses have
their own way to infect a host but all need a host as of now. How did these entities come into
existence? This is exactly what I will talk about; I will explain the three theories of the origin of
viruses as well as some remarkable aspects of their current evolution and some of the many ways
they thrive and continue to exist even when they can't exist without an organism.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN Viruses can infect any organism whether they are in the bacteria domain
or the Archaea domain or even our fellow humans, pigs and lovable animals in the Eukarya domain.
Viruses show remarkable relationships in the way they have

Epidemic Typhus: Rickettsial Disease
Time and time again, throughout history, typhus reappears when society is in distress. From war to
famine to natural disaster, when the social order collapses, typhus is the result. This paper will
explore the cause of typhus, treatment, and how typhus has impacted the course of history.
Typhus is a rickettsial disease, relating to other disease such as Anaplasmosis and Rocky Mountain
Spotted Fever. There are three different types of typhus, murine typhus, scrub typhus, and the
notorious epidemic typhus (Walker). Epidemic typhus is caused by an organism named Rickettsia
prowazekii. R. prowazekii was first identified by Howard Taylor Ricketts in 1910 and then later by
Stanislaus von Prowazeki in 1914 for whom the bacteria are named. However, the connection
between R. prowazekii and typhus was not discovered until 1916 by Brazilian bacteriologist
Henrique da Rocha Lima. (Crawford 152) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
prowazekii are categorized as gram–negative coccobacilli. They are obligately intracellular parasites
of eukaryotic cells (Walker). This means that they require living cells for growth and reproduction.
To account for this, R. prowazekii have an extremely permeable cell wall at accommodate for large
molecules. The host cell supplies molecules needed for growth such as ATP, NAD, and CoA by
leaking them through the R. prowazekii cell wall. Other components such as the TCA cycle,
electron transport system, and synthesis of macromolecules is done by the R. prowazekii. The
organism needs living cells for reproduction, however, they are not classified as viruses because
they have enzymes and cell walls, they use oxygen, and they are susceptible to antibiotics: all
qualities of true bacteria (Brezina et al., 1973). They are considered gram negative because their cell
wall contains muramic acid, diaminopimelic acid and other components that are commonly found
among gram–negative

Dna Sequence Variation Of Different Ants
Understanding the different populations in the world can be very interesting. It can be interesting
because it is curious to question whether or not some species can be similar or different even if they
live in different habitat. Therefore, this persuaded me to go deeper in figuring out if there is a
relationship between different species that are raised and born in different habitat. This lead me to
the question: If investigating the DNA sequence variation of different ants, will there be a
significant different in the population of the ants being found in different areas? It is hypothesized
that there will be a significant difference in the DNA sequence if the ants are found in different areas
because they do live in different habitats ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After the ants were placed in the gel it was sent off to be sequence and that is where the
phylogenetic tree was able to be created to analyze if there is a significant difference in the two
species. When performing the experiment, the trickiest part in doing this experiment is removing the
supernatant from the tube and leaving a small pellet of DNA because in some of the tube the pellet
was hard to see with a naked eye. Therefore, the supernatant had to be removed carefully so that
none of the pellet DNA was removed along with it. When going through this experiment, three
different trials were performed because put in the spectrophotometer, the DNA of the ants were not
picking up in the files. Carpenter ants were used at first, then gall wasps were used and last we went
back and used carpenter ants and red fire ants. When we used the carpenter ants again along with the
red fire ants, DNA was found and we were able to sequence the DNA. This figure shows the gel
electrophoresis were we performed our first ant. Although the data may look good. It was not good
because no DNA was found in the ants through this process. This figure shows the
spectrophotometer that was done for one of the gall wasp flies. It demonstrated that one of the DNA
barely presented in the TE solution which was a good result. However, we used 10 gall wasp and
only one presented good data with the DNA. The others did not which caused use to use another
organism. When we used

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Disease
Question and Evidence
What is the specific microbiology for the Rocky Mountain spotted fever disease? The foreground
information presented in the single study research article, "Targeted Knockout of the Rickettsia
rickettsii OmpA Surface Antigen Does Not Diminish Virulence in a Mammalian Model System"
will facilitate answering that question.
Findings/Answers to Question Those diagnosed with Rocky Mountain spotted fever, the most
severe type of spotted fever, have the rickettsia rickettsii bacterium to thank. This gram–negative
obligate intracellular pathogen has varying levels of virulence, from avirulent to highly virulent, and
thus the severity of the disease differs among individuals. Highly virulent strains include the Sheila
Smith strain and an avirulent strain is the Iowa strain. Despite their virulence, various strains of the
rickettsia rickettsii pathogen have the potential to be transmitted to humans by arthropod vectors,
like ticks. The article also notes that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
rOmpA and rOmpA proteins are found across various strains of rickettsia rickettsii bacteria and play
a role in pathogenesis through adhesion and invasion. It is noted that due to a premature stop codon,
rOmpA is not produced in the avirulent strains of the rickettsia rickettsii bacteria and thus, it is
thought that OmpA may play a role in virulence. This hypothesis was tested by inserting an isogenic
ompA mutant – to create a premature stop codon – into a guinea pig infected with the highly
virulent Shelia Smith strain. It was evident that this did not affect the duration or severity of illness
versus the control guinea pig. From these findings it was concluded, and as the title of the article
states, "the rickettsia rickettsii OmpA surface antigen does not diminish virulence in a mammalian
model

C Perfringens Research Paper
C. perfringens is the species most commonly involved in gangrene, but other clostridia and several
other bacteria can also grow in such wounds (Tortora, Funke, & Case, 2004). When ischemia and
the subsequent necrosis created by loss of blood supply have developed, gas gangrene can advance
in muscle tissue. The surgical elimination of necrotic tissue and amputation are the prevalent
medical treatments for gas gangrene. When gas gangrene occurs in such regions as the abdominal
cavity, the patient can be treated in a hyperbaric chamber, which contains a pressurized oxygen–rich
atmosphere (Tortora, Funke, Case, 2004). Antibiotics such as Penicillin are effective against to C.
perfringens. Symptoms consist of swelling, a blister that has gas bubbles near the area of infection,
elevated heart rate, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the United States, the genuine name of the bacterium is Borrelia burgdorferi. In Europe, the
bacteria Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii also cause Lyme disease. Symptoms include bull's eye
rash and neurological symptoms. Lyme disease is transmitted by these ticks when they nip the skin,
which allows the bacterium to taint the body. Lyme disease is a tick–borne disease (Tortora, Funke
& Case, 2004). The single vector for Lyme disease in the United States is the deer tick called Ixodes
scapularis. These ticks are transporters of the Lyme disease bacterium in their abdomens. A two–
step system when testing blood for confirmation of antibodies against the Lyme disease bacteria is
recommendation. The two steps of Lyme disease testing are aimed to be done together. Doxycycline
or amoxicillin are the antibiotics typically used for oral treatment. Patients with specific
neurological or cardiac forms of illness may need intravenous treatment with drugs such as
ceftriaxone or penicillin. Nursing interventions include protecting the patient from sensory overload
and redirect patient as

Kingdom Bacteria Vs Archaea
The Kingdom Eubacteria (true bacteria) was once placed as a phylum under the Kingdom Monera.
Today, due to the acknowledged differences, the Kingdom Monera was split into two different
Domains: Bacteria and Archaea. The Domain Bacteria (Kingdom Eubacteria) consists of
prokaryotic organisms that can survive in a wide range of moderate environments. Bacteria are often
portrayed as the villains in society – our main focus being the pathogenic bacteria (disease–
causing). However many bacteria are not only beneficial for humans, but are necessary for life. For
example, bacteria in our digestive system help us to break down food, like plant fibers, that we're
unable to properly do ourselves. Escherichia coli (E.coli), found in the human intestines,

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Case Study
Diagnosis
Rickettsia rickettsii Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) can be challenging to diagnose. Each
patient can have different symptoms which can resemble other common diseases. Rocky Mountain
spotted fever is characterized by a sudden onset of moderate to high fever (which can last for two or
three weeks), severe headache, fatigue, deep muscle pain, chills and rash. (Idph, 2016). The rash can
appear on the legs or arms, soles of the feet, palms of hands and spread rapidly to the rest of the
body. Although most patients get a rash there are times in which a rash does not appear at all. There
is no specific diagnostic test for this disease that is why it is so hard to diagnose. One test for RMSF
includes a biopsy of the skin rash. Routine blood tests may be performed, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(2015). Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Medicinenet. September 1, 2015.
http://www.medicinenet.com/rocky_mountain_spotted_fever_rmsf/article.htm
Chapman, Alice S. (2013). Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF). Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. September 5, 2013. http://www.cdc.gov/rmsf/symptoms/index.html
Connell S. R. (2003). Ribosomal Protection Proteins and Their Mechanism of Tetracycline
Resistance. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. December 2003, p. 3675–3681, Vol. 47, No.
12.
Cunha, Burke A. (2015). Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Medscape. October 8, 2015.
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228042–overview
Harms, Roger W. (2014). Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, diagnosis. Mayo Clinic. September 25,
2014. http://www.mayoclinic.org/disease–conditions/rocky–mountain–spotted–fever/
Basics/definition/CON–20032780
Illinois Department of Public Health. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Idph.
http://www.idph.state.il.us/public/hb/hbrmsf.htm
Lu, Chuanyi Mark, MD, PhD. (2015). Complete Blood Count (CBC). AACC. June 25, 2015.

Lyme Disease Research Paper
In order for pathogens to enter the blood stream it has to break the skin. When pathogens enter the
blood stream it becomes dangerous because blood circulate to all vital organs. Diseases such as:
plague, Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, gas gangrene, ebola, and taxoplasmosis can
be toxic if it enters the blood.
Gas gangrene happens when tissues do not get enough blood supply and that area dies. The
causative agent in gas gangrene is C. perfringens microorganisms. According to Tortora, "they
ferment carbohydrates in the tissue and produce gases (carbon dioxide and hydrogen) that swell the
tissue (652)." The vector of gas gangrene is the bacteria and toxins that build up that causes the
disease. Once the bacteria are present ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Tortora, "they do not feed for about 24 hours, and it usually requires 2 or 3 days of
attachment before transfer of bacteria and affection occur (658)." The pathogen of this disease is
Borrelia Burgdorferi. Once the bacteria enter the bloodstream it causes a Bull's eye rash, flu–like
symptoms, and neurologic symptoms such as facial paralysis and memory loss may happen. These
symptoms happen over a course of months. The reservoir is a field mice. The ELISA test should be
performed to diagnosis the disease the treatment is antibiotics. Nursing interventions should be to
make sure that proper test are ordered and antibiotics are given in a timely manner.
Rocky Mountain spotted fever is the Rickettsial disease. The causative agent is Rickettsia Rickettsii.
The reservoir is ticks and small mammals. The ticks pass the disease from generation to generation
through their eggs. The symptoms are a macular rash, resembles measles, fever, and headache. In
some cases people die from kidney and heart failure. The treatment is antibiotics called administered
promptly. Nurses should make sure patients are diagnosis properly since the rash resembles measles
and make sure antibiotics are

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Research Paper
What's going on? In recent news, there have been a large number of cases associated to Rocky
Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) which have impacted a number of American Indian communities in
Arizona. (CDC/IHS, Newsweek). According to conducted studies, those at greatest risk due to this
emerging public health issue are American Indians within the US population. What is RMSF RMSF
is caused by a bacterium called, Rickettsia rickettsiiand, which is transmitted through tick bites
(CDC). After being bitten by a tick infected with this bacterium it is estimated that the incubation
period can be between 5 to 10 days (CDC) Symptoms A number of symptoms are associated to
RSMF Early onset symptoms such as rash, vomiting, muscle pain, headache, and fever can occur
(CDC) Symptoms may progress to diarrhea, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Average cost per death related from RMSF was an estimated $775,467 in comparison to
pneumococcal disease which cost an estimated $140,862 (CDC) and compared to West Nile Virus at
$293,960 per death (ATJMH). Health administration impact The impact on that of health
administrators is in the understanding that the time that it takes for the patient to visit a healthcare
facility is critical. The complication is that many of the symptoms associated to this illness can be
confused with a number of other conditions early on. The complication associated to RMSF
diagnosis and treatment is as follows: Progressed symptoms may not be present until the first 7 to
10 days. It was noted that 85% of patients did not test positive for RMSF antibodies during the first
week which is needed in order to confirm the diagnosis (CDC). Diagnostic tests which test for
antibodies to confirm presence of RMSF may appear negative within 7 to 10 days of initial
contraction of illness though the condition may be fatal within the first 7 days

Necrotic Plague: A Case Study
Gas Gangrene flourishes in muscle tissue after the body's blood supply has debilitated from the
development of ischemia and necrosis. As the C. Perfringens microorganisms grow, they ferment
carbohydrates in the tissue and produce gases (carbon dioxide and hydrogen) that swell the tissue.
(Tortora, Funke & Case, 2013). The bacteria propagate toxins that shift simultaneously on muscle
bundles; crucifying cells and bringing forth necrotic tissue that are amicable for supplementary
growth. When the bloodstream is invaded by toxins and bacteria illness occurs. The disease is easier
to spread once the collagen and proteinaceous tissue have been corrupted by the bacteria's enzymes.
If left untreated it can be fatal. Medical treatment available for gas gangrene include surgical
removal of the necrotic tissue, amputation, or the use of a hyperbaric chamber. The medication of
choice for the disease is penicillin. Prevention methods include if you have an open wound clean it
immediately, take prescribed prophylaxis antibiotics as prescribed. Nursing intervention educate
patient on hyperbaric oxygen therapy program allowing patient to ask questions as needed. Gram–
negative, rod–shaped bacterium Yersinia pestis causes Plague. A rat flea will carry the disease from
one rat to another. If the rat ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It enters the body thru mucus membranes. Ebola lives in an animal host such as fruit bat or smaller
mammals. Transmission for Ebola varies from contact with blood contaminated needles, or bodily
fluids. Profuse bleeding is the number one indicator of the infection. Arenavirus can be detected
using enzyme–linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or reverse transcriptase polymerase chain
reaction (PCR). Currently, there are no treatments available for Ebola. Prevention chances of getting
Ebola include washing hands frequently. Avoid any known Ebola outbreak areas. Nursing
interventions check for occult blood in the stool, urine, and

Examples Of Biowarfare
11. What are some recent instances of biowarfare?
More sophisticated methods of biowarfare has been used in recent history. Some say that Germany
developed anthrax, glanders, and other biological agents during World War I to spread plague and to
infect the French cavalry. During World War II, Japan secretly carried out human experimentation,
exposing Chinese prisoners "to plague, anthrax, syphilis, and other agents." In 1942, Great Britain
tested bombs filled with anthrax on an island off the coast of Scotland. The United States, decades
later, released simulants "to demonstrate the vulnerability of American cities to biological agent
attacks" and then released the simulant B glob igii in subways for the same purpose. At around the
same time, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First, I discovered that the United States considered using biological agents to kill Fidel Castro and
Frederik Lumumba (Frischknecht). Also, although doctors in the medieval times did not know what
germs were they did think "the stench of rotting bodies was known to transmit infections", which is
why they thought to use them as weapons ("History of Biowarfare"). I also become aware of the fact
that the FDA is a very important part in the process of conducting biowarfare research, as they
approve and reject experiments ("Biological Weapons, Bioterrorism, and Vaccines"). Lastly, I
learned that the United States is most concerned about possible chemical and biological attacks from
countries like North Korea, who have an unstable relationship with the United States

The Causitive Agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Essay
The Causitive Agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
The Bacteria
Rickettsia rickettsii is the small, aerobic gram–negative bacterium that is the cause Rocky Mountain
spotted fever in humans (and other vertebrates). They are obligate, intracellular bacteria that range
in size form 0.2x0.5 µm to 0.3x2.0µm. Rickettsia belong to the phylum alpha–protobacteria, which
are capable of growing in low levels of nutrients, and have a long generation time relative to other
gram negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli. In humans rickettsiae preferentially reside in the
nucleus or cytoplasm of cells lining small to medium size blood vessels.
Rickettsia enter host cell by inducing phagocytosis, then immediately escape the phagosome to
grow ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The bite of an infected tick is the primary mode of transmission to humans, or other vertebrate
hosts, though it is also possible, but extremely rare for infection to result from exposure to crushed
tick tissues, fluids, or feces. (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/rmsf/Natural_Hx.htm)
The Disease
"RMSF is the most common fatal human tick–borne disease in the United States, with a minimal
average of 351 confirmed human cases occurring annually and undoubtedly many more going
unreported" (Niebylski et al.).
There are three major symptoms associated with RMSF which usually appear after an incubation
period of five to ten days: fever, headache, and a rash. The rash is a diffuse macular (featuring
elevated discoloration) rash, is most prominent on wrists and ankles, which will usually erupt three
or four days after the onset of fever. All three of the primary symptoms are not always present in all
cases of RMSF, making it much harder to correctly diagnose the disease. Other symptoms are
general symptoms common with other types of infections such as vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal
pain. Despite the name the disease is endemic in the Carolinas, Oklahoma, and Tennessee, and is
less common in the Rocky Mountain area. About 95% of reported cases occur between April and
September. (Lyon and Kelsey).
Case fatality rate can be as high as 30% for untreated patients. With quick diagnosis and proper
treatment fatalities are extremely rare. The most

1.Describe The Mode Of Actions Of The Drugs That Interfere
1. Describe the mode of actions of the drugs that interfere with protein synthesis.
Drugs that interfere with protein synthesis are derived from various actinomycetes species
Streptomyces and Micromonospora. They inhibit protein synthesis by binding to one of the
ribosomal subunits. Thus, disrupting protein synthesis as the ribosomes can no longer produce
proteins.
2. Name and describe the actions of the aminoglycoside subgroup.
Aminoglycosides are composed of one or more amino sugars and an aminocyclitol ring
And the aminoglycosides are relatively broad spectrum drugs. They inhibit protein synthesis by
binding to one of the ribosomal subunits. Streptomyces was one of the first aminoglycosides to be
used and has been somewhat ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If a patient is prescribed it, levels in the blood need to be constantly monitored. It is used to treat
typhoid fever, brain abscesses and rickettsial and chlamydial infections that are resistant to other
drugs.
5. Name and describe the uses of the newly developed classes of antibiotics.
Fosfomycin trimethamine is a phosphoric acid agent used to treat UTIs caused by enteric bacteria. It
works by inhibiting an enzyme needed for cell wall synthesis. Synercid used to treat Staphylococcus
and Enterococcus infections. These infections often include endocarditis and surgical infections and
they work by binding to the ribosomes. Daptomycin is a lipopeptide works against gram positive
bacteria disrupting membrane functions. It is not used very often.
Ketolides are similar to erythromycin and used to treat respiratory infections that are caused by
macrolide resistant bacteria. Oxazolidinone works by inhibiting the initiation of protein synthesis as
it interferes with the interaction between mRNA and the ribosomes. It is used to treat MRSA and
vancomycin resistant Enterococcus.
6. Describe how polyenes work on fungal cells. Why is this drug safe for us?
Polyenes work by binding to fungal membranes and cause the loss of selective permeability. The
cells essentially start to leak their insides out. These drugs are specific for fungi because they bind to
the

Epidemics Of The 19th Century
Epidemics of the 19th century were faced without the improved medical technologies that made the
20th and 21st–century epidemics rare and less lethal. It was in the 18th century that micro–
organisms (viruses and bacteria) were discovered, but it was not until the late 19th century that the
experiments of Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur disagreed with the spontaneous generation
argument conclusively, crediting the germ theory and Robert Koch 's discovery of micro–organisms
as the cause of disease transmission. Therefore, throughout the majority of the 19th century, there
was only the most basic, understanding of the causes, amelioration and treatment of epidemic
disease.
Creation of factories, which played a major role in mass production of goods, led to the rapid
growth of towns. People, sensing the numerous job opportunities, flooded the towns from their
different country sides. Towns quickly became overcrowded and did not have adequate social
amenities to cater for their already large and growing population. Without important amenities such
as proper drainage, clean living habitats due to the overcrowding and clean drinking water the 19th–
century cities were sanctuaries for diseases such as typhoid, tuberculosis and cholera. It was during
a cholera research outbreak in 1854 that London doctor John Snow produced his revolutionary work
on disease transmission.
The widespread use of vaccines begun in the late 19th century. After a cholera bacterium was
isolated by

Bartonella Quintan Trench Fever
One of the main goals in society is to try to change and improve from the past. This is done through
technology, advancing medical practices, and even through education. However, when something
critical from the past starts introducing itself into society again, it is imperative that research is done
to figure out why it is happening. Bartonella quintana is a pathogen that is known to cause trench
fever. The pathogen is carried by the louse vector and is transmitted to humans only. This disease
was first found in soldiers from WWI in 1915 when it affected more than 1 million people and
reemerged again during WWII. Cases of a new B. quintana are showing up in homeless people,
people who live in low hygienic areas, people who suffer from excessive ... Show more content on
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As mentioned above, homeless people are more susceptible to trench fever because they don't have
the resources they need to bathe, wash their clothes, or even get new clothes. AIDS patients are also
at risk of infection because B.quintana is an opportunistic pathogen. Studies have given percentages
of homeless people from many different countries that have antibodies against B. quintana. Up to
20% was found in those tested in France and the United States and 57% was found in Tokyo, Japan.
(Bonilla, Kabeya, Henn, Kramer, and Kosoy, 2009). During WW1, most cases of B. quintana and
trench fever were focused on men because they were the soldiers. Urban cases in places like Peru,
Croatia, Greece, India, Australia, and the countries mentioned above are also primarily of middle–
aged men (Perloff and Balderia, 2015). In the past, the disease caused morbidity and even
disabilities but not mortality. However, "Contemporary descriptions of B. quintana endocarditis in
homeless alcoholic males have found mortality rate to be as high as 12%..." (Perloff and Balderia,
2015). These statistics are important because they show how deadly the disease can be. After
learning the geographical distribution of the disease, it is crucial to know how it can spread and how
it actually

Wolbachia Research Paper
Wolbachia pipientis may just seem like another bacterium, but in reality, it is a sadistic, gender–
changing, cannibalism–promoting, parthenogenesis advocating and calculative microorganism. The
Wolbachia bacteria can change males into females, or put males through the worst possible death:
being left at the mercy of the females in their communities. The Wolbachia bacteria annihilates the
male population of many arthropod species. Although Wolbachia research may seem insignificant to
the human population, individuals should continue conducting research on Wolbachia infected
organisms that carry pathogens because recent research proves that there are practical applications
for the Wolbachia bacterium.
Bacterial symbionts are predominant among organisms that shape the biological world (Hurst 1993,
Wernegreen 2004). Some of the bacterial symbionts that have an inordinate influence on the health
and evolution of their hosts are those bacteria that live within their symbiotic hosts, so–called
endosymbionts. Bacterial endosymbionts are the focus of current research programs by the National
Institutes of Health (Human Microbiome Project, http://www.hmpdacc.org/) and the National
Science Foundation (The Symbiosis, Defense, and Self–recognition Program). ... Show more
Those females who give birth to males are not by any means lucky because these offspring are
converted into females. In some species, the bacterium kills its male hosts and sometimes, when the
males still persist, promote male cannibalization within their communities. Wolbachia are
alphaproteobacteria endosymbionts (Werren Lab 2009). Wolbachia is passed from one organism to
another through generations. Wolbachia is closely related to the disease causing Ehrlichia,
Anaplasma, and Rickettsia. Unlike these close relatives, Wolbachia is not known to directly infect
vertebrates, but infects a wide variety of terrestrial arthropods and filarial

How Climate Change Is Affecting The Spread Of Infectious...
Currently, one of the major problems in the world is the rapid change of our climate. Years of
research and studies have linked climate change to the spreading and occurrence of many infectious
diseases. Vectors and pathogens that were not able to spread to certain countries before because
temperatures were too low for them to survive in are now being able to habituate these parts of the
world because of how much warmer our planet is becoming. This is concerning to us because
infectious diseases can increase death rates. Therefore, if our planet continues to get warmer, the
more infectious diseases will spread, and the more humans will die. This research paper attempts to
provide a better understanding on how diseases are spreading more ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In the southwest of the United states, coccidioides immitis and C posadasii, fungal pathogens that
cause valley fever in humans, have usually been located in hot, dry states like California, Arizona,
and Utah, but recently it has also moved to Washington State, which is considered a humid state.
This situation shows how climate change is having an effect on this state by making it dryer and
allowing these pathogens to habituate and spread here. Furthermore, in Arizona, the annual cases of
valley fever increased from 33 to 43/100,000 people between 1998 and 2001 (Benjamin H., 2017).
This was due to longer dry seasons caused by climate change, and windier storms that spread fungal
spores.
In addition, climate change can lead to droughts, causing crops and vegetation to dry out and
eventually leaving humans with short amounts of food, leading to starvation. Starvation causes the
body to become very weak making the immune system unable to fight viruses and diseases as
efficiently, therefore humans become more susceptible to infectious diseases. A study conducted in
the 1920s found that malaria was more prone to happen during these times of drought and starvation
(Hay et al., 2002). Climate can also lead to heavier rainfall and flooding, which causes for rodents to
inhabit houses searching for shelter and food. This can lead to transmission of hantavirus in humans,
leading to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS).

Anne Frank Research Paper
Introduction
Can you believe there was a time in recent history that a person could be tortured or put to death
because of their race or belief? Anne Frank was one of the millions of Jews who die during the
holocaust. The holocaust was a terrible event where Jews were being wiped from earth's history and
existent. Anne Frank wrote a diary of the daily events, she and her family had to go thru to try and
survive. Her diary was found and published showing a young Jewish girl's side of the holocaust and
showing the many things that went wrong with the world.
Family
Young Jewish girl named Anne frank was born on June 12, 1929, daughter of Edith Frank and Otto
Frank. Anne had a older sister named Margot. Margot was born on February 16, 1926. Margot was 3
when Anne when born.Otto was in World War one in 1920, fighting for Germany, after the war he
went back home andmetEdith in 1925. Edith Hollander and Otto Frank got married on May 12,
1925, May 1925, Otto and Edith went to San Remo, Italy for their honeymoon.
Diary
Anne Frank got her plaid red diary on her 13th birthday from her parents; because Anne was going
in hiding she packed her dairy first. Since Anne had no one to talk to about ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Otto came home to an empty house, only found Anne's diary. Otto read Anne's diary, he was amazed
by how much she wrote,and he showed it to his friends and family who did not die. They all said
that he should publish her book. Otto took what they said to heart and published the book. The book
was published, 3 million books were sold, and the book was translated into English, Latin, etc.
Some people and even schools think the diary of Anne Frank is too graphic for the reading program.
This is mainly because it is written by a young girl that wrote about her life in hiding and her
discovery of herself. She wrote in her diary in a way that girls talk to girlfriends and to Anne, her
dairy was her

Summary: The Infectious Disease Transmission Of Monkeys
The business of transporting monkeys has many consequences, most prominently infectious disease
transmission. Recently, a comprehensive literature review determined that there are 1415 species of
infectious microorganisms, including 217 viruses and prions, 538 bacteria and rickettsia, 307 fungi,
66 protozoa and 287 helminths known to infect humans.Out of these microorganisms, almost two of
three are zoonotic (able to be transferred between humans and animals) If there were to be an
outbreak of a contagious pathogen within a group of monkeys, the goal would be prevention of
unneeded human contact. Inform the expendable workers to leave, and only keep the ones necessary
for monkey care. Limit those in contact with the affected monkeys to only ... Show more content on
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PPE is selected by Level of Biosafety. Since this is an unknown pathogen that is possibly
contagious, personnel should preferably wear Level 3 protection. If Level 3 is not available, wear
Level 2 protection. Level 3 protection is used for containment, clinical, diagnostic, or production
facilities where indigenous or exotic agents that may cause serious or potentially lethal disease
through the inhalation route of exposure are used. Personnel should wear protective laboratory
clothing with a solid–front, such as scrub suits, or coveralls. The protective clothing should not be
worn outside of the laboratory. Reusable clothing must be decontaminated before getting washed.
Eye protection such as goggles, mask, face shield or other splash guard must be worn at all times.
After used, eyewear should be disposed with other laboratory wastes or decontaminated before
reuse. Gloves should also be worn to prevent contact with the pathogen. Latex alternatives ought to
be provided. With adequate PPE, disease spread to workers is lowered. Quickly teach the workers
left about the symptoms of the pathogen. Inform them that if they were to see an affected primate to
separate the affected organism from the healthy. When faced with an animal in pain or oncoming
pain, the humane thing to do would be to euthanize it. Euthanasia is acceptable when: (1) The
animal shows no improvement in health and is expected due to illness or injury to be in pain/stress
until death (2) The animal is found to be or is suspected to be infected with a dangerous pathogen.
(3) The animal is unlikely to recover even after an invasive experiment and has to live with severe

The Evolution Of Eukaryotic Cells
After the unanticipated discovery of a separate mitochondrial genome, there have been new insights
into its inheritance and mutation. There is enough evidence to bolster the fact that fusion between a–
proteobacteria and archaebacteria is an integral event in evolution of eukaryotic cells. However, it
has also been conjectured that eukaryotic cell may have originated from prokaryotes. As a part of
this evolution, many mitochondrial ancestral genes were lost. These are the genes that were no
longer required in their new host cell environment. All eukaryotes contain genes of mitochondrial
origin in their nuclear genome. However, this is only true for a few genes. Studies indicate that
humans and mice have only 35% of mitochondrial gene products that are similar to bacteria
Rickettsia. Remaining mitochondrial proteins are derived from either non–mitochondrial nuclear
genes or as a result of horizontal gene transfer events. Mitochondria have developed different states
during the evolution of eukaryotic cell. Aerobic mitochondria retain a small mtDNA while anaerobic
mitochondria and hydrogen–producing mitochondria alter the function of respiratory chain and also
maintain mtDNA.
Most animal mitochondrial genome obeys a specific genome composition. However, there are
exceptions where variations have been observed. The genes of mtDNA are tightly packed together
with minimal non–coding DNA. However, one large non–coding region called as D–loop,
containing regulatory elements for

Research Paper On Pneumonia
Pneumonia is a disease in the lung often caused by viruses, bacteria and any other organisms, even
though there are other noninfectious causes. Pneumonia is a complication of a pre–existing infection
and is caused when the patients immune system is weakened, more often by a viral respiratory tract
infection, especially in the elderly. There are many different types of pneumonia such as, Bacterial
Pneumonia, Virul Pneumonia, Mycoplasma Pneumonia, Tuberculosis Pneumonia, Pneumocystis
Carinii Pneumonia, and Rickettsia Pneumonia. Pneumonia was first discovered in 1944 in a patient
diagnosed with "atypical" pneumonia. At first it was thought of as a virus or fungus, but was
eventually learned to be a bacterium with many characteristics. It doesn't ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In 2010 at least 50,000 people died from pneumonia. Over 1700 of these deaths happened in North
Carolina. The average death rate for pneumonia was over 15 deaths per 100,000 people. The rate of
discharge for patients diagnosed with pneumonia was 189 per 10,000 people for people older than
65, 33.4 per 10,000 for people at the age of 45 to 64, and 8.6 per 10,000 for people at the age of 15
to 44. About 4300 children, 5 and under, died from pneumonia each day. Symptoms, as well as
signs, of pneumonia include fever, chills, coughing, shortness of breathe, and fatigue. Some very
serious risk factors for people over the age of 65 or under the age of 12 include having lung disease,
smoking, addiction to alcohol, and problems with neurology, or having injuries that affect
swallowing or coughing. Pneumonia can have as many as 30 different causes, such as the flu virus,
which is the most common cause. Other causes of pneumonia include respiratory syncytial virus,
rhinovirus, herpes simplex virus, SARS virus, and etc. Most times pneumonia can affect your body
by filling your nose with germs coming form the air you breathe. Those germs often find there way
to the lungs and cause a serious

9/11 Research Paper
1. Explain the major tactical phases of a terrorist operation and describe the considerations used by
terrorists in selecting targets and identify the three major elements that define 9/11 as a terrorist
attack.
A successful terrorist plot takes months and even years to plan out. Before a house or building is
constructed, a blueprint has to be drawn out detailing every angle and layer of the construction; the
type of materials that is needed, manpower, the approximate cost to begin the project, and time
frame to get the project completed. A team of builders and engineers must collaborate their skills
and knowledge and find the best and safest way to begin the process. Careful planning and
preparation is also crucial for a terrorist operation. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2). Domestic terrorism is usually committed by citizens of the United States, and documentation of
terrorist activities on American soil have dated back to the 1950s. The 1970s heighten domestic
terrorism by a "rash of skyjacking", that is, taking a commercial airline hostage (Sauter & Carafano,
2012). Skyjacking incidents compelled the FBI and CIA to develop undercover strategies to enforce
terrorist groups; however, these tactics lead to civil right violations. The federal agencies covert
tactics and aggressive intelligence collection, "prompted congressional hearings and led to dramatic
restrictions on domestic intelligence operations, including the creation of a bureaucratic wall
between intelligence gathering and law enforcement" (Sauter & Carafano, 2012, p. 25). The "wall"
that was previously stated halted information sharing between the intelligence community and local
law enforcement. Communication and information sharing prevents redundancy in high priority
investigations, and it could also provide first responders advance notice in life threatening

Comparing Anne Frank And The Boy In The Striped Pajamas
The Diary of a Young Girl: Anne Frank and The Boy in the Striped Pajamas
The most immediate similarity of both stores is that they take place during the World War II and in
German–occupied locations, for example The Boy in Striped Pajamas takes places in Poland in a
house near the Auswitchz concentration camp (was a network of German Nazi concentration camps
and extermination camps built and operated by the Third Reich in Polish areas annexed by Nazi
Germany during World War II.) , mean while The Diary of a Young Girl takes place in Holland,
inside a secret annex. Anne is a thirteen teenage girl and Bruno is a nine–year–old boy. Both of them
view the world with authenticity and openness. They follow their own code of moral right and
wrong and use this to examine the world around them.
At the same time, it is through this lens of perception that both are able to make critical judgments
about the world that envelops them. Anne is able to raise questions and engage in reflection about a
world in which something like the Holocaust would happen. Bruno's questions are critical in their
nature. He might not intend ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Her action is constrained to a condition of thought and a sense of seeking to comprehend the world
around her. She is not able to really do much in her diary that exists outside of her own thoughts and
questions about a world gone mad. Bruno is able to take direct action in his aiding of Shmuel. Bruno
has an opportunity to undertake "a great adventure." While there is fear, he overcomes this and
actually supports his friend until the very end. Anyways both have very different forms of living
because mean while Anne Frank (a Jewish girl) was hiding form the Germans and spending two
years of her childhood inside a secret annex with her family and other people, unlike Bruno is the
son of a Nazi commandant who lives with his family in Berlin, but with the time they move to
Auschwitz where his father is

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