1. Symbiotic Relationship of Man and Machine in Space
Colonization
Roy Nielsen
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, USA
505-412-9204, rsn@lanl.gov
Abstract. It is vital that space colonies and settlements be able to maximize any possible advantages to improve survival of
both man and machines. An array of human and machine solutions and operations can be utilized to not only enhance safety,
but to also increase productivity. For many years robots have been simply a part of science fiction. Funding for robot
technology and development is hard to acquire and to maintain. Robot technology needs to reach “critical mass” in order to
break the barrier of acceptance from funding organizations. Other technologies have overcome this hurdle and, by learning
from and building on their experiences, this will generate funding and acceptance to propel robot technology in support of
space colonization to a much sooner reality.
Keywords: Robotics, Robots, Unmanned Vehicles, Integration, Interdisciplinary, Automation, Increase Productivity.
PACS: 89, 89.20-a, 89.20.Kk, 89.75.-k
INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of time, man has tried to improve his lot in life. The stone tipped spear, the wheel, the forge,
the cotton gin and the steam engine, to name a few examples. The last couple of centuries has seen a great burst in
technology and mechanization.
Some advances that Scovel (1965) believed made a significant contribution to American industry and the way we
live are McCormick's grain harvester, Vail's bells, Westinghouse's transformer, Ford's Model T, Forest's tubes and
more. More advances during this time include jets, man made satellites, heart monitors, semiconductors, automatic
external defibrillators, computers and robotics. Besides specific inventions, process, procedures, documentation,
testing and collaboration are some methods used to not only advance technology, but the acceptance of it as well.
As humanity has learned to rely on its mechanized creations to improve and extend life, these creations require our
support to survive as well. Service and support is available for these technologies to sustain the health of the
advancements and creations. One familiar service provided is that of the auto mechanic (The Princeton Review,
2006). Other familiar services to support technology are the computer help desk and the Maytag repairman.
Mr. Ford developed the assembly line to bring the Model T to the masses (PBS, 1998). Ford's assembly line
brought several advancements to industry. A few of the notable parts of this contribution are common
interchangeable parts, simplification of tasks, breakdown of duties for workers and an improved work flow. By
developing the assembly line, Ford brought the model T to the the masses. Since that time, the concept of the
assembly line became integral to manufacturing products in many industries.
The evolution of computing not only demonstrated technological, but other achievements as well. Professional
associations and special interest groups have played a large role in these FIRST PAGE OF EACH PAPER
CREDIT LINE (BELOW) TO BE INSERTED ON THE areas. Two of these are common interfaces
and common modules. Up to the 1970's, PP. 27 - 34, 35 - 42, 137available,297 - 304, 325 - 338, 339 the
EXCEPT FOR ARTICLES ON computers were not widely - 146, quite often custom built. In -
1970's and 80's,388, 430 - 437, 605started to640 - 651, 652 - 659, 668 a smaller extent699, 769 - 776,
345, 380 - the personal computer - 614, take hold in businesses and to - 680, 692 - in the home.
830 - 837, and 995 - 1003
CP880, Space Technology and Applications International Forum—STAIF 2007, edited by M. S. El-Genk
© 2007 American Institute of Physics 978-0-7354-0386-4/07/$23.00
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2. One positive note during this era was the birth and use of common modules in computer systems. Video, audio,
memory, communications, hard drives and motherboards started to be designed to be separate interchangeable
modules within the same manufacturer's computers.
There were two specific problems during this era. Firstly the personal computer may or may not have been
compatible with devices that people wished to share data with. The second was that even companies that advertised
the use of the same interface didn't necessarily implement them in a compatible way. This caused end users
frustration at the loss of time and money due to incompatibility.
The 90's brought more inter-company cooperation and collaboration. One specific example of this was the PCI bus.
Companies came together to define common interfaces they would all design to, both motherboard manufacturers
and device manufacturers. Devices became more compatible, and even interchangeable between different
manufacturers. This era of inter-company collaboration also brought definition to common modules, which now are
designed to interface specifications as defined by the PCI-SIG (PCI-SIG, 2006), USB Implementers Forum
(Universal Serial Bus, 2006) and the IEEE.
A niche for specialized computing has always been required, and so will specialized robotics continue to be
required. Common modules may not be appropriate for robots such as these (Innovations-report, 2006).
Common modules and common interfaces can be a boon to robots both here and off world, as they have been in the
arena of computing and automotive industries. Learning from and building on these previous efforts, the area of
robot technology can be propelled to a major part of successful space colonization.
MODULES
Common engineering practices are often known as BKMs or best known methods. Some that are used in software
engineering are re-use, breaking down a problem until it makes no sense to break it down further and having a well
defined interface between modules. COTS, sometimes known as Common Off The Shelf or Commercial Off The
Shelf, is a widely used term in both the software and hardware world to describe items for sale to the public
(Wikipedia, 2006). This term could also describe robotics modules.
Some advantages that can be gained from designing and implementing COTS modules are:
Early prototyping
Easy maintenance or replacement of a defective module
Modules could be interchangeable with other systems
A module could be modified for new ideas and technologies
A new module with a new design and technology could be added to the system
Designing a common interface will not add significant development time to the process and it will save time with
repair and maintenance, and add flexibility and the ability to add future technology. Being able to perform early
prototyping is also an advantage. If interfaces are well defined, time to market for a new module will decrease,
decreasing time to profit that might otherwise be used spending large sums in continued R&D. This profit could
lead to more and better advertising as well as R&D dollars. This could also lead to easier development and design
for the ability of one robot to be able to repair another.
Generic robot design can be broken down into several modules. One method to break down module design is:
Control Chassis Propulsion
Communications Guidance Power
Instrumentation Payload
One day robotic COTS modules may become as easily replaceable and available as buying an off the shelf
computer, or buying the individual parts to put one together.
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3. Control Module
The control module could be considered the brain of the operation. It is the decision maker. Based on input from
other modules, it outputs control signals to move, communicate, collect data and otherwise respond to input stimuli.
Some control systems are currently as simple as a remote control car receiver sending signals to a motor controller
to change direction based on human input to a remote control. This is a very basic system, no instrumentation, and a
minimal signal communication system.
A more complex system might involve direct input from an infrared or sonar based guidance system to a Basic
Stamp processor to send signals to motor controllers managing ailerons, propellers and other parts of an RC
airplane. Another complex system might have an embedded controller and operating system to control motors based
on guidance system input, while collecting and transmitting data wirelessly to a remote location.
Chassis Module
The chassis is always an important design decision for a robot. Several decisions will need to be made. Where will
it be used? If on land, will it need legs, wheels or tracks? If airborne, will it need to go longer distances with
heavier payloads like an airplane, or shorter distances carrying lighter payloads like a helicopter? If water based,
will it need to go on or under the water or both? How much will need to be water-tight? What other modules will
be required, or even optional? How will modules be mounted? Will communications be required? If so, how big
and what shape will the antenna be and how will it be mounted?
The chassis will determine the scope and purpose of the robot.
Propulsion Module
The means or method of moving defines the propulsion module. Three key issues define this module, which are
terrain, environment and power requirements.
For instance, all three issues are key to propulsion systems of land or air based robots that might enter and monitor a
live volcano. These would minimally need to be resistant to heat and corrosion. Rubber or plastic wheels would not
necessarily be a good fit for going into a cinder cone, however a robot with legs or metal tracks may be more
appropriate. A hybrid water and land robot hybrid may be better suited to the use of a propeller on water while
having deployable wheels on landing. A repair robot in a shop may not be mobile at all. Possible module categories
could be:
Non-mobile
Mobile Flying
Mobile Water Surface
Mobile Under Water
Mobile on Land
Universal Mobile, some combination of the above abilities
Mobile in Space, which may include universal mobile properties
As with computing, the propulsion module could be a proprietary one of a kind, or a common off the shelf part such
as a RC airplane motor.
Just about any type of robot that performs more than the most basic function will require some kind of
communication. There are several logical categories of robotic communications such as:
Remote control
Sending data about robot status
Sending data from onboard instrumentation
Passing or bridging data from one source to another, as an internet router or bridge might perform
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4. There are also many frequencies that could be used. Different antennas are required for different frequencies, as
well as for the power or strength of the signal. When designing, careful attention must be paid to the laws of the
countries the module will be operating in, such as FCC regulations in the US.
Guidance Module
There are several types of control systems that determine the ability and design of the guidance system. The
guidance control can be determined by one of three categories. First is remote control, either wireless or wired.
Second is semi-autonomous, where a remote command is given and on-board sensors give feedback to the control
module for decision making to determine movement and function, either via wired or wireless link. The third
category is autonomous, where remote control commands are not required for movement or functionality.
Most guidance systems will have one of the following three sensor mechanisms. The first sensor mechanism is
relational, the second uses ambient energy and the third a feedback based mechanism.
The relational mechanism figures out its position based on data, signals or ping in relation to an external signal
source. These can only be used where there are other devices that can be used to determine a relationship between
the remote device and the robot. Three types of relational mechanisms are GPS, CPS and SPS. GPS or the global
positioning system is a satellite based technology. The mobile phone network could be called the CPS or cell
positioning system where the guidance system determines the robot location based on cell tower data. SPS or the
swarm positioning system, could be defined as when many robots communicate and determine their position based
on the position of other robots in the swarm.
Ambient mechanisms include systems that determine position or guidance feedback based on ambient conditions.
Three examples of ambient mechanisms are vision, temperature and chemical detection. Vision systems depend on
ambient light conditions, and obstacles are avoided based on vision feedback. One example is robots in extreme
environments, like inside the mouth of a volcano may use temperature feedback to determine safe operating
parameters, and exit the volcano when temperature thresholds are reached. Chemical detection could be used in the
case of mine robots, where oxygen deprivation may harm humans and possibly limit mobility or function of the
robot as well.
Feedback mechanisms use energy or signals generated by the robot, and determine position relationship to its
surroundings. Three examples of this are laser radar, sonar and whiskers.
Power Module
Power modules can be grouped into three categories – stored, fuel and self power. The stored power module will
carry all the power it requires for the duration of its activities, such as battery power. The fuel module carries its
fuel requirement for the duration of its mission, which could be based on gas, propane, hydrogen or diesel. Self
power modules could be based on solar, kinetic energy (Kilburn, 2005), and possibly be able to refuel or recharge
stored or fuel systems.
Instrumentation Module
The purpose of this module is to perform duties not specific to the operation of the robot housing it. This is an
optional module, that is not required for operation of the robot. Instruments that could fit in this category are:
Sampling - both real time data collection and sample collection
Environmental Monitoring - weather conditions, biological, chemical or radiological
Video and Audio feeds
Construction - tools, arms, to a plow for dirt-moving
Repair - tools, arms or devices to repair structures, vehicles, robots modules or other devices.
The key parameters for this module are physical characteristics, including size, shape, signal interfaces and
connectors. These characteristics will be closely tied to the definition of the chassis. Defining and designing to
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5. common interfaces will make COTS robotic modules as available as PCI related devices for computers.
Payload Module
The payload module also is not specific to the operation of the robot housing it. This module is for carrying
instrumentation, other robots, vehicles or other devices to a destination for remote deployment. The robot housing
the payload module may also have an instrument module associated with it to set up and initialize the deployed
device if necessary.
CATEGORIES
Robotics can benefit from the learning of other industries. For instance, today many companies provide computers
that perform different purposes, yet still use common off the shelf parts. Using COTS, some control and collect data
from specialized instruments. Some require faster processors, expansive memory and perform scientific calculations
for days. Some perform the task as email terminals. Most hardware parts can be used in any of the above
computers because of the common interfaces and common modular functionality of the parts.
Defining categories or purposes for robots can help accelerate the design and acceptance of the COTS robotic
modules. Just as Ford's defining of categories of operation for tasks to be accomplished on the assembly line, the
same procedure can be used to optimize the use and purposes of mobile robots in space colonization.
Some possible categories to define mobile robotics, for here on earth as well as off world are:
EVbot Scanbot
Repairbot Tugbot
Shopbot Commbot
Deploybot Specbot
EVbot stands for Extreme enVironment robot, which consists of robots that operate in extreme environments. Two
examples of EVbots here on earth are NASA's AERCam and the older Dante volcano robots. Other examples of
robots that would fall in this category are robots operating in the arctic, on or around oil rigs, in mines, and for use in
dangerous chem/bio/rad situations.
The Scanbot is a robot that uses a system similar to the feedback module in the guidance system section above to
map an area, building, ship or device. NASA's AERCam also could fit in this category as it's purpose is to inspect
the ISS and space shuttle. For space colonization on the moon or Mars, this category of robot could inspect the
external structure of the habitat to insure habitat integrity as well as identify potential areas requiring repair or
maintenance.
The Repairbot category is made up of robots whose purpose is to travel to a remote location and repair a structure,
vehicle, robot, deployed instrumentation or other device.
The purpose of the Tugbot is to travel to a remote location, tow or pick up a remote vehicle, robot or other device
and bring it back to a shop to be repaired, recycled, cannibalized or otherwise disposed of.
The Shopbot category does not have the same mobility requirements as the other categories. The purpose of this
robot is to perform or automate the tasks of repair, recycle, cannibalization in “shop”, a room or location dedicated
to this purpose. The importance of COTS is emphasized by this robot category. Using common modules with
common interfaces makes automation production as well as it's other tasks easier and sharing of module types across
robots more feasible, coming close to the intent of Ford's assembly line, except for the purpose of just production
and manufacturing, making repair and maintenance more feasible as well.
The Commbot is dedicated to the purpose of communications. These could act as mobile routers, bridges, or even
hubs and switches. This could be used for anything between semi-permanent infrastructure for human
communication to a temporary signal-forwarding device for short distance, low power systems.
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6. The purpose of the Deploybot is to carry fuel, a vehicle, supplies, other robots, instruments or devices to a remote
location, if necessary set them up and insure their operability.
The Specbot is a special purpose robot that doesn't necessarily fall into any of the above categories and is for
special, possibly one off purposes or experiments.
Using COTS methods to design robots, and determine robot functionality can lead to interoperability of modules
between robots, as memory, video and sound cards for today's computers. This can lead to ease of maintaining
space colonization systems by humans, as well as ease the maintenance of the robots. Using the robots to automate
just the above tasks can free colonists to pursue methods to use local resources to grow or create what is required to
maintain human and automated systems.
PRODUCT LINES
The definition of modules and categories could also drive the ability to easily produce, deploy and maintain robotic
product lines. The combination of robots from the different categories above can pioneer a system of automation for
a specific purpose. For instance, a system of robots could be designed to increase the safety and efficiency of ocean
oil platforms, or deep earth mines.
In both oil platform and mining situations, there are a combination of remote, communications, corrosion,
maintenance, usability and other issues that would face space colonization. Prototyping and evolving product lines
here on earth can insure deployment off world is safe and adequately efficient for parts to be up to a year or more
distant.
Another possible product line would be in support of Arctic research. This product line could include Arctic robots
for on ice, under ice and airborne Scanbots, Deploybots, Tugbots, Repairbots and in the shop, Shopbots. With the
designs engineered to be hardened against the cold and elements, these robots could be expected to maintain their
duties even during winter storms and other conditions difficult environmental conditions.
Iris-Passcal (IRIS-PASSCAL, 2006) supports National Science Foundation related funding for instrumentation in
support of seismological study around the world. A product line for this organization could start with Deploybots
and Tugbots, eventually adding a mobile shop, Shopbots, Scanbots to monitor remotely deployed instruments on a
scheduled basis, Commbots to relay real time data from low power instruments and Repairbots to take care of
remotely deployed instrumentation.
One product line that is already being developed is a part of the Army's FCS or Furture Combat System UAV's,
ARV's, SUGV, MULEs. The Army categories appear to be based on chassis and chassis capability. Most can be
mapped into one or more of the above categories of EVbot, Scanbot, Tugbot, Commbot, Deploybot, with some
weapon carrying Specbots. A few additions that could be made are the Repairbots, Tugbots, Deploybots and
possibly Shopbots. For instance, designs of remotely deployed instruments, such as temporary short-range, low
power communication forwarding devices, could be enhanced for automated deployment by the Deploybots. In
urban combat situations, minimally the Commbot and Scanbot could be deployed to assist soldiers in intelligence
gathering.
The combination of modules, categories and product lines will lead to the symbiotic relationship between man and
machine in space colonization.
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
Until entirely self sufficient mechanisms can be developed from local materials and resources, colonists on other
planetary bodies besides the moon will be far enough away to require reliable, sustainable systems to be able to
survive. It may take a year or more to mail order anything from Earth.
In the case of personal computers, COTS has been the name of the game for years. Anyone can buy off the shelf
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7. video cards, memory, cpus, and other parts and build their own computers. No need to design and build CPUs,
chipsets, memory, video cards or any other component first.
When a communications module, guidance module or power module goes out on a system, COTS type technologies
will make replacement, repair and cannibalization easier for colonists to maintain machines in space colonization.
COTS modules, along with a framework of robot categories and product lines will lead to a reduced amount of time
to repair and re-deploy systems. This will leave the colonists time to concentrate on becoming self-sufficient using
local materials to create known technology or even new technology to replicate or replace needed technology.
While the machines take care of man in this instance, man is caring for the machines by insuring continual
maintenance, raw material gathering, production of constituent modules and new technologies are developed to care
for machines. Them helping us and us helping them.
Besides the categories above which are most useful for extreme environments on earth, additional robot categories
could include Interfacebots, or robots to interface with control systems, maintaining the internal environment and
power systems. Janitorbots could be used to maintain clean conditions inside the habitat, perhaps similar to the
current robot vacuums and other floor cleaning devices (IEEE Robotics and Automation Society, 2006). Designing with
COTS in mind will make maintaining these robots take little time and little effort.
Common off the shelf modules will make for easy maintenance allowing colonists to not have to spend a bulk of
their time just in maintenance of systems. A majority of robot categories will be the same as the ones described
above, however new categories should be developed as the need arises. COTS type modules and categories are
fundamental to the success of robot product lines.
Creation of product lines for space colonization could be as important to space colonization as Ford's assembly line
was to producing the Model T for the average man. The assembly line gave Ford the ability to produce a large
number of vehicles reliably, without requiring experts for every step of the production process. A robot product line
could take a task like mining and automate not only the mining process, but also detection and identification of
breakdowns, repair of machinery, robots and instrumentation, as well as deployment as well removal of machinery.
This could give colonists the time to determine best how to use the resources, as well as developing new
technologies to use, process or otherwise take advantage of the resources for local needs. Also excesses can be
traded for what can not easily be had locally.
Due to human requirements for earth-like environmental parameters, systems of some kind are required to maintain
these conditions. Ford's initial push for automating manufacturing processes has generated a wave of manufacturing
automation that has brought high tech products to the average human in contact with the automobile, refrigerator,
oven, microwave, radio, television and personal computer. The highly technical nature of these devices that make
our lives easier require our attention to maintain and care for continued existence.
CONCLUSION
There are many ways to get to a point where there are COTS modules, a framework of robot categories and product
lines. One way is for a company to start designing and implementing this type of system in a completely proprietary
way. On the other end of the spectrum, a consortium of completely open source design shops could start designing
and producing completely open hardware and software.
COTS parts and systems have made the automobile and computer industries successful, widely used and integral to
our every day lives. The usefulness of modules, robot categories, and robot product lines will give a significant
advantage to space settlers.
Innovation and great technology is not missing from robotics. Commodity, commercial or common off-the-shelf,
easy to use and maintain modules with interfaces, architecture and direction need development. A few organizations
that currently have parallel or similar efforts are the IEEE, AIAA and AUVSI. Engaging these organizations can
drive help drive the COTS effort.
There will always be a small need for a few high cost, highly specialized robotics. There will also always be a call
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8. for better, faster, cheaper devices from the people holding the money. As the cost of building systems described
here continues to drop and the time to profit continues to decrease, people with money to spend on R&D will notice
the larger return on investment for these systems. This will drive more investment as the money holders realize their
desires faster, while spending less money to do so, making more money available for other research. The more
research dollars available, the more can be done to get to space.
What now? Successful space colonization.
NOMENCLATURE
AIAA = American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
AUVSI = Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International
BKM = Best Known Methods
COTS = Common/Commercial Off The Shelf
CPS = Cell Positioning System, describes cell phone/tower technology
GPS = Global Positioning System
IEEE = Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IRIS = Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology
PASSCAL = Program for Array Seismic Studies of Continental Lithosphere
PCI = Peripheral Component Interconnect
SPS = Swarm Positioning System
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to friends on the internet for the fertile soil of innovation, Anita Gale and Dick
Edwards for the encouragement to proceed and for the patience of my wife and children.
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