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Risk and Procurement Management Dr Paul Baguley Class Slides Contents Definition of Risk Context of Projects Risk Management Process Risk Id Risk Assessment Risk Evaluation Cost Risk Monte-Carlo Simulation Management Reserve and Contingency Risk Management by Procurement Examples of Contracts to Manage Risk Learning Objectives Define Project Risk and identify stages of project risk management Understand Risk Response Strategy Selection process using risk matrix Identify characteristics of procurement routes and map risk allocation amongst project stakeholders Appreciate a more risk informed procurement route selection What makes project management a risky business Organisations take risks to compete through projects making projects risky Indeed risk appetite is the term used to describe the amount of risk an organisation is willing to take And risk tolerance is the amount of risk an organisation can absorb Risk is an important subject in APM BoK7 and PMBoK Guide (Chapter 11) Institute of risk management; the Orange Book from the UK Gov Communication between stakeholders in the project, suppliers and customer VUCA (Volatility Uncertainty Complexity Ambiguity) environment Risks in Projects https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/top-50-projects-sydney-opera-house-11757 Lack of process and Large budget over run Safety regulations O Ring Safety disaster Case: impact of culture on risk The Nimrod Accident Case: the conspiracy of optimism Optimism bias is a known phenomenon which has been described as a psychological factor in estimators. In the defence industry it is recognised there is political pressure for projects to deliver more and cost less. Activity: What projects do you know failed? What projects do you know from your own experience which failed in some way and how did they fail? For example “Potters Bar safety disaster” Definition of Risk and Uncertainty Before ISO 31000 a working definition of risk was an event that may or may not happen Uncertainty is variation in something that has happened For example a machine breakdown may or may not happen Schedule delay is variation in the delay schedule in terms of time Risk is defined as an uncertain event or set of circumstances, that should it occur, will have an effect on achievement of one or more objectives, by APM Body of Knowledge 2012 ISO 31000 (2018) definition of risk ISO 31000 defines risk as the effect of uncertainty on project objectives Note 1 to entry: an effect is a deviation from the expected. It can be positive, negative or both, and can address, create or result in opportunities and threats Note 2 to entry: Objectives can have different aspects and categories, and can be applied at different levels Note 3 to entry: Risk is usually expressed in terms of risk sources, potential events, their consequences and their likelihood Project objectives are influenced by the iron triangle and trade-off space between cost, quality and time This means that cost ris.

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Risk and Procurement Management Dr Paul Baguley Class Slides Contents Definition of Risk Context of Projects Risk Management Process Risk Id Risk Assessment Risk Evaluation Cost Risk Monte-Carlo Simulation Management Reserve and Contingency Risk Management by Procurement Examples of Contracts to Manage Risk Learning Objectives Define Project Risk and identify stages of project risk management Understand Risk Response Strategy Selection process using risk matrix Identify characteristics of procurement routes and map risk allocation amongst project stakeholders Appreciate a more risk informed procurement route selection What makes project management a risky business Organisations take risks to compete through projects making projects risky Indeed risk appetite is the term used to describe the amount of
risk an organisation is willing to take And risk tolerance is the amount of risk an organisation can absorb Risk is an important subject in APM BoK7 and PMBoK Guide (Chapter 11) Institute of risk management; the Orange Book from the UK Gov Communication between stakeholders in the project, suppliers and customer VUCA (Volatility Uncertainty Complexity Ambiguity) environment Risks in Projects https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/top-50-projects-sydney- opera-house-11757 Lack of process and Large budget over run Safety regulations O Ring Safety disaster Case: impact of culture on risk The Nimrod Accident Case: the conspiracy of optimism Optimism bias is a known phenomenon which has been described as a psychological factor in estimators. In the defence
industry it is recognised there is political pressure for projects to deliver more and cost less. Activity: What projects do you know failed? What projects do you know from your own experience which failed in some way and how did they fail? For example “Potters Bar safety disaster” Definition of Risk and Uncertainty Before ISO 31000 a working definition of risk was an event that may or may not happen Uncertainty is variation in something that has happened For example a machine breakdown may or may not happen Schedule delay is variation in the delay schedule in terms of time Risk is defined as an uncertain event or set of circumstances, that should it occur, will have an effect on achievement of one or more objectives, by APM Body of Knowledge 2012 ISO 31000 (2018) definition of risk ISO 31000 defines risk as the effect of uncertainty on project objectives Note 1 to entry: an effect is a deviation from the expected. It can be positive, negative or both, and can address, create or result in opportunities and threats Note 2 to entry: Objectives can have different aspects and categories, and can be applied at different levels Note 3 to entry: Risk is usually expressed in terms of risk sources, potential events, their consequences and their likelihood Project objectives are influenced by the iron triangle and trade-
off space between cost, quality and time This means that cost risk, schedule risk and quality risk and performance risk are upfront considerations in project management The concepts of risk and uncertainty are at the centre of the ISO 31000 definition Lets consider this example from the Astute submarine project and BAE Systems where uncertainty and risk is defined by them for this particular company and project context 10 The Astute Opportunity and Risk System Structure This diagram shows the relationship between risk and objectives Source: Fearson et al 2001 This is an advanced process map However it is not that, that we are interested in, Only to show how a risk event has affected The project objectives 11 Journey to Work Scenario Journey to university simple network diagram of activities We will use a cost risk methodology and Monte-Carlo Simulation to estimate the journey time Leave the House Front Door to Transport Method of Transport Arrive at University Walk to Lecture Theatre
Star Wars Film Scenario We are a Special Effects Supplier to Star Wars. We have specialist technology and software and labour able to deliver special effects deliverables This is a deliberate open question Definition of project risk The project management institute defines project risk as: “an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or more project objectives” (Pinto 2020) The risk score is defined as probability multiplied by impact Risk can be considered as having negative consequences and positive consequences Positive impact is an opportunity with its own set of risk management terminology for management, for example exploit, or enhance 14 Consideration of Risk and Consequence<100% EVENT 100% PROBABILITY OF IMPACT i.e. uncertain event with definite impact100% probability of event 100% probability of impact This is described as a live issue which has certainly happened with certain consequence and has to be managed <100% PROBABILITY OF EVENT <100% PROBABILITY OF IMPACT i.e. uncertain event with uncertain impact100% probability of event <100% probability of impact IMPACT
UNCERTAINTY 15 Academic types of uncertainty Aleatory or random Epistemic or lack of knowledge Ambiguity can be one to many relationship Vague concepts like warm weather for temperature Project Context Current Risk Management knowledge and methods and intellectual assets in the business Organisation Cost Risk Policy, e.g. NASA VUCA (Volatility Uncertainty Complexity Ambiguity) PESTLE (Political Environmental Sociological Technological Legal Economic) Environment in which the project takes place Risk Management Definition Risk analysis and risk management is a process that allows individual risk events and overall risk to be understood and managed proactively, optimising success by minimising threats and maximising opportunities and outcomes. Source: APM BoK 7 Classic Risk Management Process Communication Did you know UK superstition was to predict the weather using seaweed
Risk Identification Risk Assessment Risk Evaluation Risk Mitigation Risk Control Risk Identification Use of Brain Storming in workshops with stakeholders Risk Registers hold current and historical information about risk Delphi method can be used to structure workshops to allow all opinions Risks can be categorised into types of risks Risk Breakdown Structures Use of historical risk databases Use of experts in panel discussions to jdentify risks is used in the civil aerospace sector Activity: What are the risks? For the Journey to work scenario? Leave the House Front Door to
Transport Method of Transport Arrive at University Walk to Lecture Theatre Activity: What are the uncertainties? In the Journey to Work Scenario? Leave the House Front Door to Transport Method of Transport Arrive at University Walk to Lecture Theatre Activity: What are the risks in the: Star Wars Supplier scenario? Definition of Risk Score Risk has been defined as Probability multiplied by Impact Probability and Impact can be measured qualitatively (assessment) or quantitatively (evaluation) Risk multiplied by Impact can be quite crude and care must be taken with low probability and high impact or high probability and low impact risks Types of Risk Cost Risk Safety Risk or Hazards Schedule Risk Business Risk Operational Risk
Cash Flow Risk Risk at different levels of the organisation Project risk Program risk Portfolio risk Risk siloing in organisation Risk Breakdown Structures Source: PMI RBS types of Risk example Donald Rumsfelds Unknown Unknowns or things we don’t know we don’t know https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GiPe1OiKQuk There is interest in unknown unknowns as cost estimates are inherently optimistic in not being able to predict everything in the future Meteorite hitting a car Risk Assessment Matrix Probability Impact Rules related to Impact What are the definitions of Low Medium and High Risk? Low Low Medium High High
Medium Activity: Assess your risks for journey to Uni One of my risks could be a bicycle puncture What is the qualitative assessment of this risk? What level of probability? What level of impact? Bow Tie Diagram Discussion: What are the definitions of Low Medium and High Risk? Definitions of Low Medium and High are pre-defined by experts in the company in a look up table What were your definitions of Low Medium and High? Activity: What was your Low Impact definition for journey to Uni? Risk Assessment and Risk Criteria Examples Source: Blackwell 2020 33 Risk Response Planning Risk Acceptance
Risk Reduction Risk Transference Risk Avoidance Being Injured by Meeting a Bear in the Forest Risk Avoidance is to walk around the forest Risk Transference is to send someone else into the forest Risk reduction is to get a big stick and a motorised scooter Risk acceptance, okay then Mr Bear its just a scratch Activity: How do you mitigate the tyre puncture? Classify Risk Mitigation for these? Risk Register When a risk happens then there are secondary risk caused by the risk happening. These ripple through the project plan. The risk mitigation strategy is the way the risk will be managed and adjusts the project plan The risk score for the mitigated risk is different from the initial risk evaluation and is called the residual risk Anticipated risks or known risks have contingency plans developed for them leading to a specific risk management
budget for these plans. Risk Proximity is when in the project life cycle the risk is anticipated to happen Risk RegisterRisk IdRisk OwnerRisk ScoreMitigationResidual RiskContingency Plan and BudgetRisk Proximity Case: Hiding information Mistakes are not something project teams want to own up to. In industry it can be the case that project teams will bias information given during data collection to smooth over mistakes, or hide mistakes completely Cost Uncertainty Three point estimating and cost uncertainty distributions Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Cost Uncertainty Distributions Source: NASA CEH Cumulative Density Function Source: NASA CEH
Simple Monte-Carlo Model Equation is (Amount of Labour multiplied by Labour Rate) plus (Amount of Material multiplied by Material Cost Rate) is equal to cost Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely X X Plus ( ( )
) = Treat discrete risks as a separate consideration to the uncertainty in the distributions Bad Weather Materials Lost in a Fire Crane breaks down Monte-Carlo Model Demo Using NSF excel model or @Risk The Cost Risk distribution is the output of Monte-Carlo Negotiation takes place around the percentiles Palisade @Risk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTpnEyEbu0Q Time to University Model Output for Time to Uni Lets negotiate about when the lecture starts
Lets negotiate about when the lecture starts 80 percent chance won’t exceed 59 minutes Contingency is about 9 minutes 30% chance won’t exceed 80% chance won’t exceed 47 minutes 59 minutes Lets Build a Model using @risk Case: Output cost risk distribution being symmetric One company paid for an expensive cost risk analysis only to be presented with a symmetric cost risk output distribution. Experienced risk consultants spotted straightaway that cost risk output is always skewed so that high cost has a higher probability because of low probability high impact risks Advanced Modelling using Correlation In advanced modelling then the correlation between the risks is considered. The risk happening in the wing deliverable is correlated with the risk in the fuselage deliverable Source: NASA CEH
Contingency Contingency can be calculated as the difference between the 80th percentile and 50th percentile. This is for anticipated risks. Another method is to multiply the cost by a percentage, for example 15% of the cost as contingency Unanticipated risks are covered by a pot of money called the management reserve Cost Cost plus contingency Cost plus contingency plus management reserve Example Contracts Fixed Price Cost Plus Target Cost Framework Joint Ventures Case: The Saturn V Rocket The astronauts of the Saturn V rocket going to the moon took note that they were sat on top of a rocket delivered by contractors on Fixed Price contracts! Project Alliances Schedule of Rates Bill of Quantities BOOT / DEBFO (Build, own, operate, transfer / design, build, finance, operate arrangements
Fixed Price Contracts Activity schedule Lump sums Milestone Payments Frameworks Strategic Outsourcing Target Cost Contract Management Contract Cost reimbursable Fee-based arrangements Joint Venture Companies Uncertainty and Complexity Time Scale 1 Year 2 Year 5 Year 25 Year Source: APM BoK 2019 Different forms of contracting Interesting Background Reading Pinto, J.K. (2020). Project management : achieving competitive advantage. Fifth edition, Global edition. Harlow, England: Pearson. Chapter in risk Association of Project Management APM BoK 7 on risk NASA Cost Risk Methodology in Appendix G of the NASA Cost Estimating Handbook of 2020 ( https://www.nasa.gov/offices/ocfo/nasa-cost- estimating-handbook-ceh) Project Risk Analysis and Management (PRAM) guide APM Project Management Institute PMI Body of Knowledge chapter on risk BoK
Parekh, S., Roy, R. and Baguley, P., 2008, May. Uncertainty in Cost Estimation at the Bid Stage: An Introductory Industry Review. In Cranfield Multi-Strand Conference: Creating Wealth Through Research and Innovation (Vol. 6, p. 216). image2.jpg image3.png image4.jpeg image5.png image6.png image7.png image8.emf image9.jpg image10.jpeg image11.jpeg image12.png image13.emf image14.jpg image15.gif image16.emf image17.emf image18.jpeg image19.png image20.emf image21.png image22.png image23.jpeg image24.emf image25.png image26.png image27.png image1.png
APM Body of Knowledge APM Body of Knowledge Seventh edition Association for Project Management Association for Project Management Ibis House, Regent Park Summerleys Road, Princes Risborough Buckinghamshire HP27 9LE © Association for Project Management 2019 Seventh edition 2019. Revised with minor corrections 2020. Sixth edition 2012 Fifth edition 2006 Fourth edition 2000 Third edition 1996 Second edition 1994 First edition 1992 All rights reserved. No part of this public a tion may be repro duced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans- mit ted, in any form or by any means, without the express permis sion in writing of the Association for
Project Management. Within the UK excep tions are allowed in respect of any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criti cism or review, as permit ted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, or in the case of repro graphic repro duc tion in accord ance with the terms of the licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concern ing repro duc tion outside these terms and in other coun tries should be sent to the Rights Department, Association for Project Management at the address above. All registered trade marks are hereby acknow ledged and the publisher makes no claim to these trade marks. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is avail able. Paperback: ISBN: 978-1-903494-82-0 Typeset in 10/12pt Foundry Sans by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Cover design by Fountainhead Creative Consultants v Contents List of figures ix Foreword xii Acknowledgements xiii List of contrib ut ors xiv
Introduction xv Chapter 1 Setting up for success Section 1.1 Implementing strategy 1.1.1 Organisational envir on ment 4 1.1.2 Strategic imple ment a tion 6 1.1.3 Organisational change 8 1.1.4 Benefits to the organ isa tion 10 1.1.5 Structural choices 12 Section 1.2 Life cycle options and choices 1.2.1 Life cycle philo sophy 16 1.2.2 Linear life cycles 18 1.2.3 Iterative life cycles 20 1.2.4 Hybrid life cycles 22 1.2.5 Extended life cycles 24 1.2.6 Product life cycles 26 Section 1.3 Establishing governance and over sight 1.3.1 Governance prin ciples 32 1.3.2 Assurance prin ciples 34
1.3.3 Sustainability 36 1.3.4 Strategic sourcing 38 1.3.5 Sponsorship 40 1.3.6 Investment decisions 42 1.3.7 Business case 44 vi Contents 1.3.8 Temporary struc tures 46 1.3.9 Talent manage ment 48 1.3.10 Governance boards 50 Chapter 2 Preparing for change Section 2.1 Shaping the early life cycle 2.1.1 Project shaping 58 2.1.2 Programme shaping 60 2.1.3 Portfolio shaping 62 2.1.4 Procurement strategy 64 2.1.5 Operational adjust ments 66
Section 2.2 Assurance, learn ing and matur ity 2.2.1 The PMO 70 2.2.2 Decision gates 72 2.2.3 Information manage ment 74 2.2.4 Audits and assur ance 76 2.2.5 Knowledge manage ment 78 2.2.6 Communities of prac tice 80 2.2.7 Maturity of prac tice 82 Section 2.3 Transition into use 2.3.1 Business read i ness 88 2.3.2 Transition of project outputs 90 2.3.3 Adoption and bene fits real isa tion 92 2.3.4 Unplanned project endings 94 2.3.5 Administrative closure of projects 96 2.3.6 Closing programmes and port fo lios 98 Chapter 3 People and beha viours Section 3.1 Engaging stake hold ers 3.1.1 Stakeholders 106
3.1.2 Social context 108 3.1.3 Engagement and influ ence 110 vii Contents 3.1.4 Facilitation 112 3.1.5 Conflict resol u tion 114 Section 3.2 Leading teams 3.2.1 Teams 118 3.2.2 Virtual teams 120 3.2.3 Team devel op ment 122 3.2.4 Leadership 124 3.2.5 Organisational culture 126 3.2.6 Diversity and inclu sion 128 3.2.7 Workplace stress 130 Section 3.3 Working profes sion ally 3.3.1 Communication 136 3.3.2 Negotiation 138
3.3.3 Time manage ment 140 3.3.4 Regulatory envir on ment 142 3.3.5 Ethics and stand ards 144 3.3.6 Continuing profes sional devel op ment (CPD) 146 Chapter 4 Planning and managing deploy ment Section 4.1 Defining outputs 4.1.1 Success and bene fits 154 4.1.2 Objectives and require ments 156 4.1.3 Options and solu tions 158 4.1.4 Scope defin i tion 160 4.1.5 Quality plan ning 162 Section 4.2 Integrated plan ning 4.2.1 Contract award 166 4.2.2 Risk iden ti fic a tion 168 4.2.3 Risk analysis 170 4.2.4 Estimation 172 4.2.5 Scheduling – crit ical path 174
viii Contents 4.2.6 Scheduling – crit ical chain 176 4.2.7 Resource optim isa tion 178 4.2.8 Cost plan ning 180 4.2.9 Contingency plan ning 182 4.2.10 Deployment baseline 184 Section 4.3 Controlling deploy ment 4.3.1 Progress monitoring and report ing 190 4.3.2 Contract manage ment 192 4.3.3 Risk manage ment 194 4.3.4 Contingency manage ment 196 4.3.5 Issue manage ment 198 4.3.6 Change control 200 4.3.7 Configuration manage ment 202 4.3.8 Quality control 204 Glossary 209 Index 219
ix List of figures 1.1.1 Sources of uncer tainty 5 1.1.2 Hierarchy of stra tegic intent 7 1.1.3 Outcomes of change efforts 9 1.1.4 Change of emphasis 11 1.1.5 Projects, programmes and port fo lios 13 1.2.1 Selecting a life cycle 17 1.2.2 Linear project life cycle 19 1.2.3 Iterative devel op ment in a dynamic, agile context 21 1.2.4 Hybrid programme life cycle 23 1.2.5 Extended life cycle 25 1.2.6 Product life cycle 27 1.3.1 Interaction of different levels of governance 33 1.3.2 The three lines of defence model for assur ance 35 1.3.3 Sustainability as balan cing differ ent concerns 37 1.3.4 Supplier-based segmentation using a matrix 39
1.3.5 The scope of project spon sor ship 41 1.3.6 Comparing options to invest capital 43 1.3.7 Five dimen sions included in a busi ness case 45 1.3.8 Relationship between the perman ent and tempor ary organ isa tions 47 1.3.9 Steps to build ing and retain ing project management-talent 49 1.3.10 Generic project governance struc ture 51 2.1.1 Trading the triple constraints of time, cost and quality 59 2.1.2 Increasing organ isa tional capab il ity through programme manage ment 61 2.1.3 Portfolio manage ment key processes 63 2.1.4 What sort of contract ing strategy 65 2.1.5 Temporary oper a tional adjust ments during project-based working 67 2.2.1 Different forms of PMO 71 2.2.2 Typical decision gates and other reviews in a linear, product life cycle 73 2.2.3 Scope of inform a tion manage ment 75 2.2.4 Adopting a risk-based approach to plan ning assur ance 77 2.2.5 Nature of work and the working environment 79
2.2.6 Single community of prac tice showing poten tial bene fits/func tions 81 2.2.7 Five stages of matur ity 83 x List of figures 2.3.1 Enabling progress ive commit ment over time 89 2.3.2 Activities involved in project transition 91 2.3.3 The bene fits real isa tion cycle 93 2.3.4 Closing projects when they are no longer justi fied is good practice 95 2.3.5 Key elements of project closure 97 2.3.6 Programme closure activ it ies 99 3.1.1 An approach to captur ing analysis of stake hold ers 107 3.1.2 An example social network diagram 109 3.1.3 Matching engagement approach to stakeholder need 111 3.1.4 An approach to contract ing with parti cipants of facil it ated sessions 113 3.1.5 A common model to consider approaches to dealing with conflict 115
3.2.1 All projects need at least these roles 119 3.2.2 Steps in devel op ment of virtual lead er ship 121 3.2.3 From groups of indi vidu als to a team 123 3.2.4 Leadership focus on goals, team and stakeholders 125 3.2.5 The visible and hidden aspects of organ isa tional culture 127 3.2.6 Diversity leads to higher perform ance 129 3.2.7 The balance between perform ance and level of arousal 131 3.3.1 Considering the medium and the message 137 3.3.2 The concept of a best altern at ive to a nego ti ated agree ment (BATNA) 139 3.3.3 Prioritising import ant and urgent tasks 141 3.3.4 A hier archy of legal and regu lat ory influ ences 143 3.3.5 The scope of ethics 145 3.3.6 A typical continual professional development (CPD) cycle 147 4.1.1 Benefit mapping process 155 4.1.2 An example ‘V’ depic tion of a project life cycle 157 4.1.3 Comparing multiple options using a spider plot 159
4.1.4 Relationship between break down struc tures 161 4.1.5 Quality plan ning in the context of wider quality manage ment 163 4.2.1 Essential steps in contract award 167 4.2.2 Describing risks using a defined structure 169 4.2.3 Example prob ab il ity/impact grid to qual it at ively prior it ise risk events 171 4.2.4 Multiple estimation as a source for confidence 173 4.2.5 Precedent relationships in critical path analysis 175 4.2.6 Comparing schedul ing approaches 177 4.2.7 Resource level ling and smooth ing options 179 4.2.8 Fixed and vari able cost for linear and iter at ive life cycle approaches 181 4.2.9 Provision for known and unknown risk 183 xi List of figures 4.2.10 The project manage ment plan as the baseline for managed deploy ment 185
4.3.1 Insights avail able through earned value analysis 191 4.3.2 Controls that support contract manage ment 193 4.3.3 Generic response strategies for threats and oppor tun it ies 195 4.3.4 Process flow for contin gency draw down 197 4.3.5 Key aspects of issue resol u tion 199 4.3.6 A change control process 201 4.3.7 Essential activ it ies to verify the config ur a tion of an output 203 4.3.8 Proactive management of projects delivers quality and value 205 xii Foreword The Association for Project Management (APM) was awarded its Royal Charter in 2017 and has quickly established itself as the chartered body for project professionals in the UK and overseas. In support of chartered, the APM Body of Knowledge has taken on greater significance, providing an authoritative statement on project management and the foundation on which the profession is built. The APM Body of Knowledge represents our core beliefs – an ethos – upon which we
believe projects can not only be delivered successfully, but also to the benefit of society, the economy and the environment. The seventh edition is the foundation for the successful delivery of projects, programmes and portfolios across all sectors and industries. It forms the basis for qualification syllabuses and a common language which strengthens the concept of a progressive career path for project professionals. As a taxonomy, it acts as a common framework for debate allowing our profession to develop as the demands on us change and grow. For some, the APM Body of Knowledge is a starting point providing knowledge and understanding of key concepts, for more experienced professionals it serves as a valuable reference and a method to share the language of project management more widely among teams and key stakeholders. The APM Body of Knowledge will play a key role as we evolve as a chartered profession. It reflects emerging and established ideas – a common bond across all project types. From governance and organisational cultures to the realisation of benefits and concepts of control and agility, the book weaves a thoughtful narrative that brings together all these elements. The launch of the seventh edition provides an opportunity to take stock and reaffirm our position both in the profession and consider our role in society. We ask you not only to engage with it, but to challenge it, expand on it, bring your experience, knowledge and ideas as we support the profession in realising our long-term vision of ‘a world in which all
projects succeed, and project management is a life skill for all’. John McGlynn APM Chair xiii Acknowledgements The APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition has been shaped by a large number of people through 2018. The editor and writing team are extremely grate ful to the hundreds of people who parti cip ated in the online consulta tions for all their help in shaping ideas and chal len- ging early versions of the struc ture and content. Of the many volun teers who gave their time and advice, we are grate ful to those members of specific interest groups (SIGs), who reviewed and chal lenged the struc ture and story boards at SIG clinics in September. We extend partic u lar thanks to Steve Barron, Roy Millard, Judy Payne, Penny Pullan and Amerjit Walia who helped to craft some addi tional topics follow ing the SIG clinics, and to Sarah Coleman, who provided advice on Chapter 3, ‘People and Behaviours’. Finally, we thank the various review ers of the final text for this book. In a project like this, it is impossible to satisfy all the people, all the time. We have listened to what you have to say and endeav- oured to repres ent the major ity view in this latest version of our profes sion’s found a tional know ledge resource.
xiv Contributors Dr Ruth Murray-Webster (editor) Ruth is a risk and change practitioner and advisor, currently a partner with Beyond the Deal LLP, director of Potentiality UK and a Teaching Fellow at Warwick Business School. Her previous roles have included director, change portfolio and group head of risk for Associated British Ports and director of KPMG LLP’s Risk in the Boardroom practice. Ruth was awarded Honorary Fellowship of the Association for Project Management in 2013. Professor Darren Dalcher (editor) Darren holds a Chair in Strategic Project Management at Lancaster University Management School. He is the founder and director of the National Centre for Project Management (NCPM). He has designed and developed the UK’s first professional doctorate in project management, alongside a suite of executive and professional masters programmes and diplomas. He is an Honorary Fellow of the Association for Project Management and a Chartered Fellow of the British Computer Society. Writing team Philip Bradbury is a project manager and engineer. He established a PMO for TfL’s Estates
Management function and was a key lead in designing and implementing its organisation- wide project and programme methodology. Tayyab Jamil is a partner at Firewood. He helped develop the International Project Management Association (IPMA) Agile Leadership competence framework and certification. He is a guest lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London. Charles Mills is an experienced project manager with 40 years’ experience working in the petrochemical and power generation and, more recently, rail sectors. He is currently programme director at CPC Project Services. Dale Shermon is a ACostE Fellow, Chartered Engineer and chair at the Society for Cost Analysis and Forecasting. Dale has over 30 years’ experience in cost estimating and risk analysis in both industry and government. xv Introduction A body of know ledge is a set of concepts, terms and activ it ies that make up a profes sional domain. The Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge has expan ded over time to reflect the role of project-based working in achiev ing object ives for change at stra- tegic and oper a tional levels, involving the devel op ment of
new or amended products, processes or other capab il it ies and across private, public and third sectors. In this seventh edition, we use the term ‘project­based working’ (or the ‘manage ment of projects’) to refer collect ively to projects, programmes and port fo lios, and we deal with aspects of projects, programmes and port fo lios across the text, although acknow ledging that not all aspects of project-based working apply to projects, programmes and port fo lios equally. We have used the term project profes sional to refer to anyone working in a defined role within a project, programme or port fo lio. A central tenet of project-based work is the need to balance multiple compet ing object- ives and chal lenges within a defined set of time, cost and quality constraints in order to achieve bene fi cial change. This makes the concept of the triple constraint or ‘iron triangle’ as relev ant today as when it was first intro duced. However, contem por ary manage ment by projects is a more developed field than ever before and this gives the organ isa tional leader a wider range of options about how to organ ise and govern a partic u lar change initi at ive. In this version of the APM Body of Knowledge, we expli citly acknow ledge the ability to choose between multiple forms of life cycle – from one designed to guide the manage ment of delib er ate change in a linear fashion to one designed to guide the shaping of emer gent change in an incre mental, iter at ive or evol u tion ary way. Avoiding any simpli fic a tion of this matter by refer ring to ‘water fall vs agile’, we outline the choices that leaders can make and
acknow ledge the reality that many project-based endeav ours now adopt some sort of hybrid linear/iter at ive life cycle approach. The APM Body of Knowledge is written for anyone inter ested in under stand ing more about achiev ing bene fi cial change through project-based working, however the struc ture of this APM Body of Knowledge is designed so that each chapter is written with a primary audi ence in mind. Chapter 1 Setting Up for Success: Is written primar ily for those leaders within organ isa tions who have decisions to make about the role of projects, programmes and port fo lios in imple ment ing strategy. Leaders may be in the ‘client’ or invest ing organ isa tion, or in a supplier organ isa tion that exists to deliver project-based work for clients. The ideas in this chapter apply in both scen arios. Chapter 2 Preparing for Change: Is written primar ily for those people charged with leading any project, programme or port fo lio, of any size and complex ity. It addresses early life cycle shaping and late life cycle trans ition into use for projects, programmes and port fo- lios, as well as matters of assur ance, learn ing and matur ity. Chapter 3 People and Behaviours: Is written for anyone involved in projects, programmes and port fo lios. Influencing and enga ging stake hold ers, forming, build ing and leading teams, and the generic skills and respons ib il it ies of being a project profes sional are addressed with the object ive of making it clear that all
project-based work relies funda- ment ally on the ability of people to work together. xvi Introduction Chapter 4 Planning and Managing Deployment: Is written primar ily for those involved in the end-to-end process of deliv er ing a project, whether a stan dalone project or one that is part of a programme and/or port fo lio, and regard less of the life cycle approach taken. Although the profes sional domain has expan ded, the detailed matters asso ci ated with defin ing outputs, integ rated plan ning and controlling deploy ment remain. It is tempt ing and desir able in a body of know ledge to be defin it ive about termin o logy used, and, indeed, the Glossary is provided for this purpose. However, project-based working, as exper i enced by prac ti tion ers, is increas ingly performed in a context that is volat ile, uncer tain, complex and ambigu ous. As a result, we feel strongly that it does not serve the profes sion to over sim plify import ant aspects of project-based working and, in some cases, we use terms inter change ably, for example: � Business-as-usual – Operations – Steady state � Client – Owner – Investing organ isa tion
� Outputs – Deliverables – Products Unlike other bodies of know ledge or guides to the manage ment of projects, APM chooses not to describe ‘how­to’ in terms of methods, tools and tech niques in the APM Body of Knowledge, but rather uses it as a found a tional know ledge resource, and a pointer to other sources of inform a tion. Within each of the four chapters, we have three distinct sections and each section contains discrete topics (80 in all). Within each topic, there is a set of care fully curated recom men ded reading that profes sion als can use to expand their know ledge and prac tice. Guides written by APM Specific Interest Groups (SIGs) are included in these recommended reading sections along side other sugges ted books and papers. The APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition is the first version of these editions to be published since the award of chartered status. As a found a tional resource, written by the profes sion for the profes sion, we hope you find the content inform at ive and useful in guiding your endeav ours to deliver bene fi cial change through the manage ment of projects, programmes and port fo lios. 1 1 Setting up for success This chapter is written primar ily for those leaders within organ isa tions who have decisions to
make about the role of projects, programmes and port fo lios in imple ment ing strategy. We assume that in most situ ations, there is a choice to be made about how best to struc ture project- based work in order to achieve unique and specific object ives for change. The main focus of the chapter is on the avail able options and the stra tegic decisions required to under pin and enable bene fi cial organ isa tional change. Beneficial change results from the stra tegic intent, ambi tions and needs of an organ isa tion. Organisations operate in increas ingly uncer tain contexts. They identify stra tegic prior it ies and set out to bring about mean ing ful and bene fi cial change that is described and real ised through a set of bene fits that justify the invest ment. The purpose of the invest ment there fore is to deliver valu able returns. The invest ing organ isa tion can use stra tegic port fo lios and programmes, incor por at ing change activ it ies with business-as-usual, and a variety of project mech an isms to struc ture and pace the invest ment. The required speed of deploy ment, exist ing know ledge about the nature of the work that needs to be accom plished and the nature of the poten tial solu tion, all play a part in determ in ing the most suit able approach to create and embed the new capab il it ies, systems and struc tures. The choice of approach determ ines the life cycle that will be used to realise and deploy the change. Recognising the stra tegic nature of change is import ant in foster ing a longer-term approach that is cognis ant of the need to adopt the proposed change and realise the inten ded bene fits. An exten ded perspect ive as promoted through out this work is also crit ical to dischar-
ging the respons ib il ity to consider decom mis sion ing and disposal along side the whole-life costs of assets, and the long-term envir on mental and social implic a tions of our actions. Choices and pref er ences need to be scru tin ised and examined. Governance and over sight mech an isms are estab lished to deal with proced ural and cultural aspects that need to be in place to improve the effect ive ness of the imple ment a tion of proposed change initi at ives and to under pin the real isa tion of the stra tegic invest ments. Projects, programmes and port fo lios need to be compat ible with the over arch ing strategy of the organ isa tion and with the day-to- day oper a tion charged with realising the bene fits. A struc tured approach to change manage- ment ensures that bene fi cial changes are embed ded within the organ isa tion’s oper a tional approach and closely aligned in order to ensure its long-term success ful and impact ful real isa- tion. The chapter is composed of three parts: 1.1 Implementing strategy 1.2 Life cycle options and choices 1.3 Establishing governance and over sight Chapter 1 Setting up for success 3
1.1 Implementing strategy Organisations operate in a dynamic context, full of uncer tainty, novelty and turbu lence. Projects, programmes and port fo lios are intro duced in order to enhance perform ance, bring about change and enable organ isa tions to adapt, improve and grow. Project-work there fore repres- ents inten tional invest ment in devel op ment, enhance ment and improve ment. The need for invest ment emerges from the aspir a tional plans and an over arch ing purpose that tran spire from the stra tegic intent of an organ isa tion. Project-work encom passes stra tegic invest ments that enable assets, struc tures, systems, activ it ies and capab il it ies to be formed, main tained or enhanced so that the organ isa tional plans and ambi tions can be real ised. In the public sector, this strategic intent may be discussed in terms of policy and policy implementation. Organisational change is intro duced through projects, programmes and port fo lios in order to deliver busi ness value. The busi ness value is accrued through the real isa tion of bene fits that result from project-work. Benefits are part of ensur ing that invest ments are made to deliver value to the organ isa tion. This normally applies even when the project is being done by a supplier or contracting organ isa tion, or if the work is needed to main tain current capab il ity or in order to conform to new regu la tions or direct ives so that smooth busi ness oper a tions can be allowed to proceed. The success ful deployment of change, the support of new beha viours and the util isa tion of
new capab il ity, result ing in the real isa tion of bene fits, involves enga ging with, promot ing and working with diverse communit ies and groups. To ensure that value is created and sustained, organ isa tions need to consider and address the full invest ment life cycle ensur ing that fore- casted benefits materialise. Delivering strategy is enabled through the use of projects, programmes and port fo lios. Portfolios struc ture invest ments in line with stra tegic object ives, whilst balan cing, align ing and scru tin ising capa city and resources. Programmes combine business-as-usual with projects and steady state activ ity dictated by stra tegic prior it ies. Projects are tran si ent endeav ours that bring about change and achieve planned object ives. Together, they combine to deliver the bene fi cial change required to imple ment, enable and satisfy the stra tegic intent of the organ isa tion. This section will be of partic u lar interest to senior leaders and managers in organ isa tions and to project profes sion als as it addresses: 1.1.1 Organisational envir on ment: Organisations in context 1.1.2 Strategic imple ment a tion: Making strategy happen 1.1.3 Organisational change: Enabling bene fi cial change 1.1.4 Benefits to the organ isa tion: Putting it all together 1.1.5 Structural choices: Projects, programmes and port fo lios APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition
4 1.1.1 Organisational envir on ment Organisations in context In many contexts, project-work engages with novelty and uncer tainty extend ing into an unknown future. Projects and programmes there fore entail manage ment under uncer tain condi tions. Yet, it is widely recog nised that tradi tional busi ness models, focused on effi ciency, top-down control and desired predict ab il ity, only address a small propor tion of a rather complex, uncer tain and inter con nec ted land scape. Uncertainty arises from many sources (Figure 1.1.1). Leaders increas ingly face new chal- lenges, includ ing the emer gence of new markets, inter con nec ted global compet i tion, new sources of innov a tion, rising customer expect a tions, disrupt ive tech no lo gies, the gig economy and the growing diver si fic a tion of the work force. Stable and predict able contexts are hard to find and the models and approaches used for managing need to be updated to reflect a world char ac ter ised by uncer tainty, turbu lence, novelty, ambi gu ity and complex ity. Moreover, the combin a tion of economic unknowns with polit ical, social and envir on mental concerns regard- ing the proposed actions and their longer-term implic a tions requires new ways of enga ging with uncer tainty. The US milit ary coined the term VUCA to reflect the ‘volat il ity, uncer tainty, complex ity and ambi gu ity’ of general condi tions and situ ations asso ci ated
with a multi lat eral world follow ing the end of the Cold War. The term has been widely adopted to repres ent increas ingly vulner- able and unpre dict able contexts. The key implic a tion of VUCA condi tions is that there is an inher ent uncer tainty that makes it diffi cult to predict and plan with great accur acy. The rigid ity that comes from expect ing full and perfect know ledge is unsus tain able and unat- tain able in turbu lent contexts. Uncertainty defies anti cip a tion and detailed plan ning. Enforcing detailed plan ning and fixed-price contract ing on an uncer tain future can be coun ter pro duct ive and business-damaging. Change is natural and ongoing as managers learn more about the context they are oper at ing in, enabling them to identify emer ging oppor tun it ies, respond to new condi tions and address short falls and differ ences in outcomes. Embracing and managing uncer tainty lie at the heart of good project manage ment and insist ence on certainty may unwit- tingly result in mismatches between plans, models and reality, trans lat ing into poor project perform ance. Addressing uncer tainty entails devel op ing organ isa tional capab il it ies for dealing with change and foster ing read i ness to exploit new oppor tun it ies, respond and adapt. This is frequently trans lated into stra tegic flex ib il ity, corpor ate resi li ence or organ isa tional agility. Flexible plans, iter a tions (see 1.2.3), and proto typ ing offer vehicles for the exper i ment a tion and adapt a tion needed to inform, adjust and exploit uncer tain contexts. These can comple ment open collab- or a tion approaches and enhanced abil it ies to innov ate and move rapidly and flex ibly in order to
shape oppor tun it ies, change stra tegic direc tions and build on adversity in uncer tain settings. Organisations that invest in flex ible plan ning, options eval u ation and scen ario plan ning are already better prepared to respond to emer gent condi tions and such prepar a tion needs to be reflec ted in project-work. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 5 Recommended reading � Managing the Unknown: A New Approach to Managing High Uncertainty and Risk in Projects (2006) offers a way of looking at managing projects in novel and unknown envir on- ments. The authors propose a combin a tion of trial-and-error learn ing, with multiple inde- pend ent trials to identify the best options in novel projects. � Managing Project Uncertainty (2016) focuses on the impacts of novelty in the uncer tain world that projects inhabit, provid ing ways of identi fy ing the symp toms of uncer tainty and devel op ing strategies to deal with it. The book offers senior managers ways to improve project and programme strategy by expos ing new ideas and concepts that can be harnessed to tackle uncer tainty in its many guises. � Managing in a VUCA World (2015) is an edited collec tion focused on defin ing VUCA and
uncov er ing the wider impacts on manage ment. It makes the case for broader know ledge and the applic a tion of new concepts and frame works to deal with unpre dict able and rapidly chan ging situ ations. Figure 1.1.1 Sources of uncer tainty APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 6 1.1.2 Strategic imple ment a tion Making strategy happen ‘Strategic intent’ is a term used to describe the aspir a tional plans, over arch ing purpose or the inten ded direc tion of travel needed to reach an organ isa tional vision (Figure 1.2.2). Strategic intent provides the basis for the scru tiny of the continu ous align ment of the port fo lio of project- work against organ isa tional ambi tion. While the stra tegic intent describes the align ment between ambi tion and resources, it can become a constraint on growth. Recognising the inher- ent uncer tainty, as well as the emer ging oppor tun it ies and threats, is useful to develop a more dynamic basis for balan cing evolving ambi tion with emer ging reality. Strategy imple ment a tion, often recog nised as the hardest part of the strategy process, is delivered through the execu tion of stra tegic projects and programmes and the realisation of
their targeted bene fits. From an exec ut ive perspect ive, project-work is an essen tial part of making stra tegic invest ment work. The key focus is on the creation of value through projects that will enable mean ing ful execu tion of both delib er ate and emer gent strategies. This implies extend ing the scope of interest around projects and programmes to incor por ate the real isa tion of bene fits that will justify the invest ment and fulfil the criteria outlined in the busi ness case (see 1.3.7). Life cycles play an import ant role in ensur ing that the inten ded bene fits and value are delivered. Investment in change is one effect ive way of imple ment ing strategy. Projects, programmes and port fo lios tend to flow out of stra tegic decisions made by the organ isa tion and can there- fore be viewed as stra tegic invest ments that enable other activ it ies and capab il it ies to be developed. This implies that project-work is concerned with the ability to enact the organ isa- tional strategy by enabling bene fits to be real ised so that the inten ded value can be accrued. Senior leaders within the organ isa tion are able to demon strate how each project or programme that they fund contrib utes to the overall strategy. Where projects or programmes cannot be justi fied or aligned with the organ isa tional strategy, their contin ued oper a tion and purpose can be ques tioned. It is worth noting that supplier organ isa tions managing projects for their clients on a commer cial basis may have a differ ent stra tegic justi fic a tion for conduct ing commer- cial work. Project-work may also be needed as an enabler to main tain exist ing capab il it ies or assets, ensure compli ance with newly intro duced legis la tion
or satisfy other profes sional require ments or busi ness imper at ives. Corporate leaders are account able for demon strat ing profi t ab il ity and return on invest ment (ROI), and there fore view project-work as a crit ical part of deliv er ing that invest ment and contrib ut ing to the overall benefit of the organ isa tion. Portfolios play an import ant part in main- tain ing the align ment between project-work and stra tegic object ives and in enabling the real isa- tion of the bene fits that under pin the success ful capture of the inten ded value and secur ing the return on invest ment. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 7 Recommended reading � Strategic intent (2005) revis its and updates the original concept of stra tegic intent estab- lished by the same team of authors 16 years previ ously. In this contri bu tion, the authors compare Western compan ies to Japanese corpor a tions encour aging a rethink ing of strategy and a repos i tion ing of stra tegic intent. � Introduction to Managing Change (2017), developed by the APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group, intro duces the import ance of managing change and spon sor ing such efforts. It makes the case for align ing change projects to the organ isa tional busi ness
strategy, and support ing the strategy by artic u lat ing well-defined bene fits. � The Evolution of Project Management Practice: From Programmes and Contracts to Benefits and Change (2018) is an edited volume that makes the case for shift ing the focus from the staged deliv ery of arte facts towards consid er a tion of stake hold ers, bene fits, value and complex ity. The authors offer new perspect ives on plan ning, busi ness cases, bene fits, collab or a tion, spon sor ship, strategy execu tion and overall perform ance. Figure 1.1.2 Hierarchy of stra tegic intent APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 8 1.1.3 Organisational change Enabling bene fi cial change Change is an estab lished part of life, espe cially in modern organ isa tional contexts, and is often needed to ensure contin ued survival or busi ness relev ance. Avoiding stag na tion and main tain- ing the relev ance of strategies, approaches and capab il it ies often requires processes of renewal and update. Combining change manage ment with the manage ment of project-work offers the best poten tial for deliv er ing new results and capab il it ies, success fully embed ding the change
and enabling the required bene fits. Change manage ment is the over arch ing approach taken in an organ isa tion to move from the current to a future desir able state, using a coordin ated and struc tured approach in collab or a- tion with stake hold ers. The change manage ment process links strategy with execu tion, and deployment with oper a tion and the ulti mate real isa tion of the expec ted bene fits. Organisational change is typic ally intro duced and imple men ted into corpor ate settings through project-work, however that is only the begin ning of the process of embed ding change and making it the new normal state for the organ isa tion. Strategic intent (see 1.1.2) drives organ isa tions to main tain compet it ive advant age or seek a new one (i.e. change). The stra tegic intent leads to the devel op ment of specific change initi at- ives within a port fo lio struc ture. Specific initi at ives, aligned to the stra tegic intent, are selec ted on the basis of avail able capab il it ies and resources that can be deployed. Projects and programmes are designed and imple men ted in order to deploy new assets, func tions, capab il it ies, processes, struc tures and systems. However, these are devised to facil- it ate or enable some change: change manage ment activ it ies are integ rated with project- working. Only once the deliv er ables are adopted and used as inten ded, can the bene fits be real ised. Organisational change encom passes the new beha viours that are enabled through project-work, and change manage ment is the facil it at ing discip line that makes it possible to embed change, achieve buy-in, bring people along and thereby derive and accrue the new
bene fits that result from such actions in order to satisfy a busi ness case. Given that success ful change manage ment requires changes to beha viours, there is a signi- fic ant focus on people, culture and beha viours needed to prepare the organ isa tion, demon- strate the change, encour age buy-in and embed new beha vi oural norms and expect a tions around the altered condi tions. Organisations respond to change in many differ ent ways. Organisational change manage- ment begins and ends with the indi vidu als involved, requir ing an under stand ing of resist ance, organ isa tional defence routines, pervad ing cultures and the engage ment processes required to bring people along. One of the biggest barri ers to change is know ledge bound ar ies of various types – includ ing conflicts of interest that (for example) wipe out users’ motiv a tion to absorb know ledge about project outputs. A good way of embed ding change and achiev ing buy-in from concerned stake hold ers is by explor ing the proposed impacts through a series of proto types, allow ing stake hold ers to shape and influ ence the change situ ation through a series of mean ing ful iter a tions. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 9 Recommended reading � Introduction to Managing Change (2017) developed by the
APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group, offers a dedic ated resource focused on the manage ment of change. The book provides a rationale for change manage ment, a list of key factors for success ful change, a further distil la tion of key factors in select ing a change approach as well as a summary of many of the key approaches to change manage ment. � Exploring Strategic Change (2016) engages with the process of deliv er ing stra tegic and organ isa tional change, offer ing detailed guidelines, specific strategies, theor et ical insights and prac tical solu tions. � Managing Projects in a World of People, Strategy and Change (2019) proposes a rethink ing of some of the methods util ised in initi at ing, managing and govern ing projects, programmes and change initi at ives. The book posi tions change as an oppor tun ity to reflect and offers new perspect ives on ethics, stra tegic initi at ives, governance and change as well as new ideas focused on anti fra gil ity, commer cial manage ment and ethics. Figure 1.1.3 Outcomes of change efforts Source: Introduction to Managing Change (2017) APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 10
1.1.4 Benefits to the organ isa tion Putting it all together Delivering bene fits is the primary reason why organ isa tions under take change. Given limited resources, there is a need to develop an improved under stand ing of poten tial invest ments and the reasons for under tak ing them. Making change work for the organ isa tion entails identi fy ing a viable set of poten tial bene fits and deliv er ing value by real ising the prom ised bene fits. A benefit is a posit ive and meas ur able impact of change. However, in some cases, there may be unavoid able meas ur able declines or negat ive impacts of change that are accept able in the context of greater bene fits. These are called ‘disbe ne fits’ and are treated in the same way as bene fits. The inten ded bene fits are driven by the stra tegic intent. In a supplier organisation, bene fits are likely to be derived from the revenue, profit, oppor tun it ies, rela tion ships, gained expert ise or market posi tion related to under tak ing the work. Benefits can be tangible (e.g. money saved, jobs created) or intan gible (e.g. corpor ate repu ta tion, capa city for change). They may, or may not, also be quan ti fi able in cash terms (e.g. reduced costs or greater customer satis fac tion). Benefits-driven change requires proact ive manage ment through out the entire life cycle. An organ isa tion iden ti fies the bene fits it needs and initi ates changes that are fore cast to deliver bene fits. Projects and programmes are imple men ted in order to enable new outputs, capabil- ities and outcomes to be util ised so that the bene fits described
in the busi ness case can be fully real ised. During the change, the organ isa tion needs to monitor perform ance indic at ors that can reli ably predict bene fits realisation. Benefits demon strate the value created by invest ments. To ensure that value is created and sustained from organ isa tional change initi at ives, bene fits have to be managed through out the entire invest ment life cycle. In order to maxim ise the value from partic u lar invest ments and avoid value erosion, it is essen tial to ask if the proposed invest ments will realise the prom ised bene fits at an accept able cost over the full economic life cycle of the invest ment (see 1.2.6). The fore cast bene fits of a programme or project are the basis of its busi ness case. It is there fore import ant to engender a shift from a culture of deliv ery towards an ethos of value. It is only when the output, capab il ity or outcome is used as a result of a compre hens ive change programme that bene fits are real ised, result ing in delivered value. Benefits-driven projects and programmes support the invest ment cycle, with port fo lios and governance struc tures util ised to monitor the results and ques tion the continu ing align ment with strategy and the real isa tion of expec ted and emer ging bene fits. The sponsor owns the busi ness case and is ulti mately account- able for the real isa tion of the bene fits. Governance boards and spon sors have a crucial role in emphas ising and accen tu at ing the import ance of secur ing and sustain ing bene fits. Chapter 1 Setting up for success
11 Figure 1.1.4 Change of emphasis Recommended reading � Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects (2017) pulls together insights and lessons from signi fic ant major projects. The report synthes ises the key prin ciples and activ it ies required to success fully deliver bene fits in such projects and offers advice and guid ance on extend ing the life cycle. � A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework (2019) was compiled by the APM Benefits Management Specific Interest Group. The guide devel ops an under stand ing of the need for bene fits real isa tion, offer ing a frame work for address ing contex tual factors and devel op ing the capab il ity to realise bene fits. � The Information Paradox: Realizing the Business Benefits of Information Technology (2007) is a classic, offer ing the first detailed treat ment of bene fits. The book was first published in 1998 and still provides fresh ideas, concrete advice and thought ful reflec tion on the role of bene fits in project-work and the wider issues regard ing a shift towards value-based focus. APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition
12 1.1.5 Structural choices Projects, programmes and port fo lios There are multiple options for deliv er ing change and bene fits, depend ing on the purpose and overall desire. The scale, signi fic ance and complex ity of the proposed under tak ing play a part in determ in ing which approach to use. Another distin guish ing factor is related to the nature of the object ives, which can be defined in terms of outputs (such as deliv er ing a build ing), outcomes (such as staff being relo cated from multiple loca tions to a new HQ), bene fits (such as reduced travel and facil it ies costs) or stra tegic object ives (such as doub ling the organ isa tion’s share price in three years). The choice of how to struc ture invest ments encom passes projects, programmes and port- folios (Figure 1.1.5): Projects are unique, tran si ent endeav ours, under taken to bring about change and achieve planned object ives, which can be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or bene fits. A project is usually deemed to be a success if it achieves the object ives accord ing to their accept ance criteria, normally within an agreed times cale and budget. Project-work is conduc ted across normal organ isa tional func tional areas, setting up a tempor ary organ i sa- tion, drawing on the skills, expert ise and know ledge of the organ isa tion, as well as third parties, where appro pri ate.
Projects normally use capital expendit ure to acquire, upgrade and main tain assets, services, products and capab il ity. Projects need to take into account the ulti mate require- ments for decom mis sion ing and disposal. In some settings, it is possible to find arrange ments involving multiple projects running in paral lel, or related to one another, to provide support or to build addi tional capab il it ies. Multiple concur rent projects may require prior it isa tion in terms of sched uled deployment, import ance of primary deliv er ables or the avail ab il ity of key resources, skills, or indi vidu als. Programmes are unique and tran si ent stra tegic endeav ours, under taken to achieve a defined set of object ives, incor por at ing a group of related projects and change manage- ment activ it ies. They can be defined as coordin ated projects and change manage ment activ it ies combined to achieve bene fi cial change. The distinc tion between projects and programmes depends on context and the guiding criteria between them often relates to the complex ity of scope and the addi tion of change activ it ies. The need for signi fic ant improve ment will be consist ent with the organ isa tion’s strategy, and programmes will help to deliver elements of that strategy. Programmes typic ally combine new deployment with some elements of business-as- usual. Consequently, they utilise capital expendit ure to acquire assets, services, products and capab il ity, along side oper at ing expense incurred as a result of perform ing normal busi- ness oper a tions. Programmes are often defined as deliv er ing
change, and would typic ally incor porate the full util isa tion of bene fits to satisfy the busi ness case. The overall measure of success will be determ ined by the actual realisation of the expec ted bene fits, which frequently involves the use of capab il it ies or facil it ies created by the programme in an ongoing, ‘business­as­usual’ manner. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 13 Figure 1.1.5 Projects, programmes and port fo lios Portfolios are used to select, prior it ise and control an organ isa tion’s programmes and projects, in line with its stra tegic object ives and capa city to deliver. Their goal is to balance the imple ment a tion of change initi at ives and the main ten ance of business-as-usual, while optim ising return on invest ment. Portfolios are used to struc ture invest ments. They can be managed at an organ isa tional or func tional level (e.g. includ ing all IT initi at ives) to optim ise stra tegic bene fits or oper a- tional effi ciency, respect ively. They address a number of major ques tions: � Are these the projects and programmes needed to deliver the stra tegic object ives, subject to risk, resource constraints and afford ab il ity?
� Is the organ isa tion deliv er ing them effect ively and effi ciently? � Are the full poten tial bene fits from the organ isa tion’s invest ment being real ised? Portfolios are partic u larly concerned with the inter de pend en cies between projects and programmes, in terms of: � scarce or limited resources; � balance within the port fo lio (e.g. between risks and returns); � align ment with the stra tegic intent and main prior it ies; � timing; � capa city bottle necks. Portfolio success relates to the sound ness of the invest ment and depends on the ability to address the above concerns and ques tions. The manage ment of a struc tured port fo lio involves constant review of the balance of invest ment and benefit, creat ing and closing projects and programmes as required. Project profes sion als get to choose between the differ ent ways of struc tur ing project- work by using projects, programmes and port fo lios. Governance, assur ance and over sight struc tures will match the approach selec ted for organ ising the work.
APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 14 Full refer ences for Section 1.1 1.1.1 Cleden, D. (2016) Managing Project Uncertainty. Abingdon: Routledge. Loch, C. H., DeMeyer, A. and Pich, M. (2006) Managing the Unknown: A New Approach to Managing High Uncertainty and Risk in Projects. New Jersey: John Wiley. Mack, O., Khare, A., Krämer, A. and Burgartz, T. (eds) (2015) Managing in a VUCA World. Heidelberg: Springer. 1.1.2 APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group (2017) Introduction to Managing Change. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Dalcher, D. (2018) The Evolution of Project Management Practice: From Programmes and Contracts to Benefits and Change. Abingdon: Routledge. Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C. K. (2005) Strategic intent. Harvard Business Review, 83(7), 148–161. 1.1.3 APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group (2017) Introduction to Managing Change. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management.
Balogun, J., Hope Hailey, V. and Gustafsson, S. (2016) Exploring Strategic Change. Harlow: Pearson Education. Dalcher, D. (2019) Managing Projects in a World of People, Strategy and Change. Abingdon: Routledge. 1.1.4 Association for Project Management Benefits Management Specific Interest Group (2019) A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Infrastructure and Projects Authority (2017) Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects. London: Infrastructure and Project Authority. Thorp, J. (2007) The Information Paradox: Realizing the Business Benefits of Information Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. 1.1.5 Bartlett, J. (2017) The Essentials of Managing Programmes, 6th edition. Abingdon: Routledge. Rayner, P., Reiss, G. and MacNichol, D. (2011) Portfolio and Programme Management Demystified. Abingdon: Routledge. Thiry, M. (2015) Program Management, 2nd edition. Farnham: Gower Publications. Chapter 1 Setting up for success
15 1.2 Life cycle options and choices There are many differ ent ways of struc tur ing and organ ising project-work. One of the more import ant shaping decisions revolves around the choice of an approach and the asso ci ated life cycle that matches that philo sophy. This section is concerned with clari fy ing the differ ent options and high light ing their implic a tions. When organ isa tions decide to deliver bene fi cial change through project-work, they have a diversity of poten tial approaches, ranging from highly predict ive methods that assume that know- ledge regard ing the context is well estab lished and stable, all the way to highly adapt ive situ- ations, replete with volat il ity, uncer tainty, ambi gu ity and turbu lence that require more dynamic ways of enga ging with the envir on ment and continu ously involving inter ested stake hold ers. The choice of approach will determ ine the way projects, programmes and port fo lios operate and play a vital part in determ in ing their success. Each life cycle also requires differ ent manage ment capab il it ies, team skills, know ledge manage ment approaches and governance style. Professionals are expec ted to make informed choices and select approaches that match their specific context. This section aims to intro duce the rich ness and diversity of possib il it ies avail- able to decision-makers. It begins by intro du cing some of the main philo soph ical posi tions and key perspect ives, before delving into the differ ent types of life cycles on offer and recog nising that given the many comprom ises, managers unsur pris ingly
opt for prag matic hybrid choices, combin ing the best features from differ ent arrange ments. Project-work is often said to emphas ise a short-term perspect ive through an intense focus on imple ment a tion. However, projects are increas ingly called upon to deliver bene fits, address sustain ab il ity consid er a tions and trans form organ isa tions. Such expect a tions imply a need to extend the tradi tional focus to address more stra tegic aspects and global concerns. This section offers a glimpse of the funda mental decisions and tradeoffs avail able to decision-makers who need to under stand the diversity of options they increas ingly find at their disposal. This section will be of partic u lar interest to senior leaders in organ isa tions as well as to managers and project profes sion als as it addresses: 1.2.1 Life cycle philo sophy: Making sense of life cycles 1.2.2 Linear life cycles: Following a delib er ate sequence 1.2.3 Iterative life cycles: Filling in the detail 1.2.4 Hybrid life cycles: Finding the right balance 1.2.5 Extended life cycles: Bringing in the bene fits 1.2.6 Product life cycles: Considering usage, evol u tion and disposal APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 16
1.2.1 Life cycle philo sophy Making sense of life cycles Life cycles are funda mental to the manage ment of project-work: Different approaches can be util- ised for deployment, depend ing on the desired outputs, bene fits and outcomes and the expec ted uncer tainty, novelty and risk appet ite. The choice of deployment approach will play a key part in select ing the most suit able form of life cycle, and thereby determ ine the stages involved in organ- ising project-work and indic ate how they are inter re lated and sequenced. A life cycle is a frame work compris ing a series of distinct high-level stages required to trans- form an idea or concept into reality in an orderly and effi cient manner. It offers a system atic and organ ised way to under take project-based work and can be viewed as the struc ture under- pin ning deployment. The life cycle acts as an import ant manage ment tool, focus ing on the alloc a tion of resources, the integ ra tion of activ it ies, the avail ab il ity of key indi vidu als, the support of timely decision-making, the mitig a tion of risk and the provi sion of control and governance mech an- isms match ing the life cycle struc ture. Consequently, it is import ant that spon sors and exec ut- ives under stand the char ac ter ist ics and specific features of the selec ted approach. Approaches to deployment range between highly predict ive and highly adapt ive settings and can be depic ted along a spec trum (Figure 1.2.1). The choice between predict ive and
adapt ive philo sophies is largely influ enced by the avail ab il ity of know ledge. More predict ive approaches tend to rely on know ledge known at the start, allow ing work to proceed in a sequen tial manner, whilst adapt ive contexts imply that new know ledge is created as the work progresses, which is then used to inform and guide the remain ing effort. Adaptive approaches allow more key stake hold ers to contrib ute and shape the devel op ment process. Specific philo sophies for deployment include: � Linear: Where the initi at ive progresses through a sequen tial series of steps. In a programme, each step would provide only partial capab il ity until the final desired state is reached. This is suit able for stable, low-risk envir on ments. � Incremental: Where the target state is achieved through a staged series of smaller steps. This can be used to deliver ‘quick wins’, conserve scarce resources or deliver early bene fits. It fits with the idea of deliv er ing tranches in programmes. � Iterative: Where proto types, time boxes or paral lel activ it ies are util ised to acquire new insights, obtain feed back or explore high-risk options. The scope of this activ ity depends on the level of uncer tainty and the organ isa tional risk appet ite. The dura tion may extend through out deployment. � Evolutionary: Where deployment entails a number of major trans itions, each based on user feed back from the preced ing trans ition. This may be applied in innov at ive or time-critical
entry to new markets. There is no univer sal best approach. Project profes sion als select the most suit able arrange ment for their context, most often combin ing features from any of the above into a hybrid life cycle (see 1.2.4). Chapter 1 Setting up for success 17 Figure 1.2.1 Selecting a life cycle Recommended reading � The UK’s National Standard BS 6079 Project Management – Principles and Guidance for the Management of Projects (2019) considers the role of life cycles in the manage ment of projects and offers guid ance on the compon ents of a project life cycle. � APM Introduction to Programme Management (2016) offers explan a tions of the various life cycle philo sophies in the context of managing programmes and change efforts, address ing some of the major implic a tions of making life cycle choices. It also covers governance issues and provides detailed guidelines related to the major stages included in the programme life cycle. � Managing Knowledge in Project Environments (2019) builds
from the assump tion that the choice of life cycle is based on what is known. It explains the role of know ledge and uncer- tainty in select ing differ ent life cycles and approaches. The book offers a know ledge manage ment perspect ive on project-work, paying partic u lar atten tion to the implic a tions of select ing specific life cycles and approaches. APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 18 1.2.2 Linear life cycles Following a delib er ate sequence Linear life cycles refer to the comple tion of project-work within a single pass through the cycle (Figure 1.2.2). Projects are thus sequenced into a set of distinct phases, which are completed seri ally and typic ally span from the devel op ment of the initial concept to the deployment of an ulti mate outcome, output or bene fits. This is partic u larly useful where there is a need to coordin ate large teams of people working across compan ies and depart ments. Project-work can be divided into phases that must be accom plished in order to achieve the project goal. Division into phases and inter me di ate deliv er ables is useful in plan ning as it provides a frame work for budget ing, schedul ing, alloc at ing resources and appro pri ately assign- ing team members and experts, as well as a mech an ism for
arran ging mile stones and project reviews. This leads to greater effi ciency and enhanced organ isa tion, resource alloc a tion and cost control. In linear life cycles, progress is carried out in sequence, enabling the passing of control and inform a tion to the next phase when predefined mile stones are reached and accom plished. This approach aims to be highly struc tured, predict able and stable, provid ing a trans par ent format for managing contracts and allow ing maximum control and governance over the process. It works partic u larly well for the deployment of well-understood and clearly defined outputs trading time, cost and risk to achieve the right scope and quality. On the other hand, it assumes the avail ab il ity of relat ively perfect know ledge upfront, whilst being resist ant to change and inflex ible in terms of correc tions and rework. It also implies a long sequence, culmin at ing in the ulti mate handover. Urgent or emer gent change can only be addressed by excep tion, requir ing major modi fic a tions and reor gan isa tion of the cycle. Dividing know ledge into distinct phases can create silos and know ledge barri ers between the phases. A typical linear life cycle encom passes multiple phases: � Concept: Development of an initial idea through initial studies and high-level require ments manage ment, and assess ment of viab il ity, includ ing an outline busi ness case. � Definition: Development of a detailed defin i tion, plans and state ment of require ments that include a full justi fic a tion for the work.
� Deployment: Implementation of plans and veri fic a tion of perform ance through testing and assur ance to realise inten ded outputs, outcomes and bene fits. � Transition: Handover, commis sion ing and accept ance of outputs to the sponsor and wider users, culmin at ing in formal closure. Life cycles vary accord ing to the nature, purpose and expec ted use. The basic life cycle can be adjus ted to reflect differ ent contexts and local vari ations, includ ing altern at ive phase names preval ent within specific indus tries and busi ness sectors. Smaller projects may apply a shorter cycle, as required. In some circum stances, the deliv ery of bene fits (benefit real isa tion) can also be incor por ated as an addi tional step at the end of the sequence (see also 1.2.5). Chapter 1 Setting up for success 19 Recommended reading � The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects (2019) provides a guide to struc tur ing projects, combin ing useful advice with prac tical tech niques. The resource iden ti fies many of the key activ it ies required to utilise the ‘staged’ frame work with an exten ded focus on governance, monit or ing and control, inform a tion manage ment and
the relev ant stand ards. � APM Introduction to Programme Management (2016) offers guidelines on the applic a tion of life cycles in the context of programmes. It provides detailed guid ance on the key activ- it ies related to each of the major stages and on the governance of programme life cycles. � Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models (2017) covers a pleth ora of life cycles and approaches iden ti fied by a joint task force involving members from the International Council for Systems Engineering (INCOSE) and APM. The cover age includes project and product life cycles with vari ations from many sectors and discip lines. Figure 1.2.2 Linear project life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 20 1.2.3 Iterative life cycles Filling in the detail Iterative life cycles are composed of several iter a tions allow ing the deployment of initial capab- il ity, followed by success ive deliv er ies of further value. They are based on the idea of concur- rency, or simul tan eous engin eer ing, where differ ent devel op ment steps are allowed to be performed in paral lel (Figure 1.2.3). Iterative life cycles repeat
one or more of the phases before proceed ing to the next one, and manage uncer tainty regard ing the scope by allow ing the object ives to evolve through out the life cycle as learn ing and discov ery take place. Recognising that change is pervas ive, iter at ive life cycles begin by devel op ing a high- level vision, with the finer detail uncovered during the cycles of iter a tion. Allowing the specific a tion and design to run in paral lel ‘fast tracks’ the deployment. Iterations are thus used to progress ively elab or ate and improve under stand ing based on client inter ac tion with learn ing between the iter a tions. Iterations are applied when the goals are clear but the means of achiev ing them are not. The rapid deployment of smaller, partial solu tions becomes the basis for gaining fast feed back and new insights about what needs to be done. Iterations are often conduc ted through working proto types which stake hold ers utilise as the basis for adapt a tion and improve ment. Iterative work prior it ises collab or a tion and co-creation to address social and polit ical complex- ity. Iterative approaches address change, innov a tion, new domains or pion eer ing tech no lo gies as they accen tu ate velo city and adapt ab il ity and reduce uncer tainty and know ledge bound ar ies. However, iter at ive approaches can only proceed when user feed back is avail able to be used as the basis for initi at ing new cycles of devel op ment, refine ment and improve ment. They depend on co-location or regular avail ab il ity of users to inter act with the system and build buy- in. They also encour age users to develop and enhance the proposed solu tion continu ously,
and thereby amend the required scope and rearrange the iden ti fied needs whilst redu cing the overall risk levels. Iterative ideas are often linked with incre mental concepts. Incremental think ing combines elements of linear and paral lel life cycles to apply linear sequences in a staggered fashion over time. The overall design or require ments can then become the basis for the deployment of incre ments to the users at regular inter vals as calen dar time progresses. Agile devel op ment projects combine the two concepts by includ ing a series of iter a tions prior to the formal release of a product. Many agile methods also apply the idea of time box ing, an iter a tion with a fixed end date that is not allowed to change, thereby adjust ing the scope and quality to deliver on time and to cost. Multiple timebox iter a tions are likely to be employed in paral lel to develop differ ent aspects of the system. Overall, using iter a tions allows earlier return on some of the bene fits that have already been imple men ted whilst valid at ing the concepts and enga ging users. Similar notions can be explored in the context of struc tur ing and managing programmes, where iter a tions can also accom mod ate tranches and chunks of business- as-usual. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 21 Recommended reading
� The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects (2019) covers concur- rent engin eer ing and other life cycle vari ations in the context of projects. It also offers some guid ance on the rela tion ship between agile deployment and project manage ment. � Guidelines on life cycles related to the manage ment of programmes is covered in APM Introduction to Programme Management (2016). This touches on the idea of incre mental devel op ment and deployment suppor ted through a set of tranches. It also considers the rela tion ship between projects and programmes as implied by the deployment struc ture. This resource offers useful guidelines related to the use of incre ments and time boxes in agile settings. � Agile PM: Agile Project Management Handbook, Vol. 2 (2014) describes the project life cycle in an agile setting. The text explores agile philos dophy, high light ing how and where project manage ment can be repres en ted through out an agile or iter at ive life cycle. Figure 1.2.3 Iterative devel op ment in a dynamic, agile context Source: The DSDM Agile Project Framework (2014 Onwards) Figure 1.2.3 ‘Iterative development in a dynamic, agile context’ from The DSDM Agile Project Framework Handbook, 2014, https://www.agilebusiness.org. Reproduced with permission of the Agile Business Consortium.
APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 22 1.2.4 Hybrid life cycles Finding the right balance Context matters: there is no univer sally applic able one-size-fits-all life cycle. The choice often hinges on what the organ isa tion is trying to achieve and what is import ant. Managers regu larly utilise progress ive elab or a tion, where detail is filled in as devel op ment progresses using proto types and other iter at ive elements. Engagement with poten tial users uncov ers unex pec ted new details, hinting at the blend ing of approaches as a poten tial way of progress- ing work effect ively. Moreover, given the complex ity and uncer tainty of many contexts, there is no need to apply any partic u lar approach for the complete dura tion of a project or programme. Hybrid life cycles enable a prag matic mix of philo sophies, typic ally fusing together elements from predict ive and adapt ive perspect ives to create a new model or approach. An obvious example is in util ising iter at ive or agile methods for early require ments gath er ing, where the uncer tainty is greatest, and follow ing it up with incre mental or sequen tial processes to form al- ise deploy ment. The use of proto typ ing, time box ing or iter at ive think ing offers tested methods for exper i ment a tion and risk reduc tion. The tail or ing of life
cycles allows for predict ive aspects to be integ rated into adapt ive methods, and also for the borrow ing of agile concepts and tools to: augment and strengthen predict ive deployment; focus on the most useful interim deliv er- ables; and speed up the deploy ment and real isa tion of bene fits, espe cially in increas ingly uncer tain contexts. Adding iter at ive elements to ‘predict ive’ projects can enhance deploy ment in stages, support the gener a tion of insights, under pin the real isa tion of an early benefit stream and valid ate some of the ideas much earlier within the cycle. Iterative and agile approaches have developed a discip line of enhan cing visib il ity, determ in ing progress and respond ing adapt ively to enhance the poten tial deliv er able value which is not normally found in linear think ing. Similarly, earlier return on invest ment on some aspects of a delivered system can be encour- aged when sequen tial constraints are relaxed. Utilising prior it isa tion and track ing methods borrowed from incre mental and iter at ive deployment and the applic a tion of governance approaches adopted from sequen tial life cycles to agile projects can offer syner gistic bene fits and allow prac ti tion ers in either camp to borrow, over come tradi tional limit a tions and improve current prac tice. However, it also requires great skills and clarity when involving two differ ent systems of working. Blending, merging or mashing of life cycles, ideas, prin ciples, prac tices and methods applies equally to programmes and port fo lios. Building agile working into a project or programme invest ment life cycle can be extremely useful for predict ive
organ isa tions finding them selves oper at ing in uncer tain contexts because it offers sizing for effi ciency and flex ib il ity. Transformation and major change efforts can be speeded up through incre mental deploy ment approaches and improved tranche reviews, while agile concepts can also be util ised in categor ising, blend ing and balan cing port fo lios to make them more flex ible and dynamic (Figure 1.2.4). Chapter 1 Setting up for success 23 Recommended reading � A Guide to Assurance of Agile Delivery (2017) was developed by the APM Assurance SIG to add assur ance consid er a tions to projects char ac ter ised by agile deployment forms. The guide incor por ates aspects related to agile projects into the assur ance activ it ies offer ing some specific guid ance for hybrid projects, remind ing assur ance special ists to consider the differ ent constitu ent parts of the project. � Directing Agile Change (2016) aims to propose guid ance in rela tion to over see ing the deploy ment of agile projects. The resource was created by the APM Governance SIG. It iden ti fies the distinc tions between linear and iter at ive modes of deploy ment and acknow- ledges the implic a tions of util ising hybrid combin a tions that
draw on both perspect ives. � Agile-stage-gate-hybrids: The next stage for product devel op ment (2016) was written by a product devel op ment and innov a tion expert. The article makes the case for integ rat ing elements of agile product devel op ment into tradi tional gating processes leading to faster phys ical product releases, better responses to chan ging require ments and improved team commu nic a tion. Figure 1.2.4 Hybrid programme life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 24 1.2.5 Extended life cycles Bringing in the bene fits The typical project land scape is rather diverse. As a result, the scope of a project life cycle can take various forms. Some projects will be part of a programme and will only be concerned with deliv er ing outputs. Some projects will work as stan dalone projects and would be primar ily concerned with deliv er ing outputs. Other projects will be expec ted to incor por ate the manage ment of change and the real isa tion of bene fits and hence require a greatly exten ded life cycle (Figure 1.2.5). Where a contractor is working for a client, the contractor’s
‘project’ may simply be the deployment and transition phases of the client’s project that will include bene fits real isa tion. In these circumstances the client is responsible for operating the outcomes in order to deliver the benefits. Extended life cycles ensure that account ab il ity and governance of the invest ment stays with the change teams until the change is fully embed ded by offer ing the missing connec tion to benefit real isa tion, whilst prevent ing the form a tion of know ledge bound ar ies between project teams and oper a tions. Recognising that many projects are initi ated in order to deliver change and bene fi cial outcomes to organ isa tions, life cycles incor por ate a further phase named ‘bene­ fits real isa tion’ that may proceed up to the achieve ment of the busi ness case. An addi tional under pin ning phase is also required in order to realise bene fits as new outputs need to be made avail able and access ible to poten tial users. This may need to be enabled and oper ated separ ately. Note that programmes will often include bene fits real isa tion as a core part of their defin i tion and scope. The addi tional activ it ies included in the exten ded life cycle, encom pass: � Adoption: Operations and sustain ment required to utilise the new project and enable the accept ance and use of the bene fits. � Benefits real isa tion: Realisation of the required busi ness bene fits. The prin cipal implic a tion of extend ing the end of the life cycle to incor por ate bene fits real isa-
tion is that there is a need to start upfront, plan for the supple mental activ it ies and incor por ate addi tional consid er a tions during the concept and defin i tion phases. There are income and oper a tional costs connec ted to the addi tional activ it ies as well as spend ing capex consid er a- tions which will be addressed during the concept and defin i tion phases. Projects that include bene fits real isa tion will have an exten ded scope that goes beyond the defin i tion of outputs. Thinking about bene fits begins before the project has been scoped. Project require ments need to be expressed in terms of bene fits and outcomes to enable benefit real isa tion to proceed. If there are multiple areas of bene fits, a programme may be better suited to deliver the differ ent streams of bene fits (the scope of programmes typic ally include bene fits real isa tion). In order to facil it ate bene fits real isa tion during the exten ded project dura tion, bene fits manage ment (incor por at ing iden ti fic a tion, defin i tion, quan ti fic a tion, plan ning, execu- tion, track ing, monit or ing and review ing) is needed as an addi tional activ ity required to trans late require ments that have been expressed in terms of bene fits and manage them to success ful deploy ment and real isa tion. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 25 Recommended reading
� Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects (2017) pulls together insights and lessons from signi fic ant major projects. The report synthes ises the key prin ciples and activ it ies required to success fully deliver bene fits in such projects and offers advice and guid ance on extend ing the life cycle. � A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework (2019) was compiled by the APM Benefits Management Specific Interest Group. The guide devel ops an under stand ing of the need for bene fits real isa tion, offer ing a frame work for address ing contex tual factors and devel op ing the capab il ity to realise bene fits. � Benefits Realisation Management: A Practical Guide to Achieving Benefits through Change (2010) is a prac tical guide to imple ment ing benefit real isa tion in organ isa tions. The book explains the processes required to support benefit real isa tion prac tice, identi fy ing the key addi tions required to supple ment projects and programmes and embed bene fits real isa tion prac tice as a measure of success. Figure 1.2.5 Extended life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 26 1.2.6 Product life cycles
Considering usage, evol u tion and disposal The product life cycle takes a broader view of the full product life span from initial idea, through devel op ment, evol u tion and upgrades to removal from service and ulti mate dismant ling (Figure 1.2.6). Whilst such consid er a tions extend beyond the tradi tional project bound ary, issues regard ing oper a tion, upgrade, decom mis sion ing and disposal are likely to be raised during the early defin i tional activ it ies and be reflec ted in the require ments for the product and initial project. Project managers should be aware of these expect a tions and needs, and develop their projects in ways that will not under mine or contra dict the long-term plans for the product and its inten ded use and disposal. Whilst some projects are designed to operate the outcomes for another project, longer-term or multiple consid er a tions can be accom mo - dated through programmes to provide greater flex ib il ity in struc tur ing and organ ising such activ it ies. To enable systems and products to be util ised and perform in accord ance with the agreed busi ness case, systems and initi at ives need to be adequately suppor ted, main tained, upgraded and improved so that the bene fits can continue to accrue. Some applic a tions such as ‘whole­ life costing’ will consider the full product life cycle and the exten ded life cycle covers the full oper a tion of the service. Additional phases added to the full product life cycle include: � Operation: Ensuring avail ab il ity and continu ing support and main ten ance (of the project
deliv er ables and the poten tial outcomes and bene fits). � Termination: Decommissioning and disposal at the end of the product’s useful life. Utilising the product cycle requires addi tional upfront prepar a tion: during the defin i tion phase, it is essen tial to estab lish the sustain ab il ity and envir on mental impacts of the proposed solu tion, outputs and outcomes through an assess ment of the whole life cycle of the products, includ ing oper a tional, decom mis sion ing and disposal consid er a tions. Many of the decisions made during the early stages may impact not just the oper a tion phase, but also the choice of mater i als or retire ment options that will need to be considered. Experts can be employed to identify, advise, mitig ate and plan for the risks asso ci ated with future actions. Decisions about the future of the product or system are incor por ated into the require ments manage ment activ it ies so they can be recor ded and feed into subsequent activ it ies and trade-offs. Disposal require ments, codi fied during the concept phase, are increas ingly expec- ted to be included in the formal docu ment a tion. The product life cycle helps in making sustain able choices and embraces the prin ciples of product stew ard ship, advoc at ing that every one who bene fits commer cially from a product has a shared respons ib il ity to minim ise its envir on mental impacts. Adopting a whole life cycle or a full product life cycle perspect ive enables exec ut ives and managers to respons ibly engage with the long-term future implic a tions of their project-related actions, and discharge their increas ingly emer ging respons ib il ity for
proper end-of-life disposal of systems and assets in a respons ible, afford able and effect ive manner. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 27 Recommended reading � Product Lifecycle Management: The Executive Summary (2018) is concerned with products and their manage ment through an effect ive life cycle. The book makes the case for under- stand ing the full envir on ment within which products are developed, manu fac tured and suppor ted from cradle to grave, and combines theory, prac tical applic a tions through examples and case studies that cover recent devel op ments and trends. � Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models (2017) explores differ ent aspects of life cycles from a project manage ment and systems engin eer ing perspect ive. The report compares product life cycle (referred to as ‘product span’) and the project life cycle, explor ing the common al it ies and differ ences between the two. � Product Stewardship in Action: The Business Case for Life Cycle Thinking (2017) makes a power ful case for exten ded produ cer respons ib il ity as a busi ness strategy rather than a phil an thropic exer cise. It high lights the benefit from achiev
ing public and commer cial shared value by respond ing effect ively to stake holder concerns regard ing the envir on ment. Figure 1.2.6 Product life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 28 Full refer ences for Section 1.2 1.2.1 APM Programme Management Specific Interest Group (2016) APM Introduction to Programme Management, 2nd edition. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. British Standards Institution (BSI) (2019) BS 6079 Project Management – Principles and Guidance for the Management of Projects. London: British Standards Institution. Payne, J., Roden, E. and Simister, S. (2019) Managing Knowledge in Project Environments. Abingdon: Routledge. 1.2.2 APM Programme Management Specific Interest Group (2016) APM Introduction to Programme Management, 2nd edition. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Buttrick, R. (2019) The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects, 5th edition.
Abingdon: Routledge. INCOSE and APM Systems Thinking Specific Interest Group (2017) Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models. London: International Council for Systems Engineering. 1.2.3 Agile Business Consortium (2014) Agile PM: Agile Project Management Handbook, Vol. 2. London: Agile Business Consortium. APM Programme Management Specific Interest Group (2016) APM Introduction to Programme Management, 2nd edition. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Buttrick, R. (2019) The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects, 5th edition. Abingdon: Routledge. 1.2.4 APM Assurance Specific Interest Group (2017) A Guide to Assurance of Agile Delivery. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. APM Governance Specific Interest Group (2016) Directing Agile Change. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Cooper, R. G. (2016) Agile-stage-gate-hybrids: The next stage for product devel op ment. Research Technology Management, 59(1), 21–29. 1.2.5 Association for Project Management Benefits Management
Specific Interest Group (2019) A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Bradley, G. (2010) Benefits Realisation Management: A Practical Guide to Achieving Benefits through Change, 2nd edition. Farnham: Gower. Infrastructure and Projects Authority (2017) Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects. London: Infrastructure and Project Authority. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 29 1.2.6 INCOSE and APM Systems Thinking Specific Interest Group (2017) Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models. London: International Council for Systems Engineering. Lewis, H. (2017) Product Stewardship in Action: The Business Case for Life Cycle Thinking. Abingdon: Routledge. Stark, J. (2018) Product Lifecycle Management: The Executive Summary. New York: Springer. Chapter 1 Setting up for success
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Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx
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Risk and Procurement ManagementDr Paul BaguleyClass Slides.docx

  • 1. Risk and Procurement Management Dr Paul Baguley Class Slides Contents Definition of Risk Context of Projects Risk Management Process Risk Id Risk Assessment Risk Evaluation Cost Risk Monte-Carlo Simulation Management Reserve and Contingency Risk Management by Procurement Examples of Contracts to Manage Risk Learning Objectives Define Project Risk and identify stages of project risk management Understand Risk Response Strategy Selection process using risk matrix Identify characteristics of procurement routes and map risk allocation amongst project stakeholders Appreciate a more risk informed procurement route selection What makes project management a risky business Organisations take risks to compete through projects making projects risky Indeed risk appetite is the term used to describe the amount of
  • 2. risk an organisation is willing to take And risk tolerance is the amount of risk an organisation can absorb Risk is an important subject in APM BoK7 and PMBoK Guide (Chapter 11) Institute of risk management; the Orange Book from the UK Gov Communication between stakeholders in the project, suppliers and customer VUCA (Volatility Uncertainty Complexity Ambiguity) environment Risks in Projects https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/top-50-projects-sydney- opera-house-11757 Lack of process and Large budget over run Safety regulations O Ring Safety disaster Case: impact of culture on risk The Nimrod Accident Case: the conspiracy of optimism Optimism bias is a known phenomenon which has been described as a psychological factor in estimators. In the defence
  • 3. industry it is recognised there is political pressure for projects to deliver more and cost less. Activity: What projects do you know failed? What projects do you know from your own experience which failed in some way and how did they fail? For example “Potters Bar safety disaster” Definition of Risk and Uncertainty Before ISO 31000 a working definition of risk was an event that may or may not happen Uncertainty is variation in something that has happened For example a machine breakdown may or may not happen Schedule delay is variation in the delay schedule in terms of time Risk is defined as an uncertain event or set of circumstances, that should it occur, will have an effect on achievement of one or more objectives, by APM Body of Knowledge 2012 ISO 31000 (2018) definition of risk ISO 31000 defines risk as the effect of uncertainty on project objectives Note 1 to entry: an effect is a deviation from the expected. It can be positive, negative or both, and can address, create or result in opportunities and threats Note 2 to entry: Objectives can have different aspects and categories, and can be applied at different levels Note 3 to entry: Risk is usually expressed in terms of risk sources, potential events, their consequences and their likelihood Project objectives are influenced by the iron triangle and trade-
  • 4. off space between cost, quality and time This means that cost risk, schedule risk and quality risk and performance risk are upfront considerations in project management The concepts of risk and uncertainty are at the centre of the ISO 31000 definition Lets consider this example from the Astute submarine project and BAE Systems where uncertainty and risk is defined by them for this particular company and project context 10 The Astute Opportunity and Risk System Structure This diagram shows the relationship between risk and objectives Source: Fearson et al 2001 This is an advanced process map However it is not that, that we are interested in, Only to show how a risk event has affected The project objectives 11 Journey to Work Scenario Journey to university simple network diagram of activities We will use a cost risk methodology and Monte-Carlo Simulation to estimate the journey time Leave the House Front Door to Transport Method of Transport Arrive at University Walk to Lecture Theatre
  • 5. Star Wars Film Scenario We are a Special Effects Supplier to Star Wars. We have specialist technology and software and labour able to deliver special effects deliverables This is a deliberate open question Definition of project risk The project management institute defines project risk as: “an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or more project objectives” (Pinto 2020) The risk score is defined as probability multiplied by impact Risk can be considered as having negative consequences and positive consequences Positive impact is an opportunity with its own set of risk management terminology for management, for example exploit, or enhance 14 Consideration of Risk and Consequence<100% EVENT 100% PROBABILITY OF IMPACT i.e. uncertain event with definite impact100% probability of event 100% probability of impact This is described as a live issue which has certainly happened with certain consequence and has to be managed <100% PROBABILITY OF EVENT <100% PROBABILITY OF IMPACT i.e. uncertain event with uncertain impact100% probability of event <100% probability of impact IMPACT
  • 6. UNCERTAINTY 15 Academic types of uncertainty Aleatory or random Epistemic or lack of knowledge Ambiguity can be one to many relationship Vague concepts like warm weather for temperature Project Context Current Risk Management knowledge and methods and intellectual assets in the business Organisation Cost Risk Policy, e.g. NASA VUCA (Volatility Uncertainty Complexity Ambiguity) PESTLE (Political Environmental Sociological Technological Legal Economic) Environment in which the project takes place Risk Management Definition Risk analysis and risk management is a process that allows individual risk events and overall risk to be understood and managed proactively, optimising success by minimising threats and maximising opportunities and outcomes. Source: APM BoK 7 Classic Risk Management Process Communication Did you know UK superstition was to predict the weather using seaweed
  • 7. Risk Identification Risk Assessment Risk Evaluation Risk Mitigation Risk Control Risk Identification Use of Brain Storming in workshops with stakeholders Risk Registers hold current and historical information about risk Delphi method can be used to structure workshops to allow all opinions Risks can be categorised into types of risks Risk Breakdown Structures Use of historical risk databases Use of experts in panel discussions to jdentify risks is used in the civil aerospace sector Activity: What are the risks? For the Journey to work scenario? Leave the House Front Door to
  • 8. Transport Method of Transport Arrive at University Walk to Lecture Theatre Activity: What are the uncertainties? In the Journey to Work Scenario? Leave the House Front Door to Transport Method of Transport Arrive at University Walk to Lecture Theatre Activity: What are the risks in the: Star Wars Supplier scenario? Definition of Risk Score Risk has been defined as Probability multiplied by Impact Probability and Impact can be measured qualitatively (assessment) or quantitatively (evaluation) Risk multiplied by Impact can be quite crude and care must be taken with low probability and high impact or high probability and low impact risks Types of Risk Cost Risk Safety Risk or Hazards Schedule Risk Business Risk Operational Risk
  • 9. Cash Flow Risk Risk at different levels of the organisation Project risk Program risk Portfolio risk Risk siloing in organisation Risk Breakdown Structures Source: PMI RBS types of Risk example Donald Rumsfelds Unknown Unknowns or things we don’t know we don’t know https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GiPe1OiKQuk There is interest in unknown unknowns as cost estimates are inherently optimistic in not being able to predict everything in the future Meteorite hitting a car Risk Assessment Matrix Probability Impact Rules related to Impact What are the definitions of Low Medium and High Risk? Low Low Medium High High
  • 10. Medium Activity: Assess your risks for journey to Uni One of my risks could be a bicycle puncture What is the qualitative assessment of this risk? What level of probability? What level of impact? Bow Tie Diagram Discussion: What are the definitions of Low Medium and High Risk? Definitions of Low Medium and High are pre-defined by experts in the company in a look up table What were your definitions of Low Medium and High? Activity: What was your Low Impact definition for journey to Uni? Risk Assessment and Risk Criteria Examples Source: Blackwell 2020 33 Risk Response Planning Risk Acceptance
  • 11. Risk Reduction Risk Transference Risk Avoidance Being Injured by Meeting a Bear in the Forest Risk Avoidance is to walk around the forest Risk Transference is to send someone else into the forest Risk reduction is to get a big stick and a motorised scooter Risk acceptance, okay then Mr Bear its just a scratch Activity: How do you mitigate the tyre puncture? Classify Risk Mitigation for these? Risk Register When a risk happens then there are secondary risk caused by the risk happening. These ripple through the project plan. The risk mitigation strategy is the way the risk will be managed and adjusts the project plan The risk score for the mitigated risk is different from the initial risk evaluation and is called the residual risk Anticipated risks or known risks have contingency plans developed for them leading to a specific risk management
  • 12. budget for these plans. Risk Proximity is when in the project life cycle the risk is anticipated to happen Risk RegisterRisk IdRisk OwnerRisk ScoreMitigationResidual RiskContingency Plan and BudgetRisk Proximity Case: Hiding information Mistakes are not something project teams want to own up to. In industry it can be the case that project teams will bias information given during data collection to smooth over mistakes, or hide mistakes completely Cost Uncertainty Three point estimating and cost uncertainty distributions Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Cost Uncertainty Distributions Source: NASA CEH Cumulative Density Function Source: NASA CEH
  • 13. Simple Monte-Carlo Model Equation is (Amount of Labour multiplied by Labour Rate) plus (Amount of Material multiplied by Material Cost Rate) is equal to cost Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely Probability Cost Optimistic Pessimistic Most Likely X X Plus ( ( )
  • 14. ) = Treat discrete risks as a separate consideration to the uncertainty in the distributions Bad Weather Materials Lost in a Fire Crane breaks down Monte-Carlo Model Demo Using NSF excel model or @Risk The Cost Risk distribution is the output of Monte-Carlo Negotiation takes place around the percentiles Palisade @Risk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTpnEyEbu0Q Time to University Model Output for Time to Uni Lets negotiate about when the lecture starts
  • 15. Lets negotiate about when the lecture starts 80 percent chance won’t exceed 59 minutes Contingency is about 9 minutes 30% chance won’t exceed 80% chance won’t exceed 47 minutes 59 minutes Lets Build a Model using @risk Case: Output cost risk distribution being symmetric One company paid for an expensive cost risk analysis only to be presented with a symmetric cost risk output distribution. Experienced risk consultants spotted straightaway that cost risk output is always skewed so that high cost has a higher probability because of low probability high impact risks Advanced Modelling using Correlation In advanced modelling then the correlation between the risks is considered. The risk happening in the wing deliverable is correlated with the risk in the fuselage deliverable Source: NASA CEH
  • 16. Contingency Contingency can be calculated as the difference between the 80th percentile and 50th percentile. This is for anticipated risks. Another method is to multiply the cost by a percentage, for example 15% of the cost as contingency Unanticipated risks are covered by a pot of money called the management reserve Cost Cost plus contingency Cost plus contingency plus management reserve Example Contracts Fixed Price Cost Plus Target Cost Framework Joint Ventures Case: The Saturn V Rocket The astronauts of the Saturn V rocket going to the moon took note that they were sat on top of a rocket delivered by contractors on Fixed Price contracts! Project Alliances Schedule of Rates Bill of Quantities BOOT / DEBFO (Build, own, operate, transfer / design, build, finance, operate arrangements
  • 17. Fixed Price Contracts Activity schedule Lump sums Milestone Payments Frameworks Strategic Outsourcing Target Cost Contract Management Contract Cost reimbursable Fee-based arrangements Joint Venture Companies Uncertainty and Complexity Time Scale 1 Year 2 Year 5 Year 25 Year Source: APM BoK 2019 Different forms of contracting Interesting Background Reading Pinto, J.K. (2020). Project management : achieving competitive advantage. Fifth edition, Global edition. Harlow, England: Pearson. Chapter in risk Association of Project Management APM BoK 7 on risk NASA Cost Risk Methodology in Appendix G of the NASA Cost Estimating Handbook of 2020 ( https://www.nasa.gov/offices/ocfo/nasa-cost- estimating-handbook-ceh) Project Risk Analysis and Management (PRAM) guide APM Project Management Institute PMI Body of Knowledge chapter on risk BoK
  • 18. Parekh, S., Roy, R. and Baguley, P., 2008, May. Uncertainty in Cost Estimation at the Bid Stage: An Introductory Industry Review. In Cranfield Multi-Strand Conference: Creating Wealth Through Research and Innovation (Vol. 6, p. 216). image2.jpg image3.png image4.jpeg image5.png image6.png image7.png image8.emf image9.jpg image10.jpeg image11.jpeg image12.png image13.emf image14.jpg image15.gif image16.emf image17.emf image18.jpeg image19.png image20.emf image21.png image22.png image23.jpeg image24.emf image25.png image26.png image27.png image1.png
  • 19. APM Body of Knowledge APM Body of Knowledge Seventh edition Association for Project Management Association for Project Management Ibis House, Regent Park Summerleys Road, Princes Risborough Buckinghamshire HP27 9LE © Association for Project Management 2019 Seventh edition 2019. Revised with minor corrections 2020. Sixth edition 2012 Fifth edition 2006 Fourth edition 2000 Third edition 1996 Second edition 1994 First edition 1992 All rights reserved. No part of this public a tion may be repro duced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans- mit ted, in any form or by any means, without the express permis sion in writing of the Association for
  • 20. Project Management. Within the UK excep tions are allowed in respect of any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criti cism or review, as permit ted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, or in the case of repro graphic repro duc tion in accord ance with the terms of the licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concern ing repro duc tion outside these terms and in other coun tries should be sent to the Rights Department, Association for Project Management at the address above. All registered trade marks are hereby acknow ledged and the publisher makes no claim to these trade marks. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is avail able. Paperback: ISBN: 978-1-903494-82-0 Typeset in 10/12pt Foundry Sans by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk Cover design by Fountainhead Creative Consultants v Contents List of figures ix Foreword xii Acknowledgements xiii List of contrib ut ors xiv
  • 21. Introduction xv Chapter 1 Setting up for success Section 1.1 Implementing strategy 1.1.1 Organisational envir on ment 4 1.1.2 Strategic imple ment a tion 6 1.1.3 Organisational change 8 1.1.4 Benefits to the organ isa tion 10 1.1.5 Structural choices 12 Section 1.2 Life cycle options and choices 1.2.1 Life cycle philo sophy 16 1.2.2 Linear life cycles 18 1.2.3 Iterative life cycles 20 1.2.4 Hybrid life cycles 22 1.2.5 Extended life cycles 24 1.2.6 Product life cycles 26 Section 1.3 Establishing governance and over sight 1.3.1 Governance prin ciples 32 1.3.2 Assurance prin ciples 34
  • 22. 1.3.3 Sustainability 36 1.3.4 Strategic sourcing 38 1.3.5 Sponsorship 40 1.3.6 Investment decisions 42 1.3.7 Business case 44 vi Contents 1.3.8 Temporary struc tures 46 1.3.9 Talent manage ment 48 1.3.10 Governance boards 50 Chapter 2 Preparing for change Section 2.1 Shaping the early life cycle 2.1.1 Project shaping 58 2.1.2 Programme shaping 60 2.1.3 Portfolio shaping 62 2.1.4 Procurement strategy 64 2.1.5 Operational adjust ments 66
  • 23. Section 2.2 Assurance, learn ing and matur ity 2.2.1 The PMO 70 2.2.2 Decision gates 72 2.2.3 Information manage ment 74 2.2.4 Audits and assur ance 76 2.2.5 Knowledge manage ment 78 2.2.6 Communities of prac tice 80 2.2.7 Maturity of prac tice 82 Section 2.3 Transition into use 2.3.1 Business read i ness 88 2.3.2 Transition of project outputs 90 2.3.3 Adoption and bene fits real isa tion 92 2.3.4 Unplanned project endings 94 2.3.5 Administrative closure of projects 96 2.3.6 Closing programmes and port fo lios 98 Chapter 3 People and beha viours Section 3.1 Engaging stake hold ers 3.1.1 Stakeholders 106
  • 24. 3.1.2 Social context 108 3.1.3 Engagement and influ ence 110 vii Contents 3.1.4 Facilitation 112 3.1.5 Conflict resol u tion 114 Section 3.2 Leading teams 3.2.1 Teams 118 3.2.2 Virtual teams 120 3.2.3 Team devel op ment 122 3.2.4 Leadership 124 3.2.5 Organisational culture 126 3.2.6 Diversity and inclu sion 128 3.2.7 Workplace stress 130 Section 3.3 Working profes sion ally 3.3.1 Communication 136 3.3.2 Negotiation 138
  • 25. 3.3.3 Time manage ment 140 3.3.4 Regulatory envir on ment 142 3.3.5 Ethics and stand ards 144 3.3.6 Continuing profes sional devel op ment (CPD) 146 Chapter 4 Planning and managing deploy ment Section 4.1 Defining outputs 4.1.1 Success and bene fits 154 4.1.2 Objectives and require ments 156 4.1.3 Options and solu tions 158 4.1.4 Scope defin i tion 160 4.1.5 Quality plan ning 162 Section 4.2 Integrated plan ning 4.2.1 Contract award 166 4.2.2 Risk iden ti fic a tion 168 4.2.3 Risk analysis 170 4.2.4 Estimation 172 4.2.5 Scheduling – crit ical path 174
  • 26. viii Contents 4.2.6 Scheduling – crit ical chain 176 4.2.7 Resource optim isa tion 178 4.2.8 Cost plan ning 180 4.2.9 Contingency plan ning 182 4.2.10 Deployment baseline 184 Section 4.3 Controlling deploy ment 4.3.1 Progress monitoring and report ing 190 4.3.2 Contract manage ment 192 4.3.3 Risk manage ment 194 4.3.4 Contingency manage ment 196 4.3.5 Issue manage ment 198 4.3.6 Change control 200 4.3.7 Configuration manage ment 202 4.3.8 Quality control 204 Glossary 209 Index 219
  • 27. ix List of figures 1.1.1 Sources of uncer tainty 5 1.1.2 Hierarchy of stra tegic intent 7 1.1.3 Outcomes of change efforts 9 1.1.4 Change of emphasis 11 1.1.5 Projects, programmes and port fo lios 13 1.2.1 Selecting a life cycle 17 1.2.2 Linear project life cycle 19 1.2.3 Iterative devel op ment in a dynamic, agile context 21 1.2.4 Hybrid programme life cycle 23 1.2.5 Extended life cycle 25 1.2.6 Product life cycle 27 1.3.1 Interaction of different levels of governance 33 1.3.2 The three lines of defence model for assur ance 35 1.3.3 Sustainability as balan cing differ ent concerns 37 1.3.4 Supplier-based segmentation using a matrix 39
  • 28. 1.3.5 The scope of project spon sor ship 41 1.3.6 Comparing options to invest capital 43 1.3.7 Five dimen sions included in a busi ness case 45 1.3.8 Relationship between the perman ent and tempor ary organ isa tions 47 1.3.9 Steps to build ing and retain ing project management-talent 49 1.3.10 Generic project governance struc ture 51 2.1.1 Trading the triple constraints of time, cost and quality 59 2.1.2 Increasing organ isa tional capab il ity through programme manage ment 61 2.1.3 Portfolio manage ment key processes 63 2.1.4 What sort of contract ing strategy 65 2.1.5 Temporary oper a tional adjust ments during project-based working 67 2.2.1 Different forms of PMO 71 2.2.2 Typical decision gates and other reviews in a linear, product life cycle 73 2.2.3 Scope of inform a tion manage ment 75 2.2.4 Adopting a risk-based approach to plan ning assur ance 77 2.2.5 Nature of work and the working environment 79
  • 29. 2.2.6 Single community of prac tice showing poten tial bene fits/func tions 81 2.2.7 Five stages of matur ity 83 x List of figures 2.3.1 Enabling progress ive commit ment over time 89 2.3.2 Activities involved in project transition 91 2.3.3 The bene fits real isa tion cycle 93 2.3.4 Closing projects when they are no longer justi fied is good practice 95 2.3.5 Key elements of project closure 97 2.3.6 Programme closure activ it ies 99 3.1.1 An approach to captur ing analysis of stake hold ers 107 3.1.2 An example social network diagram 109 3.1.3 Matching engagement approach to stakeholder need 111 3.1.4 An approach to contract ing with parti cipants of facil it ated sessions 113 3.1.5 A common model to consider approaches to dealing with conflict 115
  • 30. 3.2.1 All projects need at least these roles 119 3.2.2 Steps in devel op ment of virtual lead er ship 121 3.2.3 From groups of indi vidu als to a team 123 3.2.4 Leadership focus on goals, team and stakeholders 125 3.2.5 The visible and hidden aspects of organ isa tional culture 127 3.2.6 Diversity leads to higher perform ance 129 3.2.7 The balance between perform ance and level of arousal 131 3.3.1 Considering the medium and the message 137 3.3.2 The concept of a best altern at ive to a nego ti ated agree ment (BATNA) 139 3.3.3 Prioritising import ant and urgent tasks 141 3.3.4 A hier archy of legal and regu lat ory influ ences 143 3.3.5 The scope of ethics 145 3.3.6 A typical continual professional development (CPD) cycle 147 4.1.1 Benefit mapping process 155 4.1.2 An example ‘V’ depic tion of a project life cycle 157 4.1.3 Comparing multiple options using a spider plot 159
  • 31. 4.1.4 Relationship between break down struc tures 161 4.1.5 Quality plan ning in the context of wider quality manage ment 163 4.2.1 Essential steps in contract award 167 4.2.2 Describing risks using a defined structure 169 4.2.3 Example prob ab il ity/impact grid to qual it at ively prior it ise risk events 171 4.2.4 Multiple estimation as a source for confidence 173 4.2.5 Precedent relationships in critical path analysis 175 4.2.6 Comparing schedul ing approaches 177 4.2.7 Resource level ling and smooth ing options 179 4.2.8 Fixed and vari able cost for linear and iter at ive life cycle approaches 181 4.2.9 Provision for known and unknown risk 183 xi List of figures 4.2.10 The project manage ment plan as the baseline for managed deploy ment 185
  • 32. 4.3.1 Insights avail able through earned value analysis 191 4.3.2 Controls that support contract manage ment 193 4.3.3 Generic response strategies for threats and oppor tun it ies 195 4.3.4 Process flow for contin gency draw down 197 4.3.5 Key aspects of issue resol u tion 199 4.3.6 A change control process 201 4.3.7 Essential activ it ies to verify the config ur a tion of an output 203 4.3.8 Proactive management of projects delivers quality and value 205 xii Foreword The Association for Project Management (APM) was awarded its Royal Charter in 2017 and has quickly established itself as the chartered body for project professionals in the UK and overseas. In support of chartered, the APM Body of Knowledge has taken on greater significance, providing an authoritative statement on project management and the foundation on which the profession is built. The APM Body of Knowledge represents our core beliefs – an ethos – upon which we
  • 33. believe projects can not only be delivered successfully, but also to the benefit of society, the economy and the environment. The seventh edition is the foundation for the successful delivery of projects, programmes and portfolios across all sectors and industries. It forms the basis for qualification syllabuses and a common language which strengthens the concept of a progressive career path for project professionals. As a taxonomy, it acts as a common framework for debate allowing our profession to develop as the demands on us change and grow. For some, the APM Body of Knowledge is a starting point providing knowledge and understanding of key concepts, for more experienced professionals it serves as a valuable reference and a method to share the language of project management more widely among teams and key stakeholders. The APM Body of Knowledge will play a key role as we evolve as a chartered profession. It reflects emerging and established ideas – a common bond across all project types. From governance and organisational cultures to the realisation of benefits and concepts of control and agility, the book weaves a thoughtful narrative that brings together all these elements. The launch of the seventh edition provides an opportunity to take stock and reaffirm our position both in the profession and consider our role in society. We ask you not only to engage with it, but to challenge it, expand on it, bring your experience, knowledge and ideas as we support the profession in realising our long-term vision of ‘a world in which all
  • 34. projects succeed, and project management is a life skill for all’. John McGlynn APM Chair xiii Acknowledgements The APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition has been shaped by a large number of people through 2018. The editor and writing team are extremely grate ful to the hundreds of people who parti cip ated in the online consulta tions for all their help in shaping ideas and chal len- ging early versions of the struc ture and content. Of the many volun teers who gave their time and advice, we are grate ful to those members of specific interest groups (SIGs), who reviewed and chal lenged the struc ture and story boards at SIG clinics in September. We extend partic u lar thanks to Steve Barron, Roy Millard, Judy Payne, Penny Pullan and Amerjit Walia who helped to craft some addi tional topics follow ing the SIG clinics, and to Sarah Coleman, who provided advice on Chapter 3, ‘People and Behaviours’. Finally, we thank the various review ers of the final text for this book. In a project like this, it is impossible to satisfy all the people, all the time. We have listened to what you have to say and endeav- oured to repres ent the major ity view in this latest version of our profes sion’s found a tional know ledge resource.
  • 35. xiv Contributors Dr Ruth Murray-Webster (editor) Ruth is a risk and change practitioner and advisor, currently a partner with Beyond the Deal LLP, director of Potentiality UK and a Teaching Fellow at Warwick Business School. Her previous roles have included director, change portfolio and group head of risk for Associated British Ports and director of KPMG LLP’s Risk in the Boardroom practice. Ruth was awarded Honorary Fellowship of the Association for Project Management in 2013. Professor Darren Dalcher (editor) Darren holds a Chair in Strategic Project Management at Lancaster University Management School. He is the founder and director of the National Centre for Project Management (NCPM). He has designed and developed the UK’s first professional doctorate in project management, alongside a suite of executive and professional masters programmes and diplomas. He is an Honorary Fellow of the Association for Project Management and a Chartered Fellow of the British Computer Society. Writing team Philip Bradbury is a project manager and engineer. He established a PMO for TfL’s Estates
  • 36. Management function and was a key lead in designing and implementing its organisation- wide project and programme methodology. Tayyab Jamil is a partner at Firewood. He helped develop the International Project Management Association (IPMA) Agile Leadership competence framework and certification. He is a guest lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London. Charles Mills is an experienced project manager with 40 years’ experience working in the petrochemical and power generation and, more recently, rail sectors. He is currently programme director at CPC Project Services. Dale Shermon is a ACostE Fellow, Chartered Engineer and chair at the Society for Cost Analysis and Forecasting. Dale has over 30 years’ experience in cost estimating and risk analysis in both industry and government. xv Introduction A body of know ledge is a set of concepts, terms and activ it ies that make up a profes sional domain. The Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge has expan ded over time to reflect the role of project-based working in achiev ing object ives for change at stra- tegic and oper a tional levels, involving the devel op ment of
  • 37. new or amended products, processes or other capab il it ies and across private, public and third sectors. In this seventh edition, we use the term ‘project­based working’ (or the ‘manage ment of projects’) to refer collect ively to projects, programmes and port fo lios, and we deal with aspects of projects, programmes and port fo lios across the text, although acknow ledging that not all aspects of project-based working apply to projects, programmes and port fo lios equally. We have used the term project profes sional to refer to anyone working in a defined role within a project, programme or port fo lio. A central tenet of project-based work is the need to balance multiple compet ing object- ives and chal lenges within a defined set of time, cost and quality constraints in order to achieve bene fi cial change. This makes the concept of the triple constraint or ‘iron triangle’ as relev ant today as when it was first intro duced. However, contem por ary manage ment by projects is a more developed field than ever before and this gives the organ isa tional leader a wider range of options about how to organ ise and govern a partic u lar change initi at ive. In this version of the APM Body of Knowledge, we expli citly acknow ledge the ability to choose between multiple forms of life cycle – from one designed to guide the manage ment of delib er ate change in a linear fashion to one designed to guide the shaping of emer gent change in an incre mental, iter at ive or evol u tion ary way. Avoiding any simpli fic a tion of this matter by refer ring to ‘water fall vs agile’, we outline the choices that leaders can make and
  • 38. acknow ledge the reality that many project-based endeav ours now adopt some sort of hybrid linear/iter at ive life cycle approach. The APM Body of Knowledge is written for anyone inter ested in under stand ing more about achiev ing bene fi cial change through project-based working, however the struc ture of this APM Body of Knowledge is designed so that each chapter is written with a primary audi ence in mind. Chapter 1 Setting Up for Success: Is written primar ily for those leaders within organ isa tions who have decisions to make about the role of projects, programmes and port fo lios in imple ment ing strategy. Leaders may be in the ‘client’ or invest ing organ isa tion, or in a supplier organ isa tion that exists to deliver project-based work for clients. The ideas in this chapter apply in both scen arios. Chapter 2 Preparing for Change: Is written primar ily for those people charged with leading any project, programme or port fo lio, of any size and complex ity. It addresses early life cycle shaping and late life cycle trans ition into use for projects, programmes and port fo- lios, as well as matters of assur ance, learn ing and matur ity. Chapter 3 People and Behaviours: Is written for anyone involved in projects, programmes and port fo lios. Influencing and enga ging stake hold ers, forming, build ing and leading teams, and the generic skills and respons ib il it ies of being a project profes sional are addressed with the object ive of making it clear that all
  • 39. project-based work relies funda- ment ally on the ability of people to work together. xvi Introduction Chapter 4 Planning and Managing Deployment: Is written primar ily for those involved in the end-to-end process of deliv er ing a project, whether a stan dalone project or one that is part of a programme and/or port fo lio, and regard less of the life cycle approach taken. Although the profes sional domain has expan ded, the detailed matters asso ci ated with defin ing outputs, integ rated plan ning and controlling deploy ment remain. It is tempt ing and desir able in a body of know ledge to be defin it ive about termin o logy used, and, indeed, the Glossary is provided for this purpose. However, project-based working, as exper i enced by prac ti tion ers, is increas ingly performed in a context that is volat ile, uncer tain, complex and ambigu ous. As a result, we feel strongly that it does not serve the profes sion to over sim plify import ant aspects of project-based working and, in some cases, we use terms inter change ably, for example: � Business-as-usual – Operations – Steady state � Client – Owner – Investing organ isa tion
  • 40. � Outputs – Deliverables – Products Unlike other bodies of know ledge or guides to the manage ment of projects, APM chooses not to describe ‘how­to’ in terms of methods, tools and tech niques in the APM Body of Knowledge, but rather uses it as a found a tional know ledge resource, and a pointer to other sources of inform a tion. Within each of the four chapters, we have three distinct sections and each section contains discrete topics (80 in all). Within each topic, there is a set of care fully curated recom men ded reading that profes sion als can use to expand their know ledge and prac tice. Guides written by APM Specific Interest Groups (SIGs) are included in these recommended reading sections along side other sugges ted books and papers. The APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition is the first version of these editions to be published since the award of chartered status. As a found a tional resource, written by the profes sion for the profes sion, we hope you find the content inform at ive and useful in guiding your endeav ours to deliver bene fi cial change through the manage ment of projects, programmes and port fo lios. 1 1 Setting up for success This chapter is written primar ily for those leaders within organ isa tions who have decisions to
  • 41. make about the role of projects, programmes and port fo lios in imple ment ing strategy. We assume that in most situ ations, there is a choice to be made about how best to struc ture project- based work in order to achieve unique and specific object ives for change. The main focus of the chapter is on the avail able options and the stra tegic decisions required to under pin and enable bene fi cial organ isa tional change. Beneficial change results from the stra tegic intent, ambi tions and needs of an organ isa tion. Organisations operate in increas ingly uncer tain contexts. They identify stra tegic prior it ies and set out to bring about mean ing ful and bene fi cial change that is described and real ised through a set of bene fits that justify the invest ment. The purpose of the invest ment there fore is to deliver valu able returns. The invest ing organ isa tion can use stra tegic port fo lios and programmes, incor por at ing change activ it ies with business-as-usual, and a variety of project mech an isms to struc ture and pace the invest ment. The required speed of deploy ment, exist ing know ledge about the nature of the work that needs to be accom plished and the nature of the poten tial solu tion, all play a part in determ in ing the most suit able approach to create and embed the new capab il it ies, systems and struc tures. The choice of approach determ ines the life cycle that will be used to realise and deploy the change. Recognising the stra tegic nature of change is import ant in foster ing a longer-term approach that is cognis ant of the need to adopt the proposed change and realise the inten ded bene fits. An exten ded perspect ive as promoted through out this work is also crit ical to dischar-
  • 42. ging the respons ib il ity to consider decom mis sion ing and disposal along side the whole-life costs of assets, and the long-term envir on mental and social implic a tions of our actions. Choices and pref er ences need to be scru tin ised and examined. Governance and over sight mech an isms are estab lished to deal with proced ural and cultural aspects that need to be in place to improve the effect ive ness of the imple ment a tion of proposed change initi at ives and to under pin the real isa tion of the stra tegic invest ments. Projects, programmes and port fo lios need to be compat ible with the over arch ing strategy of the organ isa tion and with the day-to- day oper a tion charged with realising the bene fits. A struc tured approach to change manage- ment ensures that bene fi cial changes are embed ded within the organ isa tion’s oper a tional approach and closely aligned in order to ensure its long-term success ful and impact ful real isa- tion. The chapter is composed of three parts: 1.1 Implementing strategy 1.2 Life cycle options and choices 1.3 Establishing governance and over sight Chapter 1 Setting up for success 3
  • 43. 1.1 Implementing strategy Organisations operate in a dynamic context, full of uncer tainty, novelty and turbu lence. Projects, programmes and port fo lios are intro duced in order to enhance perform ance, bring about change and enable organ isa tions to adapt, improve and grow. Project-work there fore repres- ents inten tional invest ment in devel op ment, enhance ment and improve ment. The need for invest ment emerges from the aspir a tional plans and an over arch ing purpose that tran spire from the stra tegic intent of an organ isa tion. Project-work encom passes stra tegic invest ments that enable assets, struc tures, systems, activ it ies and capab il it ies to be formed, main tained or enhanced so that the organ isa tional plans and ambi tions can be real ised. In the public sector, this strategic intent may be discussed in terms of policy and policy implementation. Organisational change is intro duced through projects, programmes and port fo lios in order to deliver busi ness value. The busi ness value is accrued through the real isa tion of bene fits that result from project-work. Benefits are part of ensur ing that invest ments are made to deliver value to the organ isa tion. This normally applies even when the project is being done by a supplier or contracting organ isa tion, or if the work is needed to main tain current capab il ity or in order to conform to new regu la tions or direct ives so that smooth busi ness oper a tions can be allowed to proceed. The success ful deployment of change, the support of new beha viours and the util isa tion of
  • 44. new capab il ity, result ing in the real isa tion of bene fits, involves enga ging with, promot ing and working with diverse communit ies and groups. To ensure that value is created and sustained, organ isa tions need to consider and address the full invest ment life cycle ensur ing that fore- casted benefits materialise. Delivering strategy is enabled through the use of projects, programmes and port fo lios. Portfolios struc ture invest ments in line with stra tegic object ives, whilst balan cing, align ing and scru tin ising capa city and resources. Programmes combine business-as-usual with projects and steady state activ ity dictated by stra tegic prior it ies. Projects are tran si ent endeav ours that bring about change and achieve planned object ives. Together, they combine to deliver the bene fi cial change required to imple ment, enable and satisfy the stra tegic intent of the organ isa tion. This section will be of partic u lar interest to senior leaders and managers in organ isa tions and to project profes sion als as it addresses: 1.1.1 Organisational envir on ment: Organisations in context 1.1.2 Strategic imple ment a tion: Making strategy happen 1.1.3 Organisational change: Enabling bene fi cial change 1.1.4 Benefits to the organ isa tion: Putting it all together 1.1.5 Structural choices: Projects, programmes and port fo lios APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition
  • 45. 4 1.1.1 Organisational envir on ment Organisations in context In many contexts, project-work engages with novelty and uncer tainty extend ing into an unknown future. Projects and programmes there fore entail manage ment under uncer tain condi tions. Yet, it is widely recog nised that tradi tional busi ness models, focused on effi ciency, top-down control and desired predict ab il ity, only address a small propor tion of a rather complex, uncer tain and inter con nec ted land scape. Uncertainty arises from many sources (Figure 1.1.1). Leaders increas ingly face new chal- lenges, includ ing the emer gence of new markets, inter con nec ted global compet i tion, new sources of innov a tion, rising customer expect a tions, disrupt ive tech no lo gies, the gig economy and the growing diver si fic a tion of the work force. Stable and predict able contexts are hard to find and the models and approaches used for managing need to be updated to reflect a world char ac ter ised by uncer tainty, turbu lence, novelty, ambi gu ity and complex ity. Moreover, the combin a tion of economic unknowns with polit ical, social and envir on mental concerns regard- ing the proposed actions and their longer-term implic a tions requires new ways of enga ging with uncer tainty. The US milit ary coined the term VUCA to reflect the ‘volat il ity, uncer tainty, complex ity and ambi gu ity’ of general condi tions and situ ations asso ci ated
  • 46. with a multi lat eral world follow ing the end of the Cold War. The term has been widely adopted to repres ent increas ingly vulner- able and unpre dict able contexts. The key implic a tion of VUCA condi tions is that there is an inher ent uncer tainty that makes it diffi cult to predict and plan with great accur acy. The rigid ity that comes from expect ing full and perfect know ledge is unsus tain able and unat- tain able in turbu lent contexts. Uncertainty defies anti cip a tion and detailed plan ning. Enforcing detailed plan ning and fixed-price contract ing on an uncer tain future can be coun ter pro duct ive and business-damaging. Change is natural and ongoing as managers learn more about the context they are oper at ing in, enabling them to identify emer ging oppor tun it ies, respond to new condi tions and address short falls and differ ences in outcomes. Embracing and managing uncer tainty lie at the heart of good project manage ment and insist ence on certainty may unwit- tingly result in mismatches between plans, models and reality, trans lat ing into poor project perform ance. Addressing uncer tainty entails devel op ing organ isa tional capab il it ies for dealing with change and foster ing read i ness to exploit new oppor tun it ies, respond and adapt. This is frequently trans lated into stra tegic flex ib il ity, corpor ate resi li ence or organ isa tional agility. Flexible plans, iter a tions (see 1.2.3), and proto typ ing offer vehicles for the exper i ment a tion and adapt a tion needed to inform, adjust and exploit uncer tain contexts. These can comple ment open collab- or a tion approaches and enhanced abil it ies to innov ate and move rapidly and flex ibly in order to
  • 47. shape oppor tun it ies, change stra tegic direc tions and build on adversity in uncer tain settings. Organisations that invest in flex ible plan ning, options eval u ation and scen ario plan ning are already better prepared to respond to emer gent condi tions and such prepar a tion needs to be reflec ted in project-work. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 5 Recommended reading � Managing the Unknown: A New Approach to Managing High Uncertainty and Risk in Projects (2006) offers a way of looking at managing projects in novel and unknown envir on- ments. The authors propose a combin a tion of trial-and-error learn ing, with multiple inde- pend ent trials to identify the best options in novel projects. � Managing Project Uncertainty (2016) focuses on the impacts of novelty in the uncer tain world that projects inhabit, provid ing ways of identi fy ing the symp toms of uncer tainty and devel op ing strategies to deal with it. The book offers senior managers ways to improve project and programme strategy by expos ing new ideas and concepts that can be harnessed to tackle uncer tainty in its many guises. � Managing in a VUCA World (2015) is an edited collec tion focused on defin ing VUCA and
  • 48. uncov er ing the wider impacts on manage ment. It makes the case for broader know ledge and the applic a tion of new concepts and frame works to deal with unpre dict able and rapidly chan ging situ ations. Figure 1.1.1 Sources of uncer tainty APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 6 1.1.2 Strategic imple ment a tion Making strategy happen ‘Strategic intent’ is a term used to describe the aspir a tional plans, over arch ing purpose or the inten ded direc tion of travel needed to reach an organ isa tional vision (Figure 1.2.2). Strategic intent provides the basis for the scru tiny of the continu ous align ment of the port fo lio of project- work against organ isa tional ambi tion. While the stra tegic intent describes the align ment between ambi tion and resources, it can become a constraint on growth. Recognising the inher- ent uncer tainty, as well as the emer ging oppor tun it ies and threats, is useful to develop a more dynamic basis for balan cing evolving ambi tion with emer ging reality. Strategy imple ment a tion, often recog nised as the hardest part of the strategy process, is delivered through the execu tion of stra tegic projects and programmes and the realisation of
  • 49. their targeted bene fits. From an exec ut ive perspect ive, project-work is an essen tial part of making stra tegic invest ment work. The key focus is on the creation of value through projects that will enable mean ing ful execu tion of both delib er ate and emer gent strategies. This implies extend ing the scope of interest around projects and programmes to incor por ate the real isa tion of bene fits that will justify the invest ment and fulfil the criteria outlined in the busi ness case (see 1.3.7). Life cycles play an import ant role in ensur ing that the inten ded bene fits and value are delivered. Investment in change is one effect ive way of imple ment ing strategy. Projects, programmes and port fo lios tend to flow out of stra tegic decisions made by the organ isa tion and can there- fore be viewed as stra tegic invest ments that enable other activ it ies and capab il it ies to be developed. This implies that project-work is concerned with the ability to enact the organ isa- tional strategy by enabling bene fits to be real ised so that the inten ded value can be accrued. Senior leaders within the organ isa tion are able to demon strate how each project or programme that they fund contrib utes to the overall strategy. Where projects or programmes cannot be justi fied or aligned with the organ isa tional strategy, their contin ued oper a tion and purpose can be ques tioned. It is worth noting that supplier organ isa tions managing projects for their clients on a commer cial basis may have a differ ent stra tegic justi fic a tion for conduct ing commer- cial work. Project-work may also be needed as an enabler to main tain exist ing capab il it ies or assets, ensure compli ance with newly intro duced legis la tion
  • 50. or satisfy other profes sional require ments or busi ness imper at ives. Corporate leaders are account able for demon strat ing profi t ab il ity and return on invest ment (ROI), and there fore view project-work as a crit ical part of deliv er ing that invest ment and contrib ut ing to the overall benefit of the organ isa tion. Portfolios play an import ant part in main- tain ing the align ment between project-work and stra tegic object ives and in enabling the real isa- tion of the bene fits that under pin the success ful capture of the inten ded value and secur ing the return on invest ment. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 7 Recommended reading � Strategic intent (2005) revis its and updates the original concept of stra tegic intent estab- lished by the same team of authors 16 years previ ously. In this contri bu tion, the authors compare Western compan ies to Japanese corpor a tions encour aging a rethink ing of strategy and a repos i tion ing of stra tegic intent. � Introduction to Managing Change (2017), developed by the APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group, intro duces the import ance of managing change and spon sor ing such efforts. It makes the case for align ing change projects to the organ isa tional busi ness
  • 51. strategy, and support ing the strategy by artic u lat ing well-defined bene fits. � The Evolution of Project Management Practice: From Programmes and Contracts to Benefits and Change (2018) is an edited volume that makes the case for shift ing the focus from the staged deliv ery of arte facts towards consid er a tion of stake hold ers, bene fits, value and complex ity. The authors offer new perspect ives on plan ning, busi ness cases, bene fits, collab or a tion, spon sor ship, strategy execu tion and overall perform ance. Figure 1.1.2 Hierarchy of stra tegic intent APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 8 1.1.3 Organisational change Enabling bene fi cial change Change is an estab lished part of life, espe cially in modern organ isa tional contexts, and is often needed to ensure contin ued survival or busi ness relev ance. Avoiding stag na tion and main tain- ing the relev ance of strategies, approaches and capab il it ies often requires processes of renewal and update. Combining change manage ment with the manage ment of project-work offers the best poten tial for deliv er ing new results and capab il it ies, success fully embed ding the change
  • 52. and enabling the required bene fits. Change manage ment is the over arch ing approach taken in an organ isa tion to move from the current to a future desir able state, using a coordin ated and struc tured approach in collab or a- tion with stake hold ers. The change manage ment process links strategy with execu tion, and deployment with oper a tion and the ulti mate real isa tion of the expec ted bene fits. Organisational change is typic ally intro duced and imple men ted into corpor ate settings through project-work, however that is only the begin ning of the process of embed ding change and making it the new normal state for the organ isa tion. Strategic intent (see 1.1.2) drives organ isa tions to main tain compet it ive advant age or seek a new one (i.e. change). The stra tegic intent leads to the devel op ment of specific change initi at- ives within a port fo lio struc ture. Specific initi at ives, aligned to the stra tegic intent, are selec ted on the basis of avail able capab il it ies and resources that can be deployed. Projects and programmes are designed and imple men ted in order to deploy new assets, func tions, capab il it ies, processes, struc tures and systems. However, these are devised to facil- it ate or enable some change: change manage ment activ it ies are integ rated with project- working. Only once the deliv er ables are adopted and used as inten ded, can the bene fits be real ised. Organisational change encom passes the new beha viours that are enabled through project-work, and change manage ment is the facil it at ing discip line that makes it possible to embed change, achieve buy-in, bring people along and thereby derive and accrue the new
  • 53. bene fits that result from such actions in order to satisfy a busi ness case. Given that success ful change manage ment requires changes to beha viours, there is a signi- fic ant focus on people, culture and beha viours needed to prepare the organ isa tion, demon- strate the change, encour age buy-in and embed new beha vi oural norms and expect a tions around the altered condi tions. Organisations respond to change in many differ ent ways. Organisational change manage- ment begins and ends with the indi vidu als involved, requir ing an under stand ing of resist ance, organ isa tional defence routines, pervad ing cultures and the engage ment processes required to bring people along. One of the biggest barri ers to change is know ledge bound ar ies of various types – includ ing conflicts of interest that (for example) wipe out users’ motiv a tion to absorb know ledge about project outputs. A good way of embed ding change and achiev ing buy-in from concerned stake hold ers is by explor ing the proposed impacts through a series of proto types, allow ing stake hold ers to shape and influ ence the change situ ation through a series of mean ing ful iter a tions. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 9 Recommended reading � Introduction to Managing Change (2017) developed by the
  • 54. APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group, offers a dedic ated resource focused on the manage ment of change. The book provides a rationale for change manage ment, a list of key factors for success ful change, a further distil la tion of key factors in select ing a change approach as well as a summary of many of the key approaches to change manage ment. � Exploring Strategic Change (2016) engages with the process of deliv er ing stra tegic and organ isa tional change, offer ing detailed guidelines, specific strategies, theor et ical insights and prac tical solu tions. � Managing Projects in a World of People, Strategy and Change (2019) proposes a rethink ing of some of the methods util ised in initi at ing, managing and govern ing projects, programmes and change initi at ives. The book posi tions change as an oppor tun ity to reflect and offers new perspect ives on ethics, stra tegic initi at ives, governance and change as well as new ideas focused on anti fra gil ity, commer cial manage ment and ethics. Figure 1.1.3 Outcomes of change efforts Source: Introduction to Managing Change (2017) APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 10
  • 55. 1.1.4 Benefits to the organ isa tion Putting it all together Delivering bene fits is the primary reason why organ isa tions under take change. Given limited resources, there is a need to develop an improved under stand ing of poten tial invest ments and the reasons for under tak ing them. Making change work for the organ isa tion entails identi fy ing a viable set of poten tial bene fits and deliv er ing value by real ising the prom ised bene fits. A benefit is a posit ive and meas ur able impact of change. However, in some cases, there may be unavoid able meas ur able declines or negat ive impacts of change that are accept able in the context of greater bene fits. These are called ‘disbe ne fits’ and are treated in the same way as bene fits. The inten ded bene fits are driven by the stra tegic intent. In a supplier organisation, bene fits are likely to be derived from the revenue, profit, oppor tun it ies, rela tion ships, gained expert ise or market posi tion related to under tak ing the work. Benefits can be tangible (e.g. money saved, jobs created) or intan gible (e.g. corpor ate repu ta tion, capa city for change). They may, or may not, also be quan ti fi able in cash terms (e.g. reduced costs or greater customer satis fac tion). Benefits-driven change requires proact ive manage ment through out the entire life cycle. An organ isa tion iden ti fies the bene fits it needs and initi ates changes that are fore cast to deliver bene fits. Projects and programmes are imple men ted in order to enable new outputs, capabil- ities and outcomes to be util ised so that the bene fits described
  • 56. in the busi ness case can be fully real ised. During the change, the organ isa tion needs to monitor perform ance indic at ors that can reli ably predict bene fits realisation. Benefits demon strate the value created by invest ments. To ensure that value is created and sustained from organ isa tional change initi at ives, bene fits have to be managed through out the entire invest ment life cycle. In order to maxim ise the value from partic u lar invest ments and avoid value erosion, it is essen tial to ask if the proposed invest ments will realise the prom ised bene fits at an accept able cost over the full economic life cycle of the invest ment (see 1.2.6). The fore cast bene fits of a programme or project are the basis of its busi ness case. It is there fore import ant to engender a shift from a culture of deliv ery towards an ethos of value. It is only when the output, capab il ity or outcome is used as a result of a compre hens ive change programme that bene fits are real ised, result ing in delivered value. Benefits-driven projects and programmes support the invest ment cycle, with port fo lios and governance struc tures util ised to monitor the results and ques tion the continu ing align ment with strategy and the real isa tion of expec ted and emer ging bene fits. The sponsor owns the busi ness case and is ulti mately account- able for the real isa tion of the bene fits. Governance boards and spon sors have a crucial role in emphas ising and accen tu at ing the import ance of secur ing and sustain ing bene fits. Chapter 1 Setting up for success
  • 57. 11 Figure 1.1.4 Change of emphasis Recommended reading � Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects (2017) pulls together insights and lessons from signi fic ant major projects. The report synthes ises the key prin ciples and activ it ies required to success fully deliver bene fits in such projects and offers advice and guid ance on extend ing the life cycle. � A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework (2019) was compiled by the APM Benefits Management Specific Interest Group. The guide devel ops an under stand ing of the need for bene fits real isa tion, offer ing a frame work for address ing contex tual factors and devel op ing the capab il ity to realise bene fits. � The Information Paradox: Realizing the Business Benefits of Information Technology (2007) is a classic, offer ing the first detailed treat ment of bene fits. The book was first published in 1998 and still provides fresh ideas, concrete advice and thought ful reflec tion on the role of bene fits in project-work and the wider issues regard ing a shift towards value-based focus. APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition
  • 58. 12 1.1.5 Structural choices Projects, programmes and port fo lios There are multiple options for deliv er ing change and bene fits, depend ing on the purpose and overall desire. The scale, signi fic ance and complex ity of the proposed under tak ing play a part in determ in ing which approach to use. Another distin guish ing factor is related to the nature of the object ives, which can be defined in terms of outputs (such as deliv er ing a build ing), outcomes (such as staff being relo cated from multiple loca tions to a new HQ), bene fits (such as reduced travel and facil it ies costs) or stra tegic object ives (such as doub ling the organ isa tion’s share price in three years). The choice of how to struc ture invest ments encom passes projects, programmes and port- folios (Figure 1.1.5): Projects are unique, tran si ent endeav ours, under taken to bring about change and achieve planned object ives, which can be defined in terms of outputs, outcomes or bene fits. A project is usually deemed to be a success if it achieves the object ives accord ing to their accept ance criteria, normally within an agreed times cale and budget. Project-work is conduc ted across normal organ isa tional func tional areas, setting up a tempor ary organ i sa- tion, drawing on the skills, expert ise and know ledge of the organ isa tion, as well as third parties, where appro pri ate.
  • 59. Projects normally use capital expendit ure to acquire, upgrade and main tain assets, services, products and capab il ity. Projects need to take into account the ulti mate require- ments for decom mis sion ing and disposal. In some settings, it is possible to find arrange ments involving multiple projects running in paral lel, or related to one another, to provide support or to build addi tional capab il it ies. Multiple concur rent projects may require prior it isa tion in terms of sched uled deployment, import ance of primary deliv er ables or the avail ab il ity of key resources, skills, or indi vidu als. Programmes are unique and tran si ent stra tegic endeav ours, under taken to achieve a defined set of object ives, incor por at ing a group of related projects and change manage- ment activ it ies. They can be defined as coordin ated projects and change manage ment activ it ies combined to achieve bene fi cial change. The distinc tion between projects and programmes depends on context and the guiding criteria between them often relates to the complex ity of scope and the addi tion of change activ it ies. The need for signi fic ant improve ment will be consist ent with the organ isa tion’s strategy, and programmes will help to deliver elements of that strategy. Programmes typic ally combine new deployment with some elements of business-as- usual. Consequently, they utilise capital expendit ure to acquire assets, services, products and capab il ity, along side oper at ing expense incurred as a result of perform ing normal busi- ness oper a tions. Programmes are often defined as deliv er ing
  • 60. change, and would typic ally incor porate the full util isa tion of bene fits to satisfy the busi ness case. The overall measure of success will be determ ined by the actual realisation of the expec ted bene fits, which frequently involves the use of capab il it ies or facil it ies created by the programme in an ongoing, ‘business­as­usual’ manner. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 13 Figure 1.1.5 Projects, programmes and port fo lios Portfolios are used to select, prior it ise and control an organ isa tion’s programmes and projects, in line with its stra tegic object ives and capa city to deliver. Their goal is to balance the imple ment a tion of change initi at ives and the main ten ance of business-as-usual, while optim ising return on invest ment. Portfolios are used to struc ture invest ments. They can be managed at an organ isa tional or func tional level (e.g. includ ing all IT initi at ives) to optim ise stra tegic bene fits or oper a- tional effi ciency, respect ively. They address a number of major ques tions: � Are these the projects and programmes needed to deliver the stra tegic object ives, subject to risk, resource constraints and afford ab il ity?
  • 61. � Is the organ isa tion deliv er ing them effect ively and effi ciently? � Are the full poten tial bene fits from the organ isa tion’s invest ment being real ised? Portfolios are partic u larly concerned with the inter de pend en cies between projects and programmes, in terms of: � scarce or limited resources; � balance within the port fo lio (e.g. between risks and returns); � align ment with the stra tegic intent and main prior it ies; � timing; � capa city bottle necks. Portfolio success relates to the sound ness of the invest ment and depends on the ability to address the above concerns and ques tions. The manage ment of a struc tured port fo lio involves constant review of the balance of invest ment and benefit, creat ing and closing projects and programmes as required. Project profes sion als get to choose between the differ ent ways of struc tur ing project- work by using projects, programmes and port fo lios. Governance, assur ance and over sight struc tures will match the approach selec ted for organ ising the work.
  • 62. APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 14 Full refer ences for Section 1.1 1.1.1 Cleden, D. (2016) Managing Project Uncertainty. Abingdon: Routledge. Loch, C. H., DeMeyer, A. and Pich, M. (2006) Managing the Unknown: A New Approach to Managing High Uncertainty and Risk in Projects. New Jersey: John Wiley. Mack, O., Khare, A., Krämer, A. and Burgartz, T. (eds) (2015) Managing in a VUCA World. Heidelberg: Springer. 1.1.2 APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group (2017) Introduction to Managing Change. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Dalcher, D. (2018) The Evolution of Project Management Practice: From Programmes and Contracts to Benefits and Change. Abingdon: Routledge. Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C. K. (2005) Strategic intent. Harvard Business Review, 83(7), 148–161. 1.1.3 APM Enabling Change Specific Interest Group (2017) Introduction to Managing Change. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management.
  • 63. Balogun, J., Hope Hailey, V. and Gustafsson, S. (2016) Exploring Strategic Change. Harlow: Pearson Education. Dalcher, D. (2019) Managing Projects in a World of People, Strategy and Change. Abingdon: Routledge. 1.1.4 Association for Project Management Benefits Management Specific Interest Group (2019) A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Infrastructure and Projects Authority (2017) Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects. London: Infrastructure and Project Authority. Thorp, J. (2007) The Information Paradox: Realizing the Business Benefits of Information Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. 1.1.5 Bartlett, J. (2017) The Essentials of Managing Programmes, 6th edition. Abingdon: Routledge. Rayner, P., Reiss, G. and MacNichol, D. (2011) Portfolio and Programme Management Demystified. Abingdon: Routledge. Thiry, M. (2015) Program Management, 2nd edition. Farnham: Gower Publications. Chapter 1 Setting up for success
  • 64. 15 1.2 Life cycle options and choices There are many differ ent ways of struc tur ing and organ ising project-work. One of the more import ant shaping decisions revolves around the choice of an approach and the asso ci ated life cycle that matches that philo sophy. This section is concerned with clari fy ing the differ ent options and high light ing their implic a tions. When organ isa tions decide to deliver bene fi cial change through project-work, they have a diversity of poten tial approaches, ranging from highly predict ive methods that assume that know- ledge regard ing the context is well estab lished and stable, all the way to highly adapt ive situ- ations, replete with volat il ity, uncer tainty, ambi gu ity and turbu lence that require more dynamic ways of enga ging with the envir on ment and continu ously involving inter ested stake hold ers. The choice of approach will determ ine the way projects, programmes and port fo lios operate and play a vital part in determ in ing their success. Each life cycle also requires differ ent manage ment capab il it ies, team skills, know ledge manage ment approaches and governance style. Professionals are expec ted to make informed choices and select approaches that match their specific context. This section aims to intro duce the rich ness and diversity of possib il it ies avail- able to decision-makers. It begins by intro du cing some of the main philo soph ical posi tions and key perspect ives, before delving into the differ ent types of life cycles on offer and recog nising that given the many comprom ises, managers unsur pris ingly
  • 65. opt for prag matic hybrid choices, combin ing the best features from differ ent arrange ments. Project-work is often said to emphas ise a short-term perspect ive through an intense focus on imple ment a tion. However, projects are increas ingly called upon to deliver bene fits, address sustain ab il ity consid er a tions and trans form organ isa tions. Such expect a tions imply a need to extend the tradi tional focus to address more stra tegic aspects and global concerns. This section offers a glimpse of the funda mental decisions and tradeoffs avail able to decision-makers who need to under stand the diversity of options they increas ingly find at their disposal. This section will be of partic u lar interest to senior leaders in organ isa tions as well as to managers and project profes sion als as it addresses: 1.2.1 Life cycle philo sophy: Making sense of life cycles 1.2.2 Linear life cycles: Following a delib er ate sequence 1.2.3 Iterative life cycles: Filling in the detail 1.2.4 Hybrid life cycles: Finding the right balance 1.2.5 Extended life cycles: Bringing in the bene fits 1.2.6 Product life cycles: Considering usage, evol u tion and disposal APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 16
  • 66. 1.2.1 Life cycle philo sophy Making sense of life cycles Life cycles are funda mental to the manage ment of project-work: Different approaches can be util- ised for deployment, depend ing on the desired outputs, bene fits and outcomes and the expec ted uncer tainty, novelty and risk appet ite. The choice of deployment approach will play a key part in select ing the most suit able form of life cycle, and thereby determ ine the stages involved in organ- ising project-work and indic ate how they are inter re lated and sequenced. A life cycle is a frame work compris ing a series of distinct high-level stages required to trans- form an idea or concept into reality in an orderly and effi cient manner. It offers a system atic and organ ised way to under take project-based work and can be viewed as the struc ture under- pin ning deployment. The life cycle acts as an import ant manage ment tool, focus ing on the alloc a tion of resources, the integ ra tion of activ it ies, the avail ab il ity of key indi vidu als, the support of timely decision-making, the mitig a tion of risk and the provi sion of control and governance mech an- isms match ing the life cycle struc ture. Consequently, it is import ant that spon sors and exec ut- ives under stand the char ac ter ist ics and specific features of the selec ted approach. Approaches to deployment range between highly predict ive and highly adapt ive settings and can be depic ted along a spec trum (Figure 1.2.1). The choice between predict ive and
  • 67. adapt ive philo sophies is largely influ enced by the avail ab il ity of know ledge. More predict ive approaches tend to rely on know ledge known at the start, allow ing work to proceed in a sequen tial manner, whilst adapt ive contexts imply that new know ledge is created as the work progresses, which is then used to inform and guide the remain ing effort. Adaptive approaches allow more key stake hold ers to contrib ute and shape the devel op ment process. Specific philo sophies for deployment include: � Linear: Where the initi at ive progresses through a sequen tial series of steps. In a programme, each step would provide only partial capab il ity until the final desired state is reached. This is suit able for stable, low-risk envir on ments. � Incremental: Where the target state is achieved through a staged series of smaller steps. This can be used to deliver ‘quick wins’, conserve scarce resources or deliver early bene fits. It fits with the idea of deliv er ing tranches in programmes. � Iterative: Where proto types, time boxes or paral lel activ it ies are util ised to acquire new insights, obtain feed back or explore high-risk options. The scope of this activ ity depends on the level of uncer tainty and the organ isa tional risk appet ite. The dura tion may extend through out deployment. � Evolutionary: Where deployment entails a number of major trans itions, each based on user feed back from the preced ing trans ition. This may be applied in innov at ive or time-critical
  • 68. entry to new markets. There is no univer sal best approach. Project profes sion als select the most suit able arrange ment for their context, most often combin ing features from any of the above into a hybrid life cycle (see 1.2.4). Chapter 1 Setting up for success 17 Figure 1.2.1 Selecting a life cycle Recommended reading � The UK’s National Standard BS 6079 Project Management – Principles and Guidance for the Management of Projects (2019) considers the role of life cycles in the manage ment of projects and offers guid ance on the compon ents of a project life cycle. � APM Introduction to Programme Management (2016) offers explan a tions of the various life cycle philo sophies in the context of managing programmes and change efforts, address ing some of the major implic a tions of making life cycle choices. It also covers governance issues and provides detailed guidelines related to the major stages included in the programme life cycle. � Managing Knowledge in Project Environments (2019) builds
  • 69. from the assump tion that the choice of life cycle is based on what is known. It explains the role of know ledge and uncer- tainty in select ing differ ent life cycles and approaches. The book offers a know ledge manage ment perspect ive on project-work, paying partic u lar atten tion to the implic a tions of select ing specific life cycles and approaches. APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 18 1.2.2 Linear life cycles Following a delib er ate sequence Linear life cycles refer to the comple tion of project-work within a single pass through the cycle (Figure 1.2.2). Projects are thus sequenced into a set of distinct phases, which are completed seri ally and typic ally span from the devel op ment of the initial concept to the deployment of an ulti mate outcome, output or bene fits. This is partic u larly useful where there is a need to coordin ate large teams of people working across compan ies and depart ments. Project-work can be divided into phases that must be accom plished in order to achieve the project goal. Division into phases and inter me di ate deliv er ables is useful in plan ning as it provides a frame work for budget ing, schedul ing, alloc at ing resources and appro pri ately assign- ing team members and experts, as well as a mech an ism for
  • 70. arran ging mile stones and project reviews. This leads to greater effi ciency and enhanced organ isa tion, resource alloc a tion and cost control. In linear life cycles, progress is carried out in sequence, enabling the passing of control and inform a tion to the next phase when predefined mile stones are reached and accom plished. This approach aims to be highly struc tured, predict able and stable, provid ing a trans par ent format for managing contracts and allow ing maximum control and governance over the process. It works partic u larly well for the deployment of well-understood and clearly defined outputs trading time, cost and risk to achieve the right scope and quality. On the other hand, it assumes the avail ab il ity of relat ively perfect know ledge upfront, whilst being resist ant to change and inflex ible in terms of correc tions and rework. It also implies a long sequence, culmin at ing in the ulti mate handover. Urgent or emer gent change can only be addressed by excep tion, requir ing major modi fic a tions and reor gan isa tion of the cycle. Dividing know ledge into distinct phases can create silos and know ledge barri ers between the phases. A typical linear life cycle encom passes multiple phases: � Concept: Development of an initial idea through initial studies and high-level require ments manage ment, and assess ment of viab il ity, includ ing an outline busi ness case. � Definition: Development of a detailed defin i tion, plans and state ment of require ments that include a full justi fic a tion for the work.
  • 71. � Deployment: Implementation of plans and veri fic a tion of perform ance through testing and assur ance to realise inten ded outputs, outcomes and bene fits. � Transition: Handover, commis sion ing and accept ance of outputs to the sponsor and wider users, culmin at ing in formal closure. Life cycles vary accord ing to the nature, purpose and expec ted use. The basic life cycle can be adjus ted to reflect differ ent contexts and local vari ations, includ ing altern at ive phase names preval ent within specific indus tries and busi ness sectors. Smaller projects may apply a shorter cycle, as required. In some circum stances, the deliv ery of bene fits (benefit real isa tion) can also be incor por ated as an addi tional step at the end of the sequence (see also 1.2.5). Chapter 1 Setting up for success 19 Recommended reading � The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects (2019) provides a guide to struc tur ing projects, combin ing useful advice with prac tical tech niques. The resource iden ti fies many of the key activ it ies required to utilise the ‘staged’ frame work with an exten ded focus on governance, monit or ing and control, inform a tion manage ment and
  • 72. the relev ant stand ards. � APM Introduction to Programme Management (2016) offers guidelines on the applic a tion of life cycles in the context of programmes. It provides detailed guid ance on the key activ- it ies related to each of the major stages and on the governance of programme life cycles. � Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models (2017) covers a pleth ora of life cycles and approaches iden ti fied by a joint task force involving members from the International Council for Systems Engineering (INCOSE) and APM. The cover age includes project and product life cycles with vari ations from many sectors and discip lines. Figure 1.2.2 Linear project life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 20 1.2.3 Iterative life cycles Filling in the detail Iterative life cycles are composed of several iter a tions allow ing the deployment of initial capab- il ity, followed by success ive deliv er ies of further value. They are based on the idea of concur- rency, or simul tan eous engin eer ing, where differ ent devel op ment steps are allowed to be performed in paral lel (Figure 1.2.3). Iterative life cycles repeat
  • 73. one or more of the phases before proceed ing to the next one, and manage uncer tainty regard ing the scope by allow ing the object ives to evolve through out the life cycle as learn ing and discov ery take place. Recognising that change is pervas ive, iter at ive life cycles begin by devel op ing a high- level vision, with the finer detail uncovered during the cycles of iter a tion. Allowing the specific a tion and design to run in paral lel ‘fast tracks’ the deployment. Iterations are thus used to progress ively elab or ate and improve under stand ing based on client inter ac tion with learn ing between the iter a tions. Iterations are applied when the goals are clear but the means of achiev ing them are not. The rapid deployment of smaller, partial solu tions becomes the basis for gaining fast feed back and new insights about what needs to be done. Iterations are often conduc ted through working proto types which stake hold ers utilise as the basis for adapt a tion and improve ment. Iterative work prior it ises collab or a tion and co-creation to address social and polit ical complex- ity. Iterative approaches address change, innov a tion, new domains or pion eer ing tech no lo gies as they accen tu ate velo city and adapt ab il ity and reduce uncer tainty and know ledge bound ar ies. However, iter at ive approaches can only proceed when user feed back is avail able to be used as the basis for initi at ing new cycles of devel op ment, refine ment and improve ment. They depend on co-location or regular avail ab il ity of users to inter act with the system and build buy- in. They also encour age users to develop and enhance the proposed solu tion continu ously,
  • 74. and thereby amend the required scope and rearrange the iden ti fied needs whilst redu cing the overall risk levels. Iterative ideas are often linked with incre mental concepts. Incremental think ing combines elements of linear and paral lel life cycles to apply linear sequences in a staggered fashion over time. The overall design or require ments can then become the basis for the deployment of incre ments to the users at regular inter vals as calen dar time progresses. Agile devel op ment projects combine the two concepts by includ ing a series of iter a tions prior to the formal release of a product. Many agile methods also apply the idea of time box ing, an iter a tion with a fixed end date that is not allowed to change, thereby adjust ing the scope and quality to deliver on time and to cost. Multiple timebox iter a tions are likely to be employed in paral lel to develop differ ent aspects of the system. Overall, using iter a tions allows earlier return on some of the bene fits that have already been imple men ted whilst valid at ing the concepts and enga ging users. Similar notions can be explored in the context of struc tur ing and managing programmes, where iter a tions can also accom mod ate tranches and chunks of business- as-usual. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 21 Recommended reading
  • 75. � The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects (2019) covers concur- rent engin eer ing and other life cycle vari ations in the context of projects. It also offers some guid ance on the rela tion ship between agile deployment and project manage ment. � Guidelines on life cycles related to the manage ment of programmes is covered in APM Introduction to Programme Management (2016). This touches on the idea of incre mental devel op ment and deployment suppor ted through a set of tranches. It also considers the rela tion ship between projects and programmes as implied by the deployment struc ture. This resource offers useful guidelines related to the use of incre ments and time boxes in agile settings. � Agile PM: Agile Project Management Handbook, Vol. 2 (2014) describes the project life cycle in an agile setting. The text explores agile philos dophy, high light ing how and where project manage ment can be repres en ted through out an agile or iter at ive life cycle. Figure 1.2.3 Iterative devel op ment in a dynamic, agile context Source: The DSDM Agile Project Framework (2014 Onwards) Figure 1.2.3 ‘Iterative development in a dynamic, agile context’ from The DSDM Agile Project Framework Handbook, 2014, https://www.agilebusiness.org. Reproduced with permission of the Agile Business Consortium.
  • 76. APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 22 1.2.4 Hybrid life cycles Finding the right balance Context matters: there is no univer sally applic able one-size-fits-all life cycle. The choice often hinges on what the organ isa tion is trying to achieve and what is import ant. Managers regu larly utilise progress ive elab or a tion, where detail is filled in as devel op ment progresses using proto types and other iter at ive elements. Engagement with poten tial users uncov ers unex pec ted new details, hinting at the blend ing of approaches as a poten tial way of progress- ing work effect ively. Moreover, given the complex ity and uncer tainty of many contexts, there is no need to apply any partic u lar approach for the complete dura tion of a project or programme. Hybrid life cycles enable a prag matic mix of philo sophies, typic ally fusing together elements from predict ive and adapt ive perspect ives to create a new model or approach. An obvious example is in util ising iter at ive or agile methods for early require ments gath er ing, where the uncer tainty is greatest, and follow ing it up with incre mental or sequen tial processes to form al- ise deploy ment. The use of proto typ ing, time box ing or iter at ive think ing offers tested methods for exper i ment a tion and risk reduc tion. The tail or ing of life
  • 77. cycles allows for predict ive aspects to be integ rated into adapt ive methods, and also for the borrow ing of agile concepts and tools to: augment and strengthen predict ive deployment; focus on the most useful interim deliv er- ables; and speed up the deploy ment and real isa tion of bene fits, espe cially in increas ingly uncer tain contexts. Adding iter at ive elements to ‘predict ive’ projects can enhance deploy ment in stages, support the gener a tion of insights, under pin the real isa tion of an early benefit stream and valid ate some of the ideas much earlier within the cycle. Iterative and agile approaches have developed a discip line of enhan cing visib il ity, determ in ing progress and respond ing adapt ively to enhance the poten tial deliv er able value which is not normally found in linear think ing. Similarly, earlier return on invest ment on some aspects of a delivered system can be encour- aged when sequen tial constraints are relaxed. Utilising prior it isa tion and track ing methods borrowed from incre mental and iter at ive deployment and the applic a tion of governance approaches adopted from sequen tial life cycles to agile projects can offer syner gistic bene fits and allow prac ti tion ers in either camp to borrow, over come tradi tional limit a tions and improve current prac tice. However, it also requires great skills and clarity when involving two differ ent systems of working. Blending, merging or mashing of life cycles, ideas, prin ciples, prac tices and methods applies equally to programmes and port fo lios. Building agile working into a project or programme invest ment life cycle can be extremely useful for predict ive
  • 78. organ isa tions finding them selves oper at ing in uncer tain contexts because it offers sizing for effi ciency and flex ib il ity. Transformation and major change efforts can be speeded up through incre mental deploy ment approaches and improved tranche reviews, while agile concepts can also be util ised in categor ising, blend ing and balan cing port fo lios to make them more flex ible and dynamic (Figure 1.2.4). Chapter 1 Setting up for success 23 Recommended reading � A Guide to Assurance of Agile Delivery (2017) was developed by the APM Assurance SIG to add assur ance consid er a tions to projects char ac ter ised by agile deployment forms. The guide incor por ates aspects related to agile projects into the assur ance activ it ies offer ing some specific guid ance for hybrid projects, remind ing assur ance special ists to consider the differ ent constitu ent parts of the project. � Directing Agile Change (2016) aims to propose guid ance in rela tion to over see ing the deploy ment of agile projects. The resource was created by the APM Governance SIG. It iden ti fies the distinc tions between linear and iter at ive modes of deploy ment and acknow- ledges the implic a tions of util ising hybrid combin a tions that
  • 79. draw on both perspect ives. � Agile-stage-gate-hybrids: The next stage for product devel op ment (2016) was written by a product devel op ment and innov a tion expert. The article makes the case for integ rat ing elements of agile product devel op ment into tradi tional gating processes leading to faster phys ical product releases, better responses to chan ging require ments and improved team commu nic a tion. Figure 1.2.4 Hybrid programme life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 24 1.2.5 Extended life cycles Bringing in the bene fits The typical project land scape is rather diverse. As a result, the scope of a project life cycle can take various forms. Some projects will be part of a programme and will only be concerned with deliv er ing outputs. Some projects will work as stan dalone projects and would be primar ily concerned with deliv er ing outputs. Other projects will be expec ted to incor por ate the manage ment of change and the real isa tion of bene fits and hence require a greatly exten ded life cycle (Figure 1.2.5). Where a contractor is working for a client, the contractor’s
  • 80. ‘project’ may simply be the deployment and transition phases of the client’s project that will include bene fits real isa tion. In these circumstances the client is responsible for operating the outcomes in order to deliver the benefits. Extended life cycles ensure that account ab il ity and governance of the invest ment stays with the change teams until the change is fully embed ded by offer ing the missing connec tion to benefit real isa tion, whilst prevent ing the form a tion of know ledge bound ar ies between project teams and oper a tions. Recognising that many projects are initi ated in order to deliver change and bene fi cial outcomes to organ isa tions, life cycles incor por ate a further phase named ‘bene­ fits real isa tion’ that may proceed up to the achieve ment of the busi ness case. An addi tional under pin ning phase is also required in order to realise bene fits as new outputs need to be made avail able and access ible to poten tial users. This may need to be enabled and oper ated separ ately. Note that programmes will often include bene fits real isa tion as a core part of their defin i tion and scope. The addi tional activ it ies included in the exten ded life cycle, encom pass: � Adoption: Operations and sustain ment required to utilise the new project and enable the accept ance and use of the bene fits. � Benefits real isa tion: Realisation of the required busi ness bene fits. The prin cipal implic a tion of extend ing the end of the life cycle to incor por ate bene fits real isa-
  • 81. tion is that there is a need to start upfront, plan for the supple mental activ it ies and incor por ate addi tional consid er a tions during the concept and defin i tion phases. There are income and oper a tional costs connec ted to the addi tional activ it ies as well as spend ing capex consid er a- tions which will be addressed during the concept and defin i tion phases. Projects that include bene fits real isa tion will have an exten ded scope that goes beyond the defin i tion of outputs. Thinking about bene fits begins before the project has been scoped. Project require ments need to be expressed in terms of bene fits and outcomes to enable benefit real isa tion to proceed. If there are multiple areas of bene fits, a programme may be better suited to deliver the differ ent streams of bene fits (the scope of programmes typic ally include bene fits real isa tion). In order to facil it ate bene fits real isa tion during the exten ded project dura tion, bene fits manage ment (incor por at ing iden ti fic a tion, defin i tion, quan ti fic a tion, plan ning, execu- tion, track ing, monit or ing and review ing) is needed as an addi tional activ ity required to trans late require ments that have been expressed in terms of bene fits and manage them to success ful deploy ment and real isa tion. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 25 Recommended reading
  • 82. � Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects (2017) pulls together insights and lessons from signi fic ant major projects. The report synthes ises the key prin ciples and activ it ies required to success fully deliver bene fits in such projects and offers advice and guid ance on extend ing the life cycle. � A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework (2019) was compiled by the APM Benefits Management Specific Interest Group. The guide devel ops an under stand ing of the need for bene fits real isa tion, offer ing a frame work for address ing contex tual factors and devel op ing the capab il ity to realise bene fits. � Benefits Realisation Management: A Practical Guide to Achieving Benefits through Change (2010) is a prac tical guide to imple ment ing benefit real isa tion in organ isa tions. The book explains the processes required to support benefit real isa tion prac tice, identi fy ing the key addi tions required to supple ment projects and programmes and embed bene fits real isa tion prac tice as a measure of success. Figure 1.2.5 Extended life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 26 1.2.6 Product life cycles
  • 83. Considering usage, evol u tion and disposal The product life cycle takes a broader view of the full product life span from initial idea, through devel op ment, evol u tion and upgrades to removal from service and ulti mate dismant ling (Figure 1.2.6). Whilst such consid er a tions extend beyond the tradi tional project bound ary, issues regard ing oper a tion, upgrade, decom mis sion ing and disposal are likely to be raised during the early defin i tional activ it ies and be reflec ted in the require ments for the product and initial project. Project managers should be aware of these expect a tions and needs, and develop their projects in ways that will not under mine or contra dict the long-term plans for the product and its inten ded use and disposal. Whilst some projects are designed to operate the outcomes for another project, longer-term or multiple consid er a tions can be accom mo - dated through programmes to provide greater flex ib il ity in struc tur ing and organ ising such activ it ies. To enable systems and products to be util ised and perform in accord ance with the agreed busi ness case, systems and initi at ives need to be adequately suppor ted, main tained, upgraded and improved so that the bene fits can continue to accrue. Some applic a tions such as ‘whole­ life costing’ will consider the full product life cycle and the exten ded life cycle covers the full oper a tion of the service. Additional phases added to the full product life cycle include: � Operation: Ensuring avail ab il ity and continu ing support and main ten ance (of the project
  • 84. deliv er ables and the poten tial outcomes and bene fits). � Termination: Decommissioning and disposal at the end of the product’s useful life. Utilising the product cycle requires addi tional upfront prepar a tion: during the defin i tion phase, it is essen tial to estab lish the sustain ab il ity and envir on mental impacts of the proposed solu tion, outputs and outcomes through an assess ment of the whole life cycle of the products, includ ing oper a tional, decom mis sion ing and disposal consid er a tions. Many of the decisions made during the early stages may impact not just the oper a tion phase, but also the choice of mater i als or retire ment options that will need to be considered. Experts can be employed to identify, advise, mitig ate and plan for the risks asso ci ated with future actions. Decisions about the future of the product or system are incor por ated into the require ments manage ment activ it ies so they can be recor ded and feed into subsequent activ it ies and trade-offs. Disposal require ments, codi fied during the concept phase, are increas ingly expec- ted to be included in the formal docu ment a tion. The product life cycle helps in making sustain able choices and embraces the prin ciples of product stew ard ship, advoc at ing that every one who bene fits commer cially from a product has a shared respons ib il ity to minim ise its envir on mental impacts. Adopting a whole life cycle or a full product life cycle perspect ive enables exec ut ives and managers to respons ibly engage with the long-term future implic a tions of their project-related actions, and discharge their increas ingly emer ging respons ib il ity for
  • 85. proper end-of-life disposal of systems and assets in a respons ible, afford able and effect ive manner. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 27 Recommended reading � Product Lifecycle Management: The Executive Summary (2018) is concerned with products and their manage ment through an effect ive life cycle. The book makes the case for under- stand ing the full envir on ment within which products are developed, manu fac tured and suppor ted from cradle to grave, and combines theory, prac tical applic a tions through examples and case studies that cover recent devel op ments and trends. � Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models (2017) explores differ ent aspects of life cycles from a project manage ment and systems engin eer ing perspect ive. The report compares product life cycle (referred to as ‘product span’) and the project life cycle, explor ing the common al it ies and differ ences between the two. � Product Stewardship in Action: The Business Case for Life Cycle Thinking (2017) makes a power ful case for exten ded produ cer respons ib il ity as a busi ness strategy rather than a phil an thropic exer cise. It high lights the benefit from achiev
  • 86. ing public and commer cial shared value by respond ing effect ively to stake holder concerns regard ing the envir on ment. Figure 1.2.6 Product life cycle APM Body of Knowledge 7th edition 28 Full refer ences for Section 1.2 1.2.1 APM Programme Management Specific Interest Group (2016) APM Introduction to Programme Management, 2nd edition. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. British Standards Institution (BSI) (2019) BS 6079 Project Management – Principles and Guidance for the Management of Projects. London: British Standards Institution. Payne, J., Roden, E. and Simister, S. (2019) Managing Knowledge in Project Environments. Abingdon: Routledge. 1.2.2 APM Programme Management Specific Interest Group (2016) APM Introduction to Programme Management, 2nd edition. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Buttrick, R. (2019) The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects, 5th edition.
  • 87. Abingdon: Routledge. INCOSE and APM Systems Thinking Specific Interest Group (2017) Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models. London: International Council for Systems Engineering. 1.2.3 Agile Business Consortium (2014) Agile PM: Agile Project Management Handbook, Vol. 2. London: Agile Business Consortium. APM Programme Management Specific Interest Group (2016) APM Introduction to Programme Management, 2nd edition. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Buttrick, R. (2019) The Project Workout: Directing and Managing Business-Led Projects, 5th edition. Abingdon: Routledge. 1.2.4 APM Assurance Specific Interest Group (2017) A Guide to Assurance of Agile Delivery. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. APM Governance Specific Interest Group (2016) Directing Agile Change. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Cooper, R. G. (2016) Agile-stage-gate-hybrids: The next stage for product devel op ment. Research Technology Management, 59(1), 21–29. 1.2.5 Association for Project Management Benefits Management
  • 88. Specific Interest Group (2019) A Guide to Using a Benefits Management Framework. Princes Risborough: Association for Project Management. Bradley, G. (2010) Benefits Realisation Management: A Practical Guide to Achieving Benefits through Change, 2nd edition. Farnham: Gower. Infrastructure and Projects Authority (2017) Guide for Effective Benefits Management in Major Projects. London: Infrastructure and Project Authority. Chapter 1 Setting up for success 29 1.2.6 INCOSE and APM Systems Thinking Specific Interest Group (2017) Guide to Life Cycles and Life Cycle Models. London: International Council for Systems Engineering. Lewis, H. (2017) Product Stewardship in Action: The Business Case for Life Cycle Thinking. Abingdon: Routledge. Stark, J. (2018) Product Lifecycle Management: The Executive Summary. New York: Springer. Chapter 1 Setting up for success