A Better Understanding Of Glaucoma

A Better Understanding Of Glaucoma
Better understanding of glaucoma, requires assessment of the different components incorporate
,retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL), and, and visual function. On the other hand, elevated intraocular
pressure, are not only risk factor of glaucoma .RNFL thickness measured by optical coherence
tomography (OCT) is a reliable early marker of glaucoma[1,2]. As the pathogenesis of glaucoma
involves the degeneration of axons as well as cell bodies and dendrites, The primary site of axonal
damage in glaucoma is thought to be the lamina cribrosa , based on findings from previous studies
[3–5] ,which thought to be via several mechanisms, including mechanical damage, [6]compromised
vascular supply, [7] and increased translaminar pressure gradient[8]. The main load–bearing tissue
of the eye is the sclera and its deformations due to the IOP changes are transmitted to the optic nerve
head (ONH). ONH cupping in glaucoma is thought to be a combination of the two components –
prelaminar and laminar cupping [9]. Clinically, glaucomatous optic nerve damage is diagnosed by
the deepening and extension of the optic cup ,with dimension of the neuro–retinal rim [10]. The
anterior and posterior surface of the LC is well visualized on the OCT, and this may be used in
understanding glaucomatous changes [11]. Optical coherence tomography is a method of using low–
coherence interferometry to scan through the layers of the retina with very high axial resolution (3 to
15 μm) , for imaging disorders affecting
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colour physics Essay
Colour Physics
712 words
1. Colour physics, dispersion of sunlight into colours of the spectrum. (Sir Isaac Newton 1676)
Discuss and illustrate Newton's experiments and beyond, from particle to wave theory.
2. Research, identify and illustrate how the eye sees colour, reference to light emitted, transmitted
and reflected.
1. Sir Isaac Newton, held the theory that light was made up of tiny particles. Around the same
period, Christiaan Huygens, believed that light was made up of waves vibrating up and down
perpendicular to the direction that the light travels. Huygens theory was the successful theory of
light wave motion in three dimensions. Huygen suggested that light waves peak ... Show more
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Eventually the two wave fronts will overlap with each other, if a screen was placed at the point of
the overlapping waves, you would see the production of light and dark areas.
One bright afternoon, Newton darkened his room and made a hole in his window shutter, allowing
just one beam of sunlight to enter the room. He then took a glass prism and placed it in the sunbeam.
The result was a spectacular multi–coloured band of light just like a rainbow. The multi–coloured
band of light we now know as the 'colour spectrum'.
Newton believed that all the colours he saw were in the sunlight shining into his room. He thought
he then should be able to combine the colours of the spectrum and make the light return to it's
original state (white light). To test this, he placed another prism upside–down in front of the first
prism. He was right. The band of colours combined again into white sunlight. Newton was the first
to prove that white light is made up of all the colours that we can see.
2. The human eye is the final link in the chain of colour vision. The human eye has a basic two
element lens. The cornea is the front or outer element and the lens is the back or inner element. The
amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the iris which lies in between the two. The light

Essay On Visual Perception
Evaluate the evidence that visual perception involves bottom–up and top–down processing.
The perceptual system is comprised of a of a diverse range of senses including visual, auditory,
olfactory and tactition; the perceptual system is part of the nervous system, which contains millions
of nerve cells called receptors that sense and respond to a plethora of sensory stimuli including light,
sound and temperature. The act of perceiving rather than merely sensing enables us to analyse and
make sense of incoming sensory information, allowing us to construct a description of the
environment to inform and guide our actions within a complex, dynamic world. For primates, as
compared to other species, vision has predominantly been relied ... Show more content on
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The vibrant environment to which Gibson refers is composed of images and surfaces with varying
densities, textures, sizes, distances and shapes, and the interaction or movement of the observer and
the movement of the object provide ample information to generate perception.
Gibson emphasises the significance of what he terms the 'optic array' whereby light reflected from a
multitude of textured surfaces unites in the visual field occupied by the observer, thus altering in
conjunction with the position of the observer, hence providing information about where the object is
in space. Furthermore, Gibson purposed that in addition to the optic array, invariants or higher–order
features, such as 'horizon ration relation' and 'texture gradient' offer explicit insight into the nature of
the environment (as cited in Pike & Edgar, 2010, pp 74–76). 'Horizon ration relation' explored by
Sedgwick (1973) enables us to judge relative heights and distances of objects; the distance of
objects can be judged as the ratio of the proportion of the horizon above to below the object remains
constant, however if objects viewed at the same distance differ in height the overall height of the
horizon correspondingly increases (as cited in Pike & Edgar, 2010 pp 74–76). Likewise, texture
gradient provides information about the density, height, and width of individual elements contained
within and varying from surface to surface. Additionally Gibson posits motion and

Visual Information Processing Paper
Visual Information Processing Paper
Laura Nancy Vargas
PSYCH/64
December 2, 2013
Holly Berry Perception Paper
Humans have a unique and wonderful device in how one sees. The eye and brain work together to
turn the world into visual data one's brain can understand and use. There are some eye conditions
that inhibit the sight or the recognition of the shapes one sees. Research continues to overcome these
conditions as well as to further understand the biochemical reaction that gives humans the sight and
understanding one has of visual data. Included in the paper are some of the latest research methods.
Describe Visual Information Processing The way a human eye and brain works together to produce
visual data understandable to the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to current research there are about 800,000 ganglion cells in the human optic nerve (J.R.
Anderson, 2009,pg. 35). The ganglion cells are where the first encoding of the visual information
happens. Encoding is the process of recognizing the information and changing it into something
one's brains can understand and store. Each ganglion cell is dedicated to encoding information from
a specific part of the retina. The optic nerve goes then to the visual cortex and the information enters
the brain cells. There are two types of cells that are subcortical, or below the cortex; the lateral
geniculate nucleus and the superior colliculus. The lateral geniculate nucleus is responsible for
understanding details and recognizing objects. The superior colliculus is responsible for
understanding where objects are located spatially. This collection of cells working together is called
the "what–where" distinction. The division of labor continues, as the information is further
processes. The "what" information travels to the temporal cortex, the "where" information travels to
the parietal regions of the brain.
The brain identifies what it sees in a series of steps. The brain makes a feature map of the eye
breaking the visual field into sections. Information collected in a particular section of the visual field
will always be sent to the

The 2000 Meter Row Case Study
The 2000–Meter Row: A Case in Homeostasis
Adapted from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science* by Nathan Strong
At the start 1. Recall that Jim's heart and respiratory rate are increased, he was sweating and that his
mouth was dry before the raise began. Explain what is happening to his autonomic nervous system
(including which division is the most active) and specify exactly how those ANS responses are
creating the symptoms noted. What changes do you think are occurring in the digestive and urinary
systems at this time? (8 points)
In his autonomic nervous system, the sympathetic division was the most active before and during
the race because it is what prepares your body for extra somatic activity. It activated ... Show more
Now, pick one of those muscles and trace their control from the appropriate brain structure all the
way to the NMJ. Be sure to include all intermediate structures, synapses, plexuses and nerves.
(8 points)
Movement of the deltoid begins in the cerebrum of the brain, but more specifically: in the frontal
lobe, the premotor cortex is relaying instructions to the primary motor cortex. The primary motor
cortex contains the upper motor neurons whose axons will travel down the pyramids of the medulla
oblongata and synapse on lower motor neurons in the anterior gray horns of spinal cord segments
C5–C6. From there, the ventral rami of spinal nerves C5–C6 form the superior trunk of the brachial
plexus, which splits into two divisions. We will follow the posterior division that supplies to
extensor muscles. This posterior division then runs into the posterior cord from which the axillary
nerve is derived. The axillary nerve's motor end innervates the deltoid through its neuromuscular
junction.
4. Rowing full speed is putting maximum demands on Jim's muscles. What metabolic process is
providing most of the energy for Jim's muscles at this point and why do Jim's muscles feel like they
are burning? (5 points)
As Jim's muscles are at maximum demand, his mitochondria are unable to produce the needed ATP
through aerobic respiration because oxygen is unable to diffuse fast enough into his muscle fibers.
At this time anaerobic

Multiple Sclerosis Research Paper
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
INTRODUCTION
The word sclerosis comes from the Greek 'skleros' meaning hard. In multiple sclerosis, hard areas
called 'plaques' (also known as lesions or scars) develop around the damaged nerves. 'Multiple'
refers to the many different areas of the central nervous system that may have damaged myelin.1
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurological disease that involves the central nervous system (CNS),
the nerves that comprise the brain and spinal cord. It has two major features2:
Destruction of myelin, a fatty insulation covering the nerve fibers, is the main characteristic of MS.
The end results of this process, called demyelination, are multiple patches of hard, scarred tissue
called plaques or lesions. Sclerosis comes from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the present study, 180 community dwelling adults with MS completed a postal survey that
included demographic measures, MS disease measures, and several standardized measures of pain,
including pain intensity, variability, location, and pain–related interference. Some 66% of the sample
reported pain, 25% of whom reported severe pain. Persons with pain reported an average of 6.6
distinct pain sites. Using the Brief Pain Inventory Interference Scale, the average level of overall
pain interference was 3.33 (0–10 scale) in the group reporting pain. The highest levels of pain
interference were reported for sleep, recreational activities, and work in and outside the home.
Persons with pain were more likely to report greater MS disease severity, poorer psychological
functioning, and poorer health than persons with MS but not pain. Persons with pain were also less
likely to be employed. These findings are consistent with previous research that shows that pain is
common in MS, that it is severe in a substantial subset of these individuals and has the potential to
negatively impact physical and psychosocial functioning over and above the effects of MS

Why Do I Choose The Optic Nerve?
In my junior year, I was assigned a group project by my Physiology teacher. We had desks that were
grouped together to form a group of 5 (including me). We had to chose a subject that was medical
related and my group chose the Optic Nerve. This was an interesting subject for me because I was
really curious about how amazing eyes are. They allow us to view the world that we live in. While
doing research, I stumbled upon diseases of the eye that really captured my attention. This work
challenged me because it's very hard to research about a subject you don't know much about. Where
do you begin or what do you search for? I took this assignment one at a time and successfully found
the correct questions to look up. I have pride in this assignment because it was really difficult and I
did not know where to look for the answers to my questions. This presentation shows how much
effort and material I have learned and was required to master in order to present the information ...
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I learned that I am very responsible when it come down to group presentations. Especially ones that
I have a big interest in. I also found out what my beliefs in completing a group assignment is. My
belief is that if everyone does their part and contributes equal amounts, there is no way that the
assignment can get a low grade. As for my community / peers, I learned that choosing the right
people is a very big key. Not only because you know everyone will do their part, but also because
you know that everyone will actually care about what they do. As a writer, this improved my skills
because although i know the information, the people that I am introducing it to don't. Therefore, I
had to make sure I wrote all my information is such a way that will make someone who is new to
the information, clearly understand it. It was a challenge because every medical term had to be fully
explained therefore people can understand what is going

Is Hemisphere Is Specialised For The Perception Of Emotion
Using Chimeric Faces to Understand the Lateralisation of Emotion
Report by: Tin–Kai Yeh
Student ID: 4414697
Lab 130 (Demonstrator: Victoria Alogna)
30th April, 2015
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate which hemisphere is specialised for the perception
of emotion. It was hypothesised that participants will judge chimeric faces with smile presented in
the left visual field as happier more often than chimeric faces with the smile presented in the right
visual field. Twenty–six psychology students were asked to judge chimeric faces with one half being
a smiling expression and the other half with a neutral expression. The images were presented in their
left and right visual field. Over 28 experimental trials the participants were asked to judge which
face they thought looked happier. The percentage of chimeric faces judged as happier for both left
and right visual field was recorded. The hypothesis was supported: chimeric faces with smile
presented in the left visual field as happier more often than chimeric faces with the smile presented
in the right visual field.
The human brain is a mystery that has been studied for centuries in attempt to understand how it
functions. Scientists first thought that the brain was a structure that functioned a whole. It was in the
early 1600's where the first ideas of localisation of function in the brain started. At this time Rene
Descartes discovered a tiny structure called the pineal

Essay about The Percept of Pain
The Percept of Pain: Where does it come from?
In class we have discussed the concept of pain, concluding that a conflict between what the brain
anticipates occurring and what actually occurs has the potential to cause the perception of pain.
Furthermore, it was suggested that genetics might have a role in the experience of pain, particularly
when applied to the discussion of phantom limb pain. However, I found these inferences a bit
unsatisfying and walked away with more questions than answers. Where does chronic pain come
into the picture? Why is a stimulus that is painful for one person not for another? And the question
that puzzled me the most: how, from a neurobiological perspective, can an individual experience
pain in her arm if ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Likewise, there is the possibility that the nervous system's influence can change aspects of pain.
What is happening during a painful experience? Two classes of pain have been delineated:
nociceptive pain and neuropathic pain. The latter division involves only direct injury to nerves in
both the central and peripheral nervous systems. Tissues containing specialized sensory receptors,
called nociceptors, are activated by noxious stimuli and have been discovered to exist in almost all
multicellular animals on Earth, as well as in some bacteria (2). Nociceptors are most abundant in
superficial areas of the skin, joint capsules, inside the periostea of bones, and around vessel walls
(3).
Although nociceptors are involved with pain perception, stimulation of a nociceptor does not
invariably result in a painful response. Unlike other sensory receptors, nociceptors become
increasingly sensitive with continued stimulation. Damaged tissue releases prostaglandins and
leukotrienes, chemicals that sensitize nociceptors (4). These nociceptors respond to stimuli that
would not normally be interpreted as painful (this is sometimes called allodonia). For example,
sunburn pain is exacerbated by a gentle touch or breeze due to the hyperactivity of the nociceptors.
Aspirin and similar drugs reduce sensitization by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins (5).
Three types of nociceptors have been classified: A delta (I and II),

Glaucoma
"Glaucoma is a condition that causes damage to your eye's optic nerve and gets worse over time".
(WebMD) Glaucoma is interlinked with the pressure in the eye. No one knows the exact cause of the
glaucoma. Doctors think the main cause of the glaucoma is the pressure in the eye. Some people
with the normal eye pressure also suffer with glaucoma. There are different kinds of glaucoma such
as open angle glaucoma, Angle closure glaucoma, Normal tension glaucoma, Congenital and
infantile glaucoma, and secondary glaucoma's. Beta–adrenergic blockers and prostaglandins are the
most frequently used topical medications at present.
Open Angle Glaucoma Is a very common type of glaucoma in 90% patients who suffer with
glaucoma. "Open–angle" means that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Nei. nih. Gov)
Pseudoexfoliation glaucoma it is a systemic disorder. High amount of proteinaceous substance
produced in the ocular tissues. Depending on the cause of these secondary glaucoma's, treatment
includes medicines, laser surgery, or conventional or other glaucoma surgery. In glaucoma
medications, plenty of choices are available to treat glaucoma, including eye drops, laser procedures
and eye surgery all these help to reduce the eye pressure and to protect the optic

Optic Neuritis Case Studies
Optic Neuritis
Introduction
Optic neuritis (ON) is a disease related to the eye that causes visual impairment. ON arises due to
the inflammation and demyelination of the optic nerve, affecting interpretation of visual signals
causing blurred, grey or dim vision. More often than not, ON is monocular in scope however there
are cases where both eyes are affected. ON has been known to be highly associated with Multiple
Sclerosis (MS) however an individual does not have to have MS to be diagnosed with ON.  81
Epidemiology and Pathology
Optic Neuritis has been found to persist more commonly in young healthy adults, with females
having a higher incidence rate than males. ON is the most common optic neuropathy in individuals
under the age of 50 years ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Acute ON usually involves a singular eye being affected whereby 90% of ON cases take place; the
other 10% of cases occurring in both eyes is found to occur more frequently in children under the
age of 15. The Optic Neuritis Treatment Trials (ONTT) identified vision loss and eye pain as the
most common symptoms found in patients with acute unilateral ON. Vision loss was found to occur
steadily over a period of a few hours to a few days, with a peak in between 1–2 weeks, whilst eye
pain occurred in 92% of those affected and would worsen through eye movement. These visual
defects however would usually resolve itself with care, with the ONTT presenting 56% of
participants being clear after one year and 73% cleared after 10 (Cleary et al., 1997). In other cases,
a patient may become affected with papillitis (intraocular ON) causing hyperemia leading to the
swelling of the optic disc; a point of exit for optic ganglion cells. This area is important for the
major blood vessels to supply the retina and thus aid in interpreting visual signals to be passed
through the optic nerve into the brain. 

Case Study on Compartment Syndrome
A Case Study on Compartment Syndrome of the Forearm in a soccer player
Objective: To describe the evaluation, diagnosis, and current treatment of a men's soccer player with
compartment syndrome of the forearm.
Background: The forearm is the most common site for compartment syndrome in the upper
extremity. The compartments of the forearm include the volar (anterior or flexor), and the dorsal
(posterior or exterior). Both bone forearm fractures and distal radius fractures are common initial
injuries that lead to acute forearm compartment syndrome. The flexor digitorum profundus and
flexor pollicis longus are among the most severely affected muscles because of their deep location,
closest to the bone.
Differential Diagnosis: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Acute compartment syndrome is a medical emergency. It is usually cause by a severe injury. And
without treatment, it can lead to permanent muscle damage. Chronic compartment syndrome, also
known as exertional compartment syndrome, is usually not an emergency. This is most often caused
by an athletic exertion. Because the fascia does not stretch, this can cause increase pressure on the
capillaries, nerves and muscles in the compartment. The blood flow to the muscle and nerve cells is
disrupted. Without a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients, the nerve and muscle cells can be
damaged. Compartment syndrome most often occurs in the anterior compartment of the lower leg.
But can also be present in other compartments in the leg, as well as the arms, hands, feet and
buttocks. The pain and swelling of chronic compartment syndrome is caused by exercise. Athletes
who participant in activities with repetitive motions, such as running, biking, or swimming, are more
likely to develop chronic compartment syndrome. This is usually relieved by discontinuing the
exercise and is usually not dangerous. Acute compartment syndrome usually develops after a severe
injury such as a broken bone. Rarely does it develop after a relatively minor injury. Conditions that
may bring on acute compartment syndrome include: a fracture, badly bruised muscle, reestablished
blood flow after block circulation, or constricting bandages. The classic sign of acute

The Human Nervous System Essay
The Human Nervous System
The nervous system is the most complex part of the body, as they govern our thoughts, feelings, and
bodily functions. It is an important factor in science because it can lead to new discoveries for cures
or diseases. The studies of the nervous system helped lower death rates from heart disease, stroke,
accidents, etc. The nervous system is a network of neurons (nerve cells that sends information to the
brain to be analyzed.
Neurons live both in and outside the central nervous system. Understanding how the neurons work
is vital to understanding the nervous system.
The neuron has two important structures called the dendrite and axon, also called nerve fibers. The
dendrites are like tentacles that sprout ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The impulse is then sent to another neuron, and the process repeats until the nerves are at rest. The
effect of the signals depends on what the target is. If the target of the signal is a muscle cell, the
effect might be a muscle contraction. The speed of the electrical impulse depends on the size of the
nerve fiber. In small nerves, the rate it transmits impulses is from a half to two meters a second. The
larger the diameter of the nerve fiber, the higher rate of conducting impulses. There is less electrical
resistance in thick fibers. When nerve impulse jumps from one node (gaps in nerve fibers) to the
next, it is called saltatory conduction. Saltatory conduction conducts faster because it contains an
insulator that prevents leakage of currents. The rate of conduction is 2 to 120 meters a second. Not
all nerves conduct impulse electrochemically. Some impulses jump from nerve to nerve, bypassing
the synapse. Unlike other cells, once neurons are lost, they can't be regenerated. Fortunately, there
are about 10 billion neurons and they have other cells to aid them in carrying messages to other
nerves. But if nerves are severed, the nerve fibers can regenerate if the two ends are reattached
precisely. However, restored functions may produce different actions because the nerves might not
be connected to the right channel.
There are three main parts of the nervous system: the central, peripheral, and autonomic

Receptor Cell Essay
THE RETINA: RECEPTOR CELLS
The receptor cells are the RODS and CONES. Each consists of: * A process consisting of outer and
inner segments. * An external fiber connecting the process with the soma. * A soma or body
containing the nucleus. * An inner fiber that resembles an axon and synapses with a bipolar cell.
Rods are extremely sensitive to light and can react to a single photon. The light is absorbed by the
pigment rhodopsin and the energy acquired results in decrease in cGMP which in turn causes the
closing of Na+ channels. This hyperpolarizes the cell causing a release of synaptic vesicles.
Rhodopsin which can only detect variation in intensity of light resulting in gray level visio
Horizontal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Meyer's loop fibers carry information from the lower retina, and thus from the upper part of the
visual field to the lower bank of the calcarine fissure.
THE VISUAL CORTEX
The information received by the primary visual cortex is illlustrated in A below: It is inverted and
reversed, and the center has high resolution which becomes progressively worse toward the
periphery. In addition, there are fewer cones at the periphery, so the image contains less color at the
periphery.
The visual cortex reconstructs the image with constant color and resolution.
INFLAMMATION OF THE OPTIC NERVE
Because nearly ½ of the fibers in the optic nerve are from the fovea, inflammation of the nerve will
affect color perception and resolution in the central vision in the ipsilateral eye.
LESION OF THE OPTIC NERVE
A lesion that destroys the optic nerve will destroy all input from that retina, leading to monocular
visual loss (blindness in that eye).
LESION OF THE OPTIC CHIASM
A lesion of the optic chiasm will destroy the fibers from the medial halves of both retinas where they
cross. Remember that the medial half of the retina receives the image from the lateral half of the
visual field. Thus a lesion of the optic chiasm will result in loss of the lateral halves of the visual
fields, sometimes called "tunnel vision" (bitemporal hemianopia).

LESION OF THE OPTIC TRACT
A lesion of the

Optic Nerve Construction
There are many structures in the eye, some of which include; the retina, rods and cones, the macula,
the central fovea, the cranial nerve, the optic chiasm and the lateral geniculate nucleus. The retina is
a layer at the back of the eye containing cells that are sensitive to light, it triggers impulses through
the optic nerve. Rods and cones are specialized receptors which sense light and color. The macula is
an area about the diameter of a pencil head and is close to 100 times more sensitive to small visual
features than the rest of the retina. The central fovea is an area of the retina in the center of the
macula that has an extremely high resolution. The cranial nerve is responsible for nerve impulses
that travel along the optic nerve ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Bergman like the evolutionists, used other scientist's studies and claims to make his argument sound.
Bergman also included the counterargument, otherwise known as the evolutionists view of the
retina, which helps the reader see both sides of the story. Bergman's argument is valid because even
though the eye may be different from what evolutionists think the ideal eye would look like, it still
functions at the highest rate possible and can not be redesigned to make it faster or more efficient
then the original God given

Parry-Romberg Syndrome Case Study
Parry–Romberg syndrome is a rare neurocutaneous syndrome characterized by progressive
shrinkage and degeneration of the tissues beneath the skin, usually on only one side of the face but
occasionally extending to other parts of the body. Parry–Romberg syndrome is also known as
progressive hemifacial atrophy. Normally on the left side. Usually more common in females than
males. The Parry–Romberg syndrome was first described in 1825 by Caleb Hillier Parry. Diagnosis
made on the basis of history and physical examination with people who had facial asymmetry. For
the patient who reported the neurological symptoms such as seizures or migraine, Magnetic
Resonance Imaging scan is the imaging modality of choice. Patient with seizure disorder is ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Individuals that are affected should talk to their physician and medical team about specific case and
associated symptoms. Initial facial changes usually involve the tissues above the upper jaw or
between the nose and the upper corner of the lip and subsequently progress to the angle of the
mouth, areas around the eye, the brow, the ear, and the neck. The deterioration may also affect the
tongue, the soft and fleshy part of the roof of the mouth, and the gums. The condition is normally on
the left side of the face and not so often on the right. Degree of atrophy can widely range from mild
to barely changes to significant asymmetry. The eye and cheek of the affected side may become
sunken and facial hair may turn white and fall out. In addition, the skin overlying affected areas may
become darkly pigmented with, in some cases, areas of hyperpigmentation and patches of
unpigmented skin. Parry–Romberg syndrome is also accompanied by neurological abnormalities
including seizures and episodes of severe facial pain. Neurological abnormalities are common. 45
percent of people with Parry–Romberg syndrome are afflicted with trigeminal neuralgia and
migraine.

Axonal Death And Alzheimer 's Disease
Introduction Axonal death is a main element in many neurodegenerative diseases. It has been
observed in many neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.
Axon degeneration does not necessarily have to involve the typical apoptotic pathway regardless of
the morphological similarities to cells undergoing apoptosis. Yang et al. focused on axonal death in
traumatic injury because it has been shown to be independent of the necroptotic pathway. This was
discovered since treatment with necroptosis inhibitors did not protect axons. To reiterate, axonal
death in traumatic injury has commonalities with other diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and
Parkinson's disease. If there is a greater understanding for the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Axonal degeneration does have a significant impact on many neurodegenerative diseases. Their
research found that this particular pathway, Sarm1–MAPK pathway, may be a common pathway for
different types of axonal degeneration, not just from traumatic injury. If the main pathway or
underlying mechanism that drives these diseases is uncovered and understood, then this can lead to
creating different methods to protect synapses and axons in these diseases. Other research can focus
on trying to inhibit the Sarm1–MAPK pathway, or at least inhibit distinct components within it.
Their research is pertinent to finding a cure or possible treatments for many of these diseases. This
will have multiple implications on society, medicine, and the quality of life for many people
suffering with the many debilitating symptoms associated with these diseases.
Experimental System In order to examine axons undergoing degeneration after traumatic injury,
they observed axons of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in mouse optic nerves. These RGCs were
labeled with TdTomato fluorescent protein in order to visualize the axon degeneration following the
optic nerve crush–the traumatic injury. Then using the transgenic mouse line, Yang et al. examined
the cytosolic version of Nmnat1. In addition, they used wild–type mice that were transduced with
TdTomato and a specific shRNA targeting Sarm1

Normal Distribution and Standard Deviation
Student Exploration: Sight vs. Sound Reactions
Vocabulary: histogram, mean, normal distribution, range, standard deviation, stimulus
Prior Knowledge Questions (Do these BEFORE using the Gizmo.)
Most professional baseball pitchers can throw a fastball over 145 km/h (90 mph). This gives the
batter less than half a second to read the pitch, decide whether to swing, and then try to hit the ball.
No wonder hitting a baseball is considered one of the hardest things to do in sports!
1. What are some things in your life you must react to quickly? You need to react quickly when you
are in danger, and you need to get away. You also need to react quickly when you are in a car so you
don't get hurt
2. In general, do you think ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Explain. I don't think that mine has normal distribution. Mine has a wide range of numbers, but I
don't think that it is distributed like a normal graph should be distributed
7. Experiment: On the GRAPH tab, click Clear data. This time, try to vary your response times
randomly as you take the test. Click Start and take the test.
A. What is the mean of this new set of values? 0.344
B. What is the range of this set? 0.26
C. What is the standard deviation of this set? 0.0872
8. Analyze: How does the standard deviation relate to the consistency and range of a data set?
The standard deviation is the mean multiplied by the range of the numbers.
Activity B:
Visual and auditory stimuli
Get the Gizmo ready:
Click Clear data.

Introduction: We perceive stimuli through nerve cells in our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin.
When a nerve cell is stimulated, it sends an electrical signal to the brain. After the signal is
processed by the brain, other signals are sent to our muscles as we react to the stimulus.
Question: Do we react more quickly to visual or auditory stimuli?
1. Form hypothesis: Do you think you will react more quickly to sights or sounds? Explain why.
I will react quicker to sounds because my brain has a slower reaction time for sight because of a
concussion I got when I was younger.
2. Gather data: Select the TABLE tab. Use the Gizmo to run

Glaucoma Research Paper
Glaucoma Tests: The only way to know if a person has glaucoma is for them to be tested by a eye
care professional. A reason why people should see a eye Doctor every one to two years. There are
five different kinds of tests to help diagnose glaucoma. It is important to diagnose glaucoma right
that is why there are many tests. These tests are a tonometry, ophthalmoscopy, perimetry,
gonioscopy, or pachymetry test. The purpose of tonometry test is to measure the pressure within the
eye. Drops are placed in the eye to numb it while a machine called the tonometer applies a small
amount of pressure to the eye. According to Glaucoma Research Foundation, "The range for normal
pressure is 12–22 mm Hg ("mm Hg" refers to millimeters of mercury, a scale used to record eye
pressure). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By using laser treatment it can delay the use of daily eye drops. Laser treatment is use to clear or
open up the drainage canals that are lowering the movement of fluid in the eye. By clearing it up the
eye pressure is lowered stoping the damage being caused to the optic nerve. Yet the effect of laser
treatment is not permeant and the patient will eventually need to use eye drops. It is popular belief
that if a person has glaucoma they can smoke a lot of medical marijuana. It maybe true that smoking
marijuana can lower eye pressure but only for a short period of time. The effectiveness of marijuana
is only about three to four hours. With the lack of evidence it is not a recommended form of
glaucoma treatment. (Terri Pickering) With there being no cure for glaucoma people with need to
continue treatment for the rest of their lives. There is many different roads to take when a person
starts treatment. Many of them has their risks but having a overall healthier life can have its benefits
for glaucoma. A healthier life is something everyone should strive for having glaucoma or

Glaucoma is not about one eye dieses it effects on both eye, it's very risky and its effects on eye
really badly. When you have glaucoma you need to look for those kind effects going on. You can
lose your eye vision then you won't be able to see. So many people in United States they all lost
their vision because of Glaucoma. It's very important to get your check up done on your regularly
appointment and have your doctor measure your intraocular pressure. If you have glaucoma in one
eye and that can cause so much it can affect your other eye too and you will affect someone else too.
Sometime people get caught if they have glaucoma to someone else in their family.
Risk factor– the risk factors are when Glaucoma destroy your vision before you

Glaucoma is the name given to a group of eye diseases that causes damage to the optic nerve fibers
and can lead to progressive vision loss or blindness if left untreated. The damage is primarily a
result of the buildup of intraocular pressure, which results when an imbalance occurs in the
production and drainage of aqueous humour. However, some glaucoma is not distinguished by high
intraocular pressure, but as optic nerve damage. In the human eye the ciliary body constantly creates
aqueous humour to provide sustenance for surrounding tissues. To maintain a healthy balance as
new fluid is produced, older fluid must leave the eye through the meshwork drainage system along
the periphery of the iris. If too much aqueous humour is produced or the drainage system is not
working properly, consequently intraocular pressure builds, causing optic nerve fiber damage and
deterioration of vision.
The main treatment for glaucoma is topical eye drops, but in cases where a patient is on maximum
eye drops and intraocular pressure is not controlled, or the side effects are too extensive or the age
and ability of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In general, laser treatment involves creating either a very small burn or opening in the eye tissue
(depending on the strength of the beam) to drain the aqueous humour and release the intraocular
pressure. Initially, freezing drops are put into the eye and chin and forehead are placed onto a special
microscope called a slit lamp. A special lens is that helps prevent blinking and guides the highly
fixed beam of light is then placed in front of the eye. This is then followed by one of several
possible laser treatments, chosen depending on the type of glaucoma present: Laser Trabeculoplasty
– Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT) and Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty (ALT); Laser Peripheral
Iridotomy (LPI); and Diode Laser

Signs/Symptoms: The way a person would know if they have Glaucoma, an eye disease that can
make someone go blind, is by looking for the signs or symptoms. Symptoms of Open Angle
Glaucoma are patchy blindness spots in the peripheral or central vision and "tunnel" vision in both
eyes. The symptoms for Acute Angle–Closure Glaucoma are, as said by Glaucoma – Symptoms and
Causes by The Mayo Clinic "eye pain, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, "halos" around lights –
which may be rainbow," red eyes, and sudden sight loss. The symptoms of this kind of Glaucoma
have no typical early warning signs. This is the reason people don't notice it until it is too late, and
they end up losing their vision if it is not treated.
Transmission, Treatment, and

Section 11 : The Nervous System
Section 11: The Nervous System
Structure and Function
Neurons
I. Neurons: cells of the nervous system, specialized to conduct electric like impulses
II. Axons and dendrites: impulses enter the neuron only through the dendrites and leave only
through the axon
III. Synapse: space between the axon of one cell and the dendrites of others
IV. Axons and dendrites in the periphery are covered with myelin, which acts as insulation
Neurotransmitters
I. Neurotransmitters: chemicals that enable messages (nerve impulses) to pass from one cell to
another, if chemicals are not produced in the right amounts, the message pathway becomes confused
or blocked
Nerves
I. Some axons and dendrites are long and others short. Axons and dendrites of many ... Show more
Certain activities are centered in each lobe.
 In general the right side of the cerebrum interprets for and controls the left side of the body and
vice versa.
II. Cerebellum: found beneath the occipital lobe of the cerebrum. It too has an outer layer of gray
cell bodies; this portion of the brain coordinates muscular activities and balance.
III. Brain stem: the midbrain, pons, and medulla are located in the brain stem. They are composed
mainly of axons and dendrites. These fibers serve as connecting pathways between the control
centers in the cerebrum and cerebellum and the spinal cord. Control centers are found within the
brain stem for involuntary movements of such vital organs as the:
 Heart
 Blood vessels
 Lungs
 Stomach
 Intestines
The Spinal Cord
I. The spinal cord extends from the medulla to the second lumbar vertebra in the spinal canal, which
is above the small of the back, a distance of about 17 inches. Nerves entering and leaving the spinal
cord carry impulses to and from the control centers.
The Meninges
I. There are three membranes called meninges, they surround both the brain and the spinal cord, they

are the dura mater, the arachnoid mate, and the pia mater
 The dura mater is the tough outer covering
 The arachnoid mater is the middle, loosely structured layer
Cerebrospinal Fluid
I. Ventricles are cavities within the cerebrum that are lined with highly vascular tissue.
II.

Glaucoma is the name given to a group of eye diseases that causes damage to the optic nerve fibers
and can lead to progressive vision loss or blindness if left untreated. The damage is primarily a
result of the buildup of intraocular pressure, which results when an imbalance occurs in the
production and drainage of aqueous humour. However, some glaucoma is not distinguished by high
intraocular pressure but as optic nerve damage. In the human eye the ciliary body constantly creates
aqueous humour to provide sustenance for surrounding tissues. To maintain a healthy balance as
new fluid is produced, older fluid must leave the eye through the meshwork drainage system along
the periphery of the iris. If too much aqueous humour is produced or the drainage system is not
working properly consequently intraocular pressure builds, causing optic nerve fiber damage and
deterioration of vision.
The main treatment for glaucoma is topical eye drops, but in cases where a patient is on maximum
eye drops and intraocular pressure is not controlled, or the side effects are too extensive, an ... Show
119), produces a highly concentrated beam of light. In general, laser treatment involves creating
either a very small burn or opening in the eye tissue (depending on the strength of the beam) to drain
the aqueous humour and release the intraocular pressure. Initially, freezing drops are put into the eye
and chin and forehead are placed onto a special microscope called a slit lamp. A special lens is that
helps prevent blinking and guides the highly fixed beam of light is then placed in front of the eye.
This is then followed by one of several possible laser treatments, chosen depending on the type of
glaucoma present: Laser Trabeculoplasty – Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT) and Argon Laser
Trabeculoplasty (ALT); Laser Peripheral Iridotomy (LPI); and Diode Laser

Cct Is A Highly Heritable And One Of The Most Correlated...
CCT is a highly heritable and one of the most correlated quntitive ocular trait (Ref). It is a hallmark
of diseases such as keratoconus and a rsik facor for POAG in individuals with high IOP. In table 1B,
we compile information on following fifteen genes and sequence variants identified through GWAS
using CCT as a quantitative trait; 1. A kinase (PRKA) anchor protein 13 (AKAP13), 2. fibroblast
growth factor 9 related (AVGR8/FGF9–SGCG); 3. Chondroitin sulfate synthase 1 (CHSY1); 4.
Collagen type 8 alpha 2 (COL8A2); 5. CWC27 spliceosome–associated protein homolog (CWC27–
ADAMTS6); 6. fibronectin type III domain containing 3B (FNDC3B); 7. forkhead box O1
(FOXO1); 8. G protein–coupled receptor 15 (GPR15); 9. heparan sulfate (glucosamine) ... Show
Caveolin1/2 (CAV1/CAV2); 4. cyclin–dependent kinase inhibitor 2B family (CDKN2B and
CDKN2B–AS1); 5. family with sequence similarity 125, member B (FAM125B); 6. FND3B; 7.
growth arrest–specific 7 (GAS7); 8. glucocorticoid induced transcript 1 (GLCCI1/ICA1) [36]; 9.
RAB9B, member RAS oncogene family pseudogene 1 (RAB9BP1); 10. SIX homeobox 1/6
(SIX1/SIX6); 11. solute carrier family 2 (SLC2A14/SLC2A3) and 12. transmembrane and coiled–
coil domains 1 (TMCO1)
3e. Genes identified in GWAS with optic nerve/disc paramters as the quantitative trait:
As mentioned before, glaucomatous optic neuropathies are recognized by changes in the
characteristics of the optic nerve head, or optic disc, caused by loss of retinal ganglion cells and
thinning of the retinal nerve fibre layer. GWAS utilizing quantitative optic nerve parameters have so
far yeilded 28 genes and genomic regions as listed in Table 1D.
3f. POAG/NTG genes identified from POAG/NTG based GWAS
:
The GWAS approach has been used very successfully in the past five years to identify genes
associated with various endophenotypes of POAG. [Add discussion of GWAS findings]
Recently genome–wide association studies (GWAS) have identified ten genomic loci statistically
associated with POAG or NTG, including atonal homolog 7 (ATOH 7), caveolin1/2 (CAV1/CAV2),
phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2), SIX homeobox 1/6 (SIX1/SIX6), transmembrane and coiled–coil
domains 1 (TMCO1), variants near ATP–binding cassette, sub–family A (ABC1),

Physical Injury: Trauma To The Eye
Trauma to the eye is a generalized phrase used to describe a physical or chemical injury done to the
eye. There are several ways you can experience trauma to the eye. This paper is going to report on a
physical injury from a detached retina. This paper will cover the cause, risk factors, complications,
and a care plan with current treatments for the eye injuries.
Etiology
"The retina is the light–sensitive layer of tissue that lines the inside of the eye and sends visual
messages through the optic nerve to the brain" (Facts about retinal detachment, 2016). As the retina
detaches, it is removed from its normal location, causing pain and irritation. Some possible causes of
retinal detachment include trauma, tumor, aging, and hemorrhage. You ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Asses for visual status and how well the unaffected eye works to determine proper self–care needs.
You should prepare the client for surgery and the preparation and all it includes to relieve some of
their anxiety. Providing comfort can help ease their anxiety level. Another way to help with their
anxiety is to let them know you will be in the room the whole time during the procedure. Encourage
the patient to refrain from bending over, straining from constipation, or sneezing to decrease your
intraocular pressure. Some goals for a patient with a detached retina should include remain free from
injury, free from permanent visual impairment, and understand proper

Parkinson's Disease Affects The Nervous System And Neurons
It is estimated that in one cubic millimeter of brain tissue, there are one billion connections between
neurons. A neuron is the fundamental unit of the nervous system. A neuron's basic purpose is to
receive incoming information, and, based upon that information, send a signal to other neurons,
muscles, or glands. A disease that affects the nervous system and neurons is Parkinson's Disease.
Parkinson's Disease affects a person's muscular coordination and is caused by the death of cells in
one of the movement control centers of the brain.
"The nervous system coordinates behavior and helps maintain the internal stability of animals"
(World of Health). The brain is one part of the nervous system. It is divided into three parts: the
forebrain, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They receive information and send signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands by using electrical
signals called nerve impulses. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the
release of a chemical, or neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter travels rapidly across the short gap
between cells (synapse) and acts to signal the adjacent cell. First, the neuron receives information
from the external environment, or from other neurons. Then, it integrates, or processes, the
information from all of its inputs and determines whether or not to send an output signal. Next, it
sends the signal along its length at full speed. The distance may be up to several meters (a giraffe or
whale, for instance) with rates up to 328 feet per second. Finally, the neuron converts the electrical
signal to a chemical one and transmits it to another neuron or an effecter, such as a muscle or gland.
"Neurons have many different shapes and sizes. However, a typical neuron in a vertebrate (such as a
human) consists of four major regions: a cell body, dendrites, and axon, and synaptic terminals"
(Biology). A single neuron can have up to 10,000 dendrites connecting to other

Exophthalmos Research Paper
Exophthalmos
Exophthalmos, also called proptosis, is a condition where one or both eyes move forward. The eyes
look as if one or both eyes are bulging or popping out. When the eyes are pushed forward, damage
can be done to:
The main nerve between the eye and the brain that contains the nerves for vision (optic nerve).
The muscles that make the eye move.
The inside of the eye from increased pressure (glaucoma).
The front surface of the eye (cornea) because of exposure and dryness.
CAUSES
Exophthalmos is most often caused by an underlying condition, such as:
Overactive thyroid (hyperthyroidism, Graves' disease).
Glaucoma.
Anything pushing the eyes forward from behind, such as:
A tumor.
Eye cancer.

Description Of The Barn Owls Essay
Outline I. Introduction II. Barn Owls a. The Barn Owl is an extremely specialized nocturnal
marauder with exceptional preying skills. b. They are also notorious for their advanced sound–
localization capabilities. c. The visual system in the Barn Owl shows anatomical, purposeful, and
physiological specializations. d. Front Facing Eyes with high–quality optics which create an
abnormally large binocular field of observation which is a sign for increased ethological importance
for the use of stereo vision e. Barn Owls have coupled modification in both eyes and an enlarged
Wulst. i. With this comes a high level of binocular interaction and selectivity for binocular
inconsistency. f. Owls have global stereopsis and use disparity, the inconsistency, as a depth cue
with hyperacute exactness. g. Barn Owls are able to make out illusionary contours. h. Owls have
very limited potential in moving its eyes relative to its head. i. The eyes nor the ears move separately
from the head in owls. i. The image quality in the eyes of the Barn Owl is exceptional. j. III. Vernier
Acuity a. Vernier acuity is the capability to identify tiny spatial offsets in paired lines, dots, or
objects. b. Currently, humans can determine the relative positional alteration of spatially non–
aligned features with meticulousness that corresponds to a small percentage of the eye's resolving
power. c. Does the Barn Owl display hyperacuity in a Vernier task? i. In the experiment, a simple
one–up and one–down

Neurology and Neurosurgery Essay
Neurology and Neurosurgery Neurology Overview
Although our primary interest is with the Medial
Temporal Lobe, also called the V5 area, a discussion of the entire motion perception pathway is
instructive. Motion perception actually begins with the specialized visual receptors in the retina
known as M–cells (from the Latin word magnus, for large). As the name implies, the M–cells are
relatively large, located in the peripheral retina, and respond quickly to transient visual stimulation
making them ideally suited for motion detection. By contrast, P–cells are smaller, located in the
fovea, react more slowly to stimuli, and are suited to fine–detail vision. Impulses from the retina
then travel via the optic nerve ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
172). From the LGN, impulses go to the Primary Visual Cortex
(also called V1) where three specialized cell types (Simple,
Complex, and Hyper Complex) process stimulations as to their orientation, length, motional speed
and direction. Impulses are further processed in the V2 area in terms of shape and form, in the V3
area for detail acuity plus some additional shape and form processing, the V4 area for color
information
(Schiffman, 2000, p. 74), and the Medial Superior Temporal
(MST) and the Medial Temporal (MT), also called the V5 area
(Kalat, 2004. P. 171–172). The MST also receives impulses relating to eye movement and using a
form of feedback processing, it accounts for the near constant movement of the eyes themselves and
differentiates that information from the actual object movement. The MT area proper is more
involved with the processing of continuous motion. To illustrate the differences between the MT and
the MST, we can use the example of pouring a cup of coffee. A person suffering a lesion to the MST
will perceive stationary objects to be in near constant motion, and pouring from the perceived as
moving coffee pot into the also perceived as moving cup is an extremely difficult task requiring
adaptive behaviors just to perform it. A lesion to the MT would result

Spatial Perception Of Visual Sense On How The Drive A Car
AHCI Assignment 1
Reno Kim
Spatial perception of visual sense on "How to drive a car"
1. Always start your car with your foot on the brake.
2. Put on your seatbelt.
3. Turn on the engine and release the parking brake, if necessary.
4. Learn how to back your car out.
5. When you 're ready to move your car forward, come to a complete stop and shift the car into
Drive.
Put your foot on the brake pedal, shift your car into Drive so that it can begin to move forward, and
then take your foot off the brake pedal. Slowly press down on the acceleration pedal with your foot
to get the car to move forward. Accelerate until you 've reached the speed limit, and then take your
foot off the acceleration, hovering it over the brake pedal in case you need to start breaking.
6. Hold both hands on the steering wheel at the "9 and 3" position.
Introduction
Perception is how an organism detects and interprets the external world. There are five senses –
smell, taste sound, touch and sight. Of the five senses, sight is highly complex and requires the
largest proportion of total brain power. The brain dedicates much of the cerebral cortex, directly and
indirectly, to support visual processing with senses like proprioception and memory (Al–chalabi,
Turner, & Delamont, 2006).
Spatial perception of the visual sense is crucial in making the distinction from stationary and
moving states while driving. It also aids with the sense of where you are on the road relative to
objects or

Optic Nerve Research Paper
OPTIC NERVE
WHAT IS THE OPTIC NERVE?
It is the second pair of many cranial nerves that connects the eyes to the brain. The optic nerve is
responsible for transmitting visual information from the retina to the vision centers of the brain by
using electrical impulses. These impulses are dispatched through the optic nerve to the brain, which
interprets them as images. Some alternative names that this nerve is called is the second cranial
nerve or cranial nerve II.
WHAT IS IT MADE OF?
Each optic nerve is made up of ganglionic cells or nerve cells and it consists of over one million
nerve fibers. It is one of two nerves that does not connect with the brainstem.
WHAT IS THE ORIGIN?
The optic nerve is found in the eye and begins at the optic disk, which is a structure that is located at
the back of the eye. The optic disk forms from the convergence of ganglion cell output fibers called
axons as they move out of the eye. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some disorders that affect the optic nerve are:
Glaucoma, which is a group of diseases that is one on the leading causes of blindness in the United
States. Glaucoma usually happens when the fluid pressure inside the eyes slowly rises and damages
the optic nerve.
Optic neuritis is an inflammation of the optic nerve that can lead to infections and immune–related
illnesses.
Optic nerve hypoplasia is the underdevelopment of the optic nerve resulting in little to no vision in
the affected eye.
Tumors, that can apply a pressure on the optic nerve causing various forms of visual loss.
Damage to an optic nerve or damage to its pathways to the brain results in loss of vision. At a
structure in the brain called the optic chiasm, each optic nerve splits, and half of its fibers cross over
to the other side. Damage to the optic nerve pathway causes certain parts of vision

Duplicity Theory Research Paper
Duplicity theory is the idea that there are two different types of receptors processing two different
types of vision. The two types of vision is color vision and black and white. Respectively each type
of vision functions differently in different amounts of light however, the way in which it is
processed by corresponding cells and structures gives us the complexity of our visual processing
system. The structures involved are the retina in the eye, the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN), and
the Visual Cortex (VC) located in the brain; each structure allows us to view the three dimensional
colored world that surrounds us.
Visual processing starts with the eye where light is bent and refracted so that the most important
cells can capture it. Those cells are located in our retina which ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This type of convergence shown is called Center Surround Antagonistic (CSA) because three
receptors converge onto one ganglion cell that can be deterred by the horizontal cells that make up
the system. Parasol ganglion cells process black and white light information. Midget ganglion cells
process colored light information. While we might think that colored light and the corresponding
cells would dominate our vision this is only due to the high concentration in our fovea where most
of the light entering our eye is directed to. Rods and parasol ganglion cells are most abundant in our
retinal surface although it seems contradicting. After the light information coming into our eye is
processed and converged through the layers in our retinal it is sent through the ganglion axon bundle
that forms our optic nerve and crosses at the optic chiasm. The translated information crosses over
each other so that sensory information from the left visual field is processed in the same area and
vice versa for the right visual

Glaucoma Case Study
Glaucoma is an optic neuropathy that can cause visual dysfunction. The first line treatment for open
angle glaucoma is prostaglandin analogs or beta–adrenergic antagonists. These agents decrease
intraocular pressure. Lumigan, a prostaglandin analog that works by increasing the outflow of
aqueous humor through the trabecular meshwork and uveoscleral routes.1 Cosopt is a combination
product that contains dorzolamide and timolol. Its mechanism of action is by inhibiting carbonic
anhydrase II which lowers bicarbonate ion formation. This leads to a decrease of sodium and fluid
transport therefore decreasing aqueous humor secretion.2 The beta– blocker effect of timolol on
intraocular pressure is unknown. These agents may also be used for ocular hypertension. ... Show
This data was consistent throughout all visits until the third month visit where the reduction was a
1.8 mmHg difference ( Lumigan –6.8, Cosopt –5.0, p≤0.001)3. The only statistical significant mean
intraocular pressure reduction at the 10 AM visit was during week 1 (Lumigan –6.9 mmHg, Cosopt
–5.1 mmHg, p≤0.001)3. Lumigan and Cosopot were not able to control intraocular pressure
throughout the day. More patients in the Lumigan group reached their target intraocular pressure of
less than or equal to 13–16 mmHg by the third month 8 AM visit than the Cosopt group (p≤0.008)3.
Lumigan was shown to be statistically superior to Cosopt in the differences of intraocular pressure
during the final visit's measurements at 8 AM, 4 PM, and 8 PM (P= 0.004, P=0.038, P= 0.002)3.
Conjunctival hyperemia occurred more in the Lumigan group (P=0.009)3. Statistically significant
side effects in the Cosopt group were ocular burning (P=0.004), ocular stinging (P= 0.025), and taste
perversion (P=

Detection Of Optic Disc Location
Automatic Detection of optic disc location in Color Fundus Retinal Images Using Circle Operator
Abstract–In this work a method is proposed to detect optic disk (OD) automatically in color retinal
fundus image without using background mask and blood vessels. Based on the properties of OD, an
idea of circle operator is presented here. This method has been applied on six public databases and
the promising results are obtained. The experimental results indicate that this proposed method of
automatic OD detection has good accuracy and is also time efficient.
In modern ophthalmology, detection of optic disk is a very important step for retinal image analysis.
It is one of the main feature of extracting the anatomical structure of the retina as illustrated in Fig.
1(a). Optic disk can be defined as the circular brighter region in retinal fundus image where blood
vessels converge and optic nerve is formed. OD detection is very indispensable for the computer
aided diagnosis of different eye diseases such as glaucoma detection and diabetic retinopathy [1].
Fig. 1(b) represents the fundus image with retinal lesion.
Many optic disc detection methods have been proposed ear–lier. In [4]–[6], image brightness based
methods are proposed. In these methods it is expected that the OD usually resembles according to
the brightest pixels within fundus images. In [7] and [8], image variation based methods are
proposed based on the statement that the OD has a high image variation due to the

Redundant Target Effect
Our daily task requires us to pay full attention towards them, with a full sense of concious. During
those daily tasks our attention is divided among our surroundings. It gives us the ability to multitask,
as we can foucus on multiple subjects at the same time. However, this ability declines as we age.
Older adults have a difficcult time processing information in the visual periphery. Mnay researches
have been done to compare young adult and older adults functional field of View (FFOV). Though
the expectation for the results of the research was not met, by measuring the retinal area from which
observers can collect information necessary to make specific judgements, we can determine the
differnce between young adults and old adults attention span. The experiement applied the
redundant target effect to compare it with single–target conditions. Through the experiemnets
psychologists were only able to discover that genral cognition in older adults was ... Show more
The analysis of RTs (reaction time) and error are measured by Age X Target visual field. The resutls
indicated that older adults had longer RTs toward the targets in the lower visual field (LVF) than the
targets in the upper visual field (UVF). The RTs provided no evidence of interactions within the
visual fields because the targets either appered in the UVF or in LVF. The targets were not present in
both fields at the same time. The Rts had shorter redundent– target trials than the single–target trials
because the processing time is determined how fast and quick the channel in each trial are. This
effect is known as statistical faciliation. The redundant target reduce error rates, and displays with
clutter had higher errror rates than the no–clutter display. Older adults showed more interaction of
clutter than young children. However, there was no evidence of speed accuracy, but suprisingly the
capacity appeared to be larger for older adults in clutered conditions and for targets farther in the
retinal

Diagnosis And Treatment Of Glaucoma
Introduction:
Glaucoma is the second–leading cause of blindness in the world, affecting around 2.5 million people
in the United States,1 and the incidence is increasing. In 2010, approximately 45 million people
were diagnosed with open angle glaucoma in the world and it is estimated that in 2020, these
numbers will increase to 59 million in the world with 3.5 million cases in the United States.2
Glaucoma can lead to irreversible blindness in 12.3% of the cases.2
Because vision loss in glaucoma is irreversible, early diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma is critical
for decreasing blindness worldwide.3 Since studies have shown that optic nerve changes and retinal
nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thinning can precede visual field loss in early ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
71.3 ± 13.5 for NTG, P–value < 0.005).11 However, all these imaging studies evaluated RNFL
thickness for POAG and NTG patients but not for secondary types of OAG such as
pseudoexfoliation glaucoma (PXG) and pigmentary glaucoma (PDG).
Open angle glaucoma (OAG) is the most common form of glaucoma, accounting for more than 90%
of total glaucoma cases.15 Among different subtypes of OAG, POAG is the most common and
progressive type of OAG in the United States.16–18 Other subtypes of OAG include NTG, PXG,
and PDG.
The purpose of the current study is to evaluate whether there are different patterns of RNFL thinning
among the different subtypes of open angle glaucoma and also to compare these glaucoma patients
with normal patients who had been imaging with Spectralis spectral domain OCT (Heidelberg

Formalin-Prepared Optic Nerves : Case Study
ll Formalin– prepared optic nerves (ON) was mainly used as the materials and sources of
information in the study. To identify the human ON areas where demyelination has occurred,
Jennings and Caroll used luxol fast blue (LFB) and hamatoxylin and eosin. Cat ON, on the other
hand, were stained with toluidine to distinguish the myelin sheaths in preparation for electron
microscopy processing. After this, immunohistochemistry was effectually conducted in order to
differentially mark the neuroglia. The digital images formed were then examined and evaluated to
quantify the data. Results revealed the presence of oligodendroglial cells in MSON lesions, which
further confirms the link between remyelination as a result or consequence of ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Subpial cortical demyelination (SCD) has been recently found to manifest among 90% of
progressive MS patients and is even present to people with early MS. In order to determine whether
recurring incidents of inflammatory SCD can significantly change the pattern of oligodendroglial
repopulation and lead to demyelinated cortical lesions, the study compared NogoA+ and Olig2+
oligodendrocyte cells. The presence and activities of these cells in patients with early cases and
mature stages of MS are examined and carefully analyzed. Results demonstrated a considerable
decrease in the NogoA+ and Olig2+ cells for individuals with chronic MS, but those in the early
stages of MS showed a different result. Moreover, during the demyelination phase, repeated
stimulation of SCD in the experimental rats stemmed to a transitory loss of NogoA+ but did not
have a similar effect on the Olig2+ cells. This was followed by the complete repopulation and
remyelination of the oligodendroglial cells, notwithstanding the four preceding periods of
demyelination. These results indicate successful remyelination in subpial cortical lesions among the
rats even after repeated SCD, an indication only apparent to early MS but not to chronic cases.
Furthermore, the data obtained demonstrated that the four cycles of continuous demyelination and
remyelination process did not effectively sustain an independent remyelination that has been
observed in chronic MS lesions. The results of the

Amaurosis Fugax Research Paper
Amaurosis fugax is a condition in which you lose your sight in one eye. The loss of vision in the
affected eye may be total or partial. It usually lasts just a few seconds or minutes. Then, it returns to
normal. Occasionally, it may last for several hours. This is caused by interruption of blood flow to
the artery that supplies blood to the part of your eye that contains the nerves needed for sight
(retina).
Amaurosis fugax is a kind of transient ischemic attack (TIA), which is a "warning stroke" that
causes stroke–like symptoms. It is important to know the symptoms of a TIA and what to do. This
can help prevent a major stroke or death. In some people, amaurosis fugax can be a sign of an
increased risk for an actual stroke. A stroke can result ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This may reduce the risk of stroke. Certain diets may be prescribed to address high blood pressure,
high cholesterol, diabetes, or obesity.
A diet low in sodium, saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol is recommended to manage high blood
pressure.
A diet low in saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol, and high in fiber may control cholesterol
levels.
A controlled–carbohydrate, controlled–sugar diet is recommended to manage diabetes.
A reduced–calorie diet that is low in sodium, saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol is recommended
to manage obesity.
Maintain a healthy weight.
Stay physically active. It is recommended that you get at least 30 minutes of activity on most or all
days.
Do not use any tobacco products, including cigarettes, chewing tobacco, or electronic cigarettes. If
you need help quitting, ask your health care provider.
Limit alcohol intake to no more than 1 drink per day for nonpregnant women and 2 drinks per day
for men. One drink equals 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1½ ounces of hard liquor.
Do not abuse drugs.
Keep all follow–up visits as directed by your health care provider. This is important.
SEEK MEDICAL CARE IF:
You lose vision in one or both eyes for a short period of

A Better Understanding Of Glaucoma

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