Wk 2 - Apply Five Step Marketing Research Approach [due Mon]Top.docx

Wk 2 - Apply: Five Step Marketing Research Approach [due
Mon]
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Assignment Content
1.
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Scenario: You are the marketing manager for a local nonprofit
charity whose funding is derived from membership fees. You
have noticed a severe drop in new memberships and a decline in
repeat memberships, which is threatening your organization's
ability to survive and grow. You have decided to implement the
Five-Step Marketing Research Approach to help clarify the
problem and develop strategies for implementation.
Create a 10- to 15-slide Microsoft® PowerPoint®, Prezi, or
Microsoft® Sway® presentation with speaker notes on the Five-
Step Marketing Research Approach in which you detail the
steps you will use to address the membership issue that the local
nonprofit charity is facing.
Address the following in your role as marketing manager:
· Define the Five-Step Marketing Research Approach and
discuss the importance of research in marketing.
· Describe each step of the Marketing Research Approach in
detail and create a plan of attack to explain how each stage
should be implemented.
· Define the target market that you are striving to bring into this
organization and describe the methods of research that you will
use to identify these groups of people.
· Define service differentiation. Provide an example that
illustrates how the local nonprofit charity in the scenario can
use differentiation to help increase the target market's interest.

· Explain how differentiation will help position the charitable
organization within its defined market.
Submit your assignment.
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Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3c Results Methods
Book Title: Managing Human Resources
Printed By: Cedric Turner ([email protected])
© 2016 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning
8.3c Results Methods
Rather than looking at the traits of employees or the behaviors
they exhibit on the job, many
organizations evaluate employees’ accomplishments—the
results they achieve through their
work. Advocates of results evaluations argue that they are more
objective and empowering
for employees. Looking at results such as sales figures and
production output involves less
subjectivity. Results evaluations often give employees
responsibility for their outcomes while
giving them discretion over the way they accomplish them
(within limits). This is employee
empowerment and engagement in action.

Productivity Measures
A number of results measures are available to evaluate
performance. Salespeople are
evaluated on the basis of their sales volume (both the number of
units sold and the dollar
amount in revenues). Production workers are evaluated on the
basis of the number of units
they produce and perhaps the scrap rate or number of defects
detected in their work.
Executives are frequently evaluated on the basis of a company’s
profits or growth rate. Each
of these measures directly links what employees accomplish to
results that benefit the
organization. In this way, results evaluations can directly align
employee and organizational
goals.
But there are some problems with results evaluations. First,
recall our earlier discussion of
criteria contamination. Results evaluations can be contaminated
by external factors that
employees cannot influence. Sales representatives who have
extremely bad sales territories
or production employees who cannot get materials due to
shipping delays will not be able to
perform up to their abilities. Obviously, it is unfair to hold
employees accountable for
circumstances beyond their control. Furthermore, results
evaluations can inadvertently
encourage employees to “look good” on a short-term basis while
ignoring the long-term
ramifications. Line supervisors, for example, might let their
equipment go without needed
tune-ups to reduce maintenance costs.

For jobs that are more service oriented, it is not enough to
simply look at production or sales
figures. Factors such as cooperation, adaptability, initiative, and
concern for human relations
are important to the job success of employees, too. If these
factors are important job
standards, they should be added to the evaluation review. Thus,
to be realistic, both the
results and the methods or processes used to achieve them
should be considered.
Management by Objectives
One method that attempts to overcome some of the limitations
of results evaluations is
management by objectives (MBO) (A philosophy of
management that rates the
performance of employees based on their achievement of goals
set mutually by them and
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their manager) . MBO is a philosophy of management that has
employees establish
objectives (such as production costs, sales per product, quality
standards, and profits) by
consulting with their superiors. Employees are then evaluated
based on these objectives.

An MBO system (see Figure 8.7) consists of a cycle that begins
with setting the
organization’s common goals and objectives and ultimately
returns to that step. The system
acts as a goal-setting process whereby objectives are established
for the organization (Step
1), departments (Step 2), and individual managers and
employees (Step 3).
Figure 8.7
Performance Appraisal under an MBO Program
© Cengage Learning
As Figure 8.7 shows, employees help establish specific goals,
but those goals are based on
a broad statement of an employee’s responsibilities prepared by
the person’s supervisor.
The employee-established goals are then discussed with the
supervisor and jointly reviewed
and modified until both parties are satisfied with them (Step 4).
The goal statements are
accompanied by a detailed account of the actions the employee
proposes to take to reach
the goals and how they will be measured (the metrics).
During periodic reviews, the progress the employee makes
toward the goals is then
assessed (Step 5). The goals and metrics may be changed at this
time as new or additional
information is received. After a period of time (usually six
months or one year), the
employee makes a self-evaluation of what he or she has
accomplished, substantiating the

self-evaluation with documentation when possible. The final
review is an examination of the
employee’s self-evaluation by the supervisor and the employee
together (Step 6). The final
step (Step 7) is reviewing the connection between the
employees’ performance and the
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(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
organization’s. Notice how the steps in an MBO program are
similar to the steps in Figure
8.1 at the beginning of the chapter but are more specific.
Goal setting via an MBO or other program can measurably
improve how well employees
perform because it helps them clearly focus on what they need
to do to meet their
objectives. It also aids learning because employees can

regularly evaluate their
performance against the objectives they’ve set for themselves.
The following guidelines
can help an MBO program succeed:
1. The objectives should be quantifiable and measurable and
accompanied by a
description of how they will be accomplished.
2. The results that are expected must be under the employee’s
control. Managers must
be willing to empower employees to accomplish their goals on
their own, giving them
discretion over the methods they use (but holding them
accountable for the
outcomes).
3. The firm’s goals and objectives must be consistent, or
aligned, with the goals of
employees at all levels, including a firm’s top managers.
4. Timeframes for when the goals are to be reviewed and
evaluated need to be
established.
The Balanced Scorecard
The Balanced Scorecard (BSC), which we first discussed in
Chapter 2, can be used to
appraise individual employees, teams, business units, and the
corporation itself. A BSC
evaluation takes into account four related categories:
financial measures,
customer measures,

process measures, and
learning measures. Highlights in HRM 5 shows how a balanced
scorecard in the
financial category translates to a personal scorecard for an
employee. The
corporation’s financial objectives have already been spelled out
on the top of the
scorecard. Then the various business unit targets are added,
followed by the
target objectives of the firm’s teams and individual employees.
The scorecard
allows each individual to see clearly how his or her
performance ties into the
overall performance of the firm. The target objectives for the
customer category of
the scorecard (not shown) might include customer satisfaction
and retention
rates, delivery performance to customers, and so forth.
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Highlights in HRM 5
Personal Scorecard

Source: Adapted from Robert Kaplan and David Norton, “Using
the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic
Management System,” Harvard Business Review (January–
February 1996): 75–85.
The BSC evaluation method is similar to an MBO system in that
it translates broad
corporate goals into divisional, departmental, team, and
individual goals in a cascading way.
This ensures that implementing the firm’s strategy becomes
“everyone’s” job.
Some recommendations for ensuring the method’s success
include the following:
Translate the firm’s strategy into a scorecard of clear
objectives. Clear objectives
provide managers and frontline employees with goals that are
more understandable
and attainable. Typically, having fewer goals adds clarity and
focus.
Attach measures to each objective. Each objective should be
measurable and the
measure included on the scorecard.
Provide performance feedback based on measures. Are
employees meeting their
targets? Why or why not? Unless managers provide employees
with solid feedback,
the system is likely to be ineffective.

Empower employees to make performance improvements. One
of the benefits of a
results-based system such as the BSC is that it gives employees
the latitude to
continuously improve their work methods.
Reassess the strategy. Information from the process should be
used to reassess the
firm’s strategy and make continuous adjustments. Those who
have had the best
success with the BSC say the system helps improve
communication and learning
rather than fixing in place a mechanical set of controls.
Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3c Results Methods
© 2020 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of
this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any
means -
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner -
without the written permission of the copyright holder.
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Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3d Which Performance
Evaluation Method Should You Use?
8.3d Which Performance Evaluation Method Should You Use?
Figure 8.8 lists some of the strengths and weaknesses of trait,
behavior, and results
approaches to appraising employees. Although researchers and
HR managers generally
believe that the more sophisticated and time-consuming
methods offer more useful
information, this may not always be the case. Ronald Gross, an
industrial psychologist and
human resources consultant, states: “I can’t judge a
performance appraisal system just by
looking at the paperwork. The back of an envelope can work
just fine. I’ve seen many
systems fail miserably because they’re too complex, too time-
consuming, and too
burdensome. I’ve never seen a system fail because it was too
simple.” One way to
assess whether an organization’s evaluation system is effective
is by doing an annual, or at
least periodic, audit of the process using a survey instrument
that both managers and
employees complete on a periodic basis. This should give HR a
better sense of whether the
evaluation process is improving.

Figure 8.8
A Summary of Various Evaluation Methods
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Trait
Method
1. Are inexpensive to develop
2. Use meaningful dimensions
3. Are easy to use
1. Have a high potential for
rating errors
2. Are not useful for employee
counseling
3. Are not useful for allocating
rewards
4. Are not useful for promotion
decisions
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ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Behavioral
Methods
1. Use specific performance
dimensions
2. Are acceptable to
employees and superiors
3. Are useful for providing
feedback
4. Are fair for reward and
promotion decisions
1. Can be time-consuming to
develop/use
2. Can be costly to develop
3. Have some potential for
rating error
Results
Methods
1. Have less subjectivity bias
2. Are acceptable to
employees and superiors
3. Link individual performance

to organizational
performance
4. Encourage mutual goal
setting
5. Are good for reward and
promotion decisions
1. Are time-consuming to
develop/use
2. May encourage a short-
term perspective
3. May use contaminated
criteria
4. May use deficient criteria
© Cengage Learning
Of course, having a first-rate evaluation method does no good if
the manager simply
“shoves the information in a drawer.” Even a rudimentary
system, when used properly, can
initiate a discussion between managers and employees that
genuinely leads to better
performance on the part of individual workers.
Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3d Which Performance
Evaluation Method Should You Use?

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Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3a Trait Methods
8.3a Trait Methods
Trait approaches are designed to measure the extent to which an
employee possesses
certain characteristics—such as dependability, reactivity,
initiative, and leadership—that are
viewed as important for the job and the organization in general.
Trait methods became
popular because they are easy to develop. However, if not
designed carefully on the basis

of job analysis, trait evaluations can be notoriously biased and
subjective.
Graphic Rating Scales
In the graphic rating scale method (A trait approach to
performance rating whereby each
employee is rated according to a scale of characteristics) , each
trait or characteristic to be
rated is represented by a scale on which a rater indicates the
degree to which an employee
possesses that trait or characteristic. An example of this type of
scale is shown in Highlights
in HRM 2. There are many variations of the graphic rating
scale. The differences are to be
found in
the characteristics or dimensions on which individuals are rated,
the degree to which the performance dimension is defined for
the rater, and
how clearly the points on the scale are defined. In Highlights in
HRM 2, the
dimensions are defined briefly, and some attempt is made to
define the points on
the scale. Subjectivity bias is reduced somewhat when the
dimensions on the
scale and the scale points are defined as precisely as possible.
This can be
achieved by training raters and by including descriptive
evaluation guidelines in a
performance evaluation reference packet.
Highlights in HRM 2

Graphic Rating Scale with Provision for Comments
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Also, the rating form should provide sufficient space for
comments on the behavior
associated with each scale. These comments improve the
accuracy of the evaluation
because they require the rater to think in terms of observable
employee behaviors while
providing specific examples to discuss with the employee.
Mixed-Standard Scales
The mixed-standard scale method (A trait approach to
performance rating similar to other
scale methods but based on comparison with (better than, equal
to, or worse than) a
standard) is a modification of the basic rating scale method.
Rather than evaluating traits
according to a single scale, the rater is given three specific
descriptions of each trait. These
descriptions reflect three levels of performance: superior,
average, and inferior. After the
three descriptions for each trait are written, they are randomly
sequenced to form the mixed-

standard scale. As Highlights in HRM 3 discusses, supervisors
evaluate employees by
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indicating whether their performance is better than, equal to, or
worse than the standard for
each behavior.
Forced-Choice Method
The forced-choice method (A trait approach to performance
rating that requires the rater
to choose from statements designed to distinguish between
successful and unsuccessful
performance) requires the rater to choose from statements, often
in pairs, that appear
equally favorable or equally unfavorable but are designed to
distinguish between successful
and unsuccessful performance. For example, forced-choice pairs
might include the
following:
1. a) Works
hard
b) Works quickly

2. a) Shows
initiative
b) Is responsive to
customers
3. a) Work is
reliable
b) Performance is
good
The rater then selects one statement from the pair without
knowing which statement
correctly describes successful job behavior. Because it’s not
immediately clear, which
response results in a higher rating, less bias results.
The forced-choice method is not without limitations, the
primary one being the cost of
establishing and maintaining its validity. The fact that it has
been a source of frustration to
many raters has sometimes caused the method to be eliminated
from evaluation programs.
In addition, it cannot be used as effectively as some of the other
methods as a tool for
developing employees.
Essay Method
Unlike rating scales, which provide a structured form of
evaluation, the essay method (A
trait approach to performance rating that requires the rater to
compose a statement
describing employee behavior) requires the appraiser to
compose a statement that best

describes the employee’s strengths and weaknesses and make
recommendations for his or
her development. Often the essay method is combined with
other rating methods because it
provides additional descriptive information about an employee’s
performance that cannot be
generated with a structured rating scale. Essays also provide an
excellent opportunity for
supervisors to point out the unique characteristics of the
employee being appraised,
including specific points about the employee’s promotability,
special talents, skills, strengths,
and weaknesses.
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A limitation of the essay method is that composing an essay that
attempts to cover all of an
employee’s essential characteristics is a very time-consuming
task (though when combined
with other methods, this method does not require a lengthy
statement). Another
disadvantage of the method is that it tends to be subjective and
might not focus on the
relevant aspects of a person’s job performance. A final
drawback of this evaluation method
is that the quality of the performance evaluation could be
affected by the supervisor’s writing

skills. Good writers may simply be able to produce more
favorable-sounding evaluations.
Highlights in HRM 3
Example of a Mixed-Standard Scale
DIRECTIONS: Indicate whether the individual’s performance is
above (1), equal to
(0), or lower than (2) each of the following standards.
1. Employee uses good judgment when addressing problems
and
provides workable alternatives; however, at times does not take
actions to
prevent problems. (medium PROBLEM-SOLVING)
2. Employee lacks supervisory skills; frequently handles
employees
poorly and is at times argumentative. (low LEADERSHIP)
3. Employee is extremely cooperative; can be expected to take
the lead
in developing cooperation among employees; completes job
tasks with a
positive attitude. (high COOPERATION)
4. Employee has effective supervision skills; encourages
productivity,
quality, and employee development. (medium LEADERSHIP)
5. Employee normally displays an argumentative or defensive
attitude
toward fellow employees and job assignments. (low
COOPERATION)

6. Employee is generally agreeable but becomes argumentative
at times
when given job assignments; cooperates with other employees
as expected.
(medium COOPERATION)
7. Employee is not good at solving problems; uses poor
judgment and
does not anticipate potential difficulties. (low PROBLEM-
SOLVING)
8. Employee anticipates potential problems and provides
creative,
proactive alternative solutions; has good attention to follow-up.
(high
PROBLEM-SOLVING)
9. Employee displays skilled direction, effectively coordinates
unit
activities, is generally a dynamic leader, and motivates
employees to high
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performance. (high LEADERSHIP)
Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3a Trait Methods

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Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3b Behavioral Methods
8.3b Behavioral Methods
As we mentioned, one of the potential drawbacks of a trait-
oriented performance evaluation
is that traits tend to be vague and subjective. We discussed
earlier that one way to improve
a trait-based method is with a rating scale that describes
behavior along a scale, or
continuum. Behavioral methods specifically describe which
actions should (or should not) be
exhibited on the job.
Critical Incident Method
The critical incident method, described in Chapter 4 in

connection with job analysis, is also
used as a method of evaluation. Recall that a critical incident
(An unusual event that
denotes superior or inferior employee performance in some part
of the job) occurs when
employee behavior results in unusual success or unusual failure
in some part of the job. An
example of a favorable critical incident occurs when a janitor
observes that a file cabinet
containing classified documents has been left unlocked at the
close of business and calls
the firm’s security officer to correct the problem. An example
of an unfavorable incident
occurs when a mail clerk fails to deliver an Express Mail
package immediately, instead
putting it in with regular mail to be routed two hours later. The
manager keeps a log or diary
for each employee throughout the evaluation period and notes
specific critical incidents
related to how well they perform.
When completing the evaluation form, the manager refers to the
critical incident log and
uses this information to substantiate an employee’s rating of
outstanding, satisfactory, or
unsatisfactory in specific performance areas and overall. This
method can also help a
manager counsel employees when they are having performance
problems while the
problem is still minor. It also increases the objectivity of the
evaluation by requiring the rater
to use job performance criteria to justify the ratings.
Behavioral Checklist Method
The behavioral checklist method requires the rater to check

statements on a list that
describe characteristics of the employee’s behavior. A checklist
developed for salespeople
who sell electronic products might include a number of
statements such as the following:
Questions customers about their needs
Identifies products that meet customers’ needs
Keeps abreast of new developments in technology
Processes orders correctly
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Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
A behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) (A behavioral
approach to performance
rating that consists of a series of vertical scales, one for each
important dimension of job
performance) consists of a series of 5 to 10 vertical scales—one

for each important
dimension of performance identified through job analysis. These
dimensions are “anchored”
by behaviors identified through a critical incident job analysis.
The critical incidents are
placed along the scale and are assigned point values according
to the opinions of experts.
A BARS for the job of firefighter is shown in the upper portion
of Highlights in HRM 4. Note
that this particular scale is for the dimension described as
“Firefighting Strategy: Knowledge
of Fire Characteristics.”
A BARS is typically developed by a committee that includes
both subordinates and
managers. The committee’s task is to identify all the relevant
characteristics or dimensions
of the job. Behavioral anchors in the form of statements are
then established for each of the
job dimensions. Several participants are asked to review the
anchor statements and indicate
which job dimension each anchor illustrates. The only anchors
retained are those that at
least 70 percent of the group agrees belong with a particular
dimension. Finally, the anchors
are attached to their job dimensions and are placed on the
appropriate scales according to
values that the group assigns to them.
At present there is no strong evidence that a BARS reduces all
of the rating errors
mentioned previously. However, some studies have shown that
scales of this type can yield
more accurate ratings. One major advantage of a BARS is that
personnel outside the HR
department participate with HR staff in its development.

Employee participation can lead to
greater acceptance of the performance evaluation process and of
the performance
measures that it uses. The procedures followed in developing a
BARS also result in scales
that have a high degree of content validity. The main
disadvantage of a BARS is that it
requires considerable time and effort to develop.
Behavior Observation Scale (BOS)
A behavior observation scale (BOS) (A behavioral approach to
performance rating that
measures the frequency of observed behavior) is similar to a
BARS in that they are both
based on critical incidents. However, the lower portion of
Highlights in HRM 4 shows that
rather than asking the evaluator to choose the most
representative behavioral anchor, a
BOS is designed to measure how frequently each of the
behaviors has been observed.
A BOS allows the appraiser to play the role of observer rather
than of judge, which makes it
easier to provide constructive feedback to the employee, who
will be more willing to accept
it. Companies such as AT&T and Weyerhaeuser have used the
BOS, and research shows
that users of the system frequently prefer it over the BARS or
trait scales for
maintaining objectivity,
distinguishing good performers from poor performers,
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providing feedback, and
identifying training needs.
Highlights in HRM 4
BARS and BOS Examples
Example of a BARS for Municipal Fire Companies
FIREFIGHTING STRATEGY: Knowledge of Fire
Characteristics. This area of
performance concerns the ability of a firefighter to understand
fire characteristics to
develop the best strategy for fighting a fire.
HIGH 7 —Finds the fire when no one
else can
6 —Correctly assesses best
point of entry for fighting fire

5 —Uses type of smoke as
indicator of type of fire
AVERAGE 4 —Understands basic
hydraulics
3 —Cannot tell the type of fire
by observing the color of
flame
2 —Cannot identify the location
of the fire
LOW 1 —Will not change the
firefighting strategy in spite of
flashbacks and other signs
that accelerants present
Sample Items from Behavior Observation Scales
For each behavior observed, use the following scale:
5 represents almost
always
95–100% of the time
4 represents frequently 85–94% of the time
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3 represents sometimes 75–84% of the time
2 represents seldom 65–74% of the time
1 represents almost
never
0–64% of the time
SALES
PRODUCTIVITY
NEVER ALWAYS
1. Reviews
individual
productivity
results with
manager
1 2 3 4 5
2. Suggests to
peers ways of
building sales
1 2 3 4 5
3. Uncovers
specific needs
for each contact
1 2 3 4 5

4. Keeps
account plans
updated
1 2 3 4 5
5. Follows up
on customer
leads
1 2 3 4 5
Source: Adapted from Landy, Jacobs, and Associates. Reprinted
with permission.
Chapter 8: Performance Management: 8.3b Behavioral Methods
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LO 4
What training methods have you personally
experienced? Which were most effective in
your opinion, and why?
Chapter 7: Training and Development: 7.4 Phase 3:
Implementing the Training Program—Training Delivery
Methods
7.4 Phase 3: Implementing the Training Program—Training
Delivery
Methods
Have you ever sat through a less-than-
great training session and thought to
yourself, “There has got to be a better
way to get this material across.”
Perhaps what was lacking was the right
training method. Training methods are
where “the rubber meets the road” in
implementing a training program.
Choosing the right one is done by determining which ones are
appropriate for the KSAos to
be learned. To organize our discussion of various training
methods, we have placed them
along the learning continuum shown in Figure 7.5—from
learning that is very reactive and
passive to learning that is very active. For example, if the
material is mostly factual or
designed to create a shift in employee attitudes, methods such
as lecture, classroom, or
online instruction may be fine. However, if the training involves

a large behavioral or skill
component, more hands-on methods such as on-the-job training
or a special job assignment
are likely to work better. In other words, the method should be
matched to the learning
outcome you are trying to achieve.
Figure 7.5
Learning Outcomes Differ by Training Method
© Cengage Learning
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Keep in mind that many of the methods are used to train both
nonmanagers and managers,
although some are more used predominantly for one group than
the other. In addition,
multiple training methods are often used in conjunction with
different types of learners.
Using multiple methods is referred to as blended learning. As
Figure 7.6 shows, traditional
classroom instruction delivered by lecturers continues to be the
number one training delivery
method for formally training employees. However, blended
learning, which we will discuss
shortly, is the second-most commonly used method.

Figure 7.6
Training Delivery Methods
Source: Adapted from “2013 Training Industry Report” Training
(November–December 2013): 22–35.
On-the-Job Training
By far the most common informal method used for training
employees is on-the-job
training (OJT) (A method by which employees are given hands-
on experience with
instructions from their supervisor or other trainer) . By some
estimates, 80–90 percent of
employee learning occurs via OJT. OJT has the advantage of
providing hands-on
experience under normal working conditions and an opportunity
for the trainer—a manager
or senior employee—to build good relationships with new
employees. OJT is viewed by
some to be potentially the most effective means of facilitating
learning in the workplace.
Although it is used by all types of organizations, OJT is
sometimes poorly implemented by
training methods because of its informal nature. To overcome
these problems, training
experts suggest firms develop realistic goals and measures for
the training as well as plan a
specific training schedule for each trainee. Conducting periodic
evaluations after the training
is completed can helps ensure employees have not forgotten
what they have learned.

Figure 7.7 shows the basic steps of an OJT program. KLM
Royal Dutch Airlines uses OJT to
train its flight attendants. The airline started a program that
places trainees in the classroom
for a certain period and then gives them additional training
during an evaluation flight. On
these flights, experienced flight attendants provide OJT based
on a list of identified job
tasks. Some tasks, such as serving meals and snacks, are
demonstrated during the actual
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delivery of services to passengers. Other tasks are presented to
trainees, away from
passengers, between meal service.
Figure 7.7
The PROPER Way to Do On-the-Job Training
Source: Scott Snell, University of Virginia.
An extension of OJT is apprenticeship training (A system of
training in which a worker

entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and
experience, both on and off the
job, in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work) . With
this method, individuals
entering an industry, particularly in the skilled trades such as
machinist, laboratory
technician, and electrician, are given thorough instruction and
experience, both on and off
the job. For example, Bonneville Power Administration and GP
Strategies Corporation
developed an apprenticeship program to give employees both a
strong technical foundation
in the fundamentals of electricity and a hands-on ability to
operate equipment within power
substations. The program was also designed to help future
electrical operators respond to
emergencies. Generally, an apprentice is paid 50 percent of a
skilled journey worker’s
wage to start with, but the wage increases at regular intervals as
the apprentice’s job skills
increase. When the apprentice successfully completes the
apprenticeship, he or she
becomes a certified journey-level worker earning full pay.
Apprenticeship programs originated in Europe centuries ago as
part of its guild system and
are still used extensively there. Germany alone has hundreds of
accredited apprenticeships.
College students in Germany generally become apprentices too,
dividing their time between
studying and gaining on-the-job experience. Typically, the
programs involve cooperation
between organizations and their labor unions, between industry
and government, or
between organizations and local school systems.

In the United States, tens of thousands of organizations have
registered their programs with
the U.S. Department of Labor’s Office of Apprenticeships and
state agencies. There are
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apprenticeships available in a wide range of industries,
including construction and
manufacturing and the telecommunications, arts, and health
fields.
Special Assignments
Special job assignments (discussed in Chapter 5) involve
assigning trainees, who are often
but not always on managerial tracks, to different jobs in
different areas of a firm, often in
different regions and countries. In some cases, they are groomed
by other managers in
understudy assignments to do important job functions. Job
rotation and lateral transfers also
provide trainees with a variety of hands-on work experiences.
Special projects and junior
boards give trainees an opportunity to study an organization’s

challenges, make decisions
about them, discuss what aspects of the projects went right and
wrong, and plan and work
on new initiatives.
Cooperative Training, Internships, and Governmental Training
Similar to apprenticeships, cooperative training (A training
program that combines
practical on-the-job experience with formal educational classes)
programs combine practical
on-the-job experience with formal classes. For example, a
student might alternate work at
an organization for one semester (for pay) and then go to school
the next semester. Many
organizations, including Fannie Mae, General Motors Burger
King, Champion International,
Cray, Inc., and the insurance company UNUM, have invested
millions of dollars in
educational cooperative training programs in conjunction with
high schools and colleges.
Apprenticeships are a good way to recruit and train employees.
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Internship programs, which we discussed in Chapter 5, are
jointly sponsored by colleges,
universities, and a variety of organizations. The programs offer
students the chance to get
real-world experience while finding out how they will perform
in work organizations.
Organizations benefit by getting student-employees with new
ideas, energy, and eagerness
to accomplish their assignments. Some universities and
community colleges allow students
to earn college credits for successfully completing internships.
The federal government and various state governments work
together with private
employers to sponsor training programs for new and current
employees at career centers
nationwide that take place at One Stop career centers
(sometimes called “Job Service” or
“Workforce Development” centers). The One Stop centers were
modeled on Minnesota’s
successful program to help workers find jobs, help employers
find qualified workers, and
provide job training and other employment services all under
one roof (hence the name One
Stop). 3M, Northwest Airlines, Honeywell, and General Mills
are just a few of the companies
involved in the One Stop program.
Simulations
Sometimes it is either impractical or unwise to train employees
on the actual equipment
used on the job. An obvious example is training employees to
operate aircraft, spacecraft,
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and other highly technical and expensive equipment. The
simulation method emphasizes
realism in equipment and its operation at minimum cost and
maximum safety.
Southwest Airlines has 10 full-motion 737 flight simulators at
its training center adjacent to
Southwest’s headquarters at Dallas’s Love Field. During each
four-hour training situation in
a simulator, a flight crew faces more abnormal flight situations
than it would in a lifetime. The
Federal Aviation Administration developed a sophisticated
simulator to dramatically speed
up the training of air traffic controllers, a process that used to
take as long as five years.
Variables such as wind speed, precipitation, and the number of
airplanes to be guided can
be adjusted on the simulator to test the ability of trainees.
Simulators that represent human
patients are being used for medical training.
The distinction between simulators like Southwest Airlines’
cockpits that move and jostle
flight crews about and computer-based simulation has blurred.
To train its forklift operators,
the aluminum company Alcoa uses a computer simulation called

Safedock. In the
simulation, trainees perform common tasks such as moving
loads from one end of a loading
area to the other. If a trainee makes a wrong move, he or she
instantly sees the
consequences: the forklift might end up driving off the dock or
crashing into another forklift.
These types of technologies are making it easier to offer
training in new and different
ways.
Simulations can also be used to help employees and managers
make tactical decisions.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency has used
simulations to help managers
better respond to crises. In one computer simulation a chemical
cloud engulfs a city, and
managers attempt to respond dynamically to the various
problems it creates. At Marriott
International, a computer program called Business Acumen has
been used to train its non-
U.S. property-level managers on the finer points of hotel
operation. The program simulates
hotel operations scenarios such as budgetary decisions.
Simulations do not always require a computer, however.
Motorola developed a
noncomputer-based managerial simulation called “Equal
Employment Opportunity: It’s Your
Job” to teach the basic principles of equal employment
opportunity. Trainees get caught up
in the competitive spirit of a game and at the same time absorb
and remember government
regulations. They also become aware of how their own daily
decisions affect their

employer’s compliance with these regulations.
E-Learning
The training methods we just discussed are evolving into what
trainers today refer to as e-
learning. E-learning (Learning that takes place via electronic
media) covers a wide variety
of applications such as web and computer-based training (CBT),
and social networks. It
includes the delivery of content via the Internet, intranets and
extranets, mobile devices,
DVDs, CD-ROMs, MP3 players, and even “virtual classrooms”
found in the gaming platform
Second Life.
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Increasingly, e-learning involves the use of a learning
management system (LMS) (Online
system that provides a variety of assessment, communication,
teaching, and learning
opportunities) , which combines a company’s e-learning,
employee assessment tools, and

other training functions into one electronic tool, often custom
built for the firm by software
vendors. Using the software, managers can assess the skills of
employees, register them
for courses, deliver interactive learning modules directly to
employees’ desktops when they
need or want them, evaluate and track their progress, and
determine when they are ready to
be promoted.
Purchasing a learning management system does not alleviate HR
personnel and the firm’s
managers’ responsibility for conducting a thorough needs
assessment, however—especially
because the systems are costly. After conducting a thorough
needs analysis, managers
have to then research vendors, ask them to conduct
demonstrations, get bids from them,
and ultimately choose the type of systems that will work best.
E-learning transforms the learning process in several ways.
First, as we have said, it allows
the firm to bring the training to employees rather than vice
versa, which is generally more
efficient and cost-effective. The nuclear power plant industry is
a case in point: Nuclear
power plant training is frequent and time-consuming. For
workers just to remove their
protective gear and commute to a separate training venue can
take an hour or more. One
nuclear power company that switched to e-learning reported that
it saved nearly $1 million
and 10,000 employee hours in just one year by doing so.
E-learning also allows companies to offer individual training
components to employees

when and where they need them. Offering employees training
when and where they need it
is referred to as just-in-time training (Training delivered to
trainees when and where they
need it to do their jobs, usually via computer or the Internet) . It
helps alleviate the boredom
trainees experience during full-blown training courses, and
employees are more likely to
retain the information when they can immediately put it to use.
Microsoft’s product experts
have created hundreds of short audio and video clips the
company’s sales professionals
can download onto their mobile devices as they need them.
Long training courses pulled
people away from making sales, and with so many products
continually being launched, it
was difficult for them to keep up to date if they had to take
frequent training sessions. Also,
employees didn’t remember the training if they could not put it
to use immediately.
Communities of practice is a type of grassroots training that
allows people to share
knowledge and collaborate with one another via social
networking tools. Blogs and wikis—
sites where people can post information as they can on
Wikipedia—are examples of the
tools used to facilitate learning via the communities of practice
method. The U.S. Army has
a communities-of-practice site. When soldiers were having
problems using a grenade
launcher, a unit commander posted a question on the site.
Shortly thereafter, someone who
had experienced a similar problem posted a simple solution. The
Cheesecake Factory
restaurant chain trains employees by letting them upload and

share video snippets on job-
related topics, including how to prepare certain foods and
provide good customer service.
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The consulting firm Accenture has a communities-of-practice
site that allows employees to
vote for the best answers.
E-learning systems need not be overly expensive. Many e-
learning training programs use
existing applications employees are familiar with such as
PowerPoint, Word, Adobe
Acrobat, and audio and video files that can be easily uploaded
and viewed or listened to
online using computers and mobile devices. Eventually, massive
open online courses
(MOOCs) could make training even less-expensive for firms.
An MOOC is an online course
anyone can take. The courses allow people to learn at their own
pace, get automatic
feedback on how they are doing, and get automatically graded.
Although they have been used primarily in academia, MOOCs
are likely to shift how
businesses train people—from identifying new recruits to

helping their current employees
master competencies required for jobs. The global steel
manufacturer Tenaris has adopted
a MOOC platform to deliver training programs to its tens of
thousands of employees
worldwide. To help its client companies find web developers
with HTML experience, the
recruiting company Aquent launched a MOOC. Thousands of
people signed up for an HTML
course Aquent hosted. A couple of hundred went on to get jobs.
Like other types of online learning, the lack of contact with
other people can be a problem
for some learners. Some MOOCs allow students to have
classroom discussions virtually
with other people. Others allow instructors to record audio
comments or videos about what’s
going on in the course each week.
Behavior Modeling
One technique that combines several different training methods,
and therefore multiple
principles of learning, is the behavior modeling technique.
Behavior modeling (An
approach that demonstrates desired behavior and gives trainees
the chance to practice and
role-play those behaviors and receive feedback) consists of four
basic components:
1. Learning points. For example, the learning points might
describe the recommended
steps for managers to give employees feedback.
2. Modeling. Participants view videos in which a model
manager is portrayed dealing

with an employee in an effort to improve his or her
performance. The model shows
specifically how to deal with the situation and demonstrates the
learning points.
3. Practice. Trainees then practice the behaviors demonstrated
by the models.
4. Feedback and reinforcement. The trainer and other trainees
reinforce the behavior
with praise, approval, encouragement, and attention. Digitally
recording the sessions
can also be very instructive.
Behavior modeling seems to work, according to various studies.
Military training is a classic
example of how behavior modeling can work. Drill sergeants
model the behavior expected
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of new recruits, who, in turn, by emulating them, develop
discipline and confidence.
Role-Playing

Role-playing consists of playing the roles of others, often a
supervisor and a subordinate
who are facing a particular problem, such as a disagreement or a
performance problem.
Role-playing is used not only for managers, but also to train
salespeople to question
customers to understand their needs for goods and services.
Health care professionals also
engage in role-playing to learn to question patients and be
empathetic and sensitive to their
concerns. Virgin America uses role-playing exercises to help
employees lean how to deal
with irate or unruly passengers.
Planned and implemented correctly, role-playing can bring
realism and insight into dilemmas
and experiences that otherwise might not be shared. Computer
programs that simulate role-
playing have also been developed. Virtual Leader, a product by
SimuLearn, is one such
program: Management trainees interact with animated
“employees”—some of whom are
more cooperative than others. The trainees are then given
feedback as to how well they
applied their managerial skills to each situation.
Coaching
Coaching consists of a continuing flow of instructions,
comments, and suggestions from the
manager to a subordinate. By contrast, a mentor is usually not
an employee’s direct report.
Coaching is more than just a flow of instruction though. It is a
flow of encouragement and
support meant to help people not just do their jobs right and get

ahead but become leaders.
Part of coaching involves talking to one’s employees about what
their goals are and being
excited about their achieving those goals, even if it means good
employees will ultimately
leave your department and you will have to replace them with
new ones and begin the
process anew. Once a manager understands the employee’s
goals, the manager can
design ways to help them grow their skills by taking on new
leadership responsibilities,
training and mentoring other employees, spearheading projects,
and then providing the
individual with feedback on how well he or she did.
One way to coach employees being groomed as managers is to
allow them to participate in
managerial staff meetings. This can help them become more
familiar with the problems and
events occurring outside their immediate areas and how they are
handled by exposing them
to the ideas and thinking of other managers. Note, however, that
coaching is important for
all employees to receive—not just employees who are on
managerial tracks. Many top
managers as well as rank-and-file employees say that without
coaching they would never
have accomplished for their organizations what they might
have.
Case Studies
A particularly useful method used in classroom learning
situations is the case study. The
FBI’s Integrated Case Scenario method is used as part of a 16-

week training program for all
new FBI agents. Using documented examples, case-study
participants learn how to analyze
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(take apart) and synthesize (put together) facts, become
conscious of the many variables on
which management decisions are based, and, in general,
improve their decision-making
skills. Figure 7.8 provides a set of guidelines for when and how
to conduct case studies.
Figure 7.8
Case Studies
When Using Case Studies …
Decide which goals can best be achieved by using case studies.
Identify available cases that might work or consider writing
your own.
Set up the activity—including the case material, the room or
place, and the
schedule.

Give all participants a chance to take part in the discussions and
activities and
try to keep the groups small.
Bridge the gap between the theories presented in case studies
and how they
can actually be put into practice in your organization.
Source: Adapted from Albert A. Einsiedel, Jr., “Case Studies:
Indispensable Tools for Trainers,” Training
and Development (August 1995): 50–53
Seminars and Conferences
Seminars and conferences, like classroom instruction, are useful
for bringing groups of
people together for training and development. In terms of
developing managers, seminars
and conferences can be used to communicate ideas, policies, or
procedures, but they are
also good for raising points of debate or discussing issues
(usually with the help of a
qualified leader) that have no set answers or resolutions. For
this reason, seminars and
conferences are often used when change is a goal.
Outside seminars and conferences are often conducted jointly
with universities and
consulting firms. Associations and third-party organizations,
such as the American
Management Association, the Conference Board, and the Center
for Creative Leadership,
also offer many different types of management seminars. The
construction and mining
equipment manufacturer Caterpillar is one company that, in

conjunction with an outside
consulting firm, has developed a training program to groom new
managers so it would have
enough of them to effectively run the company by 2020.
Caterpillar began with a series of
high-level meetings and strategy sessions. Out of those
meetings 11 characteristics were
identified that the company seeks in its managers and leaders.
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Blended Learning
Blended learning (The use of multiple training methods to
achieve optimal learning on the
part of trainees) is a method whereby lectures are combined
with other computer and online
instruction and the use of audiovisual materials such a
slideshows. Video recordings can be
used to illustrate the steps in a procedure such as assembling
electronic equipment or
working with a problem employee. To instruct flight crew
trainees, airlines play actual cockpit
audio recorded on airplanes involved in accidents. After
listening to the recordings, the
trainees discuss the behavior of the crew during the crisis.
Recordings of trainees
themselves can also be used. Golf and tennis coaches frequently

record their students to let
them see their mistakes.
Frequently, a self-paced learning component (discussed next) is
part of blended learning as
well. Blended learning is effective because different people
learn better in different ways,
and it breaks up the tedium of lectures. Figure 7.6 shows
blended learning is the second
most common way firms deliver training to their employees.
Classroom (Lecture) Instruction
Last, but perhaps not least, is classroom instruction. Why do
firms bother to use classroom
training in this day and age, you may be wondering? Some of
the advantages of classroom
instruction relate to motivation and attendance. Have you ever
taken a self-paced course
that lacked a classroom setting? If so, you might have had a
hard time completing it. As one
professor put it, “When it comes to learning, just getting to
class is half the battle.” In
addition, if a trainee experiences problems, a live instructor is
generally in the best position
to help the trainee.
Classroom training need not necessarily take place in a
classroom per se. Electronic Data
Systems uses videoconferencing to train its employees wherever
they are in the world
rather than having them travel to one location. The company
conducted a “coaching skills
for leaders” program that was disseminated to 1,500 managers
in 41 countries via
videoconferencing.

Chapter 7: Training and Development: 7.4 Phase 3:
Implementing the Training Program—Training Delivery
Methods
means -
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Wk 1 - Apply: Why We Buy a Product [due Mon]
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Assignment Content
1.
Top of Form
Scenario: You are sitting in your home and you pick up a
package of Oreos™ (or some other product of your choosing).
After realizing that you have purchased this product for years,
you wonder, "Why do I feel so strongly about this
product?" You remember your readings from Marketing class
and decide to figure out why you feel strongly about this
product using the 4 P's of Marketing and Marketing Strategy
concepts.
Develop a 700- to 1,050-word response using the scenario above
and answer the following questions:
· What is it about this product that appeals to me? Who are the
people like me that are buying this product? (e.g. demographics,

consumer characteristics, buyer behavior)
· How do marketers strategically plan to market these products
to me?
· Why does the price of this product seem to be of equal value
for the satisfaction that I receive when consuming/using this
product?
· How does this product get from the manufacturer to the place I
can buy it?
· What promotional activities compel me to buy this product?
· What do the answers to these questions tell you about the
presumed target market and its relation to the controllable 4 P's
of marketing?
· What social, environmental, and regulatory forces must this
product's marketers overcome to get this product to the
customer?
Submit your assignment.
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