This document provides an overview of pig production. It discusses the history and origins of pig farming, important pig breeds, and pig breeding systems. It also covers the pig production cycle and management considerations for young pigs. Some key points: - Pig farming has a long history and was an important part of medieval agriculture. Modern pig production has become highly specialized and intensive. - Important pig breeds include Large White, Landrace, Hampshire, and Duroc. Breeding systems like inbreeding and crossbreeding can be used to improve certain traits. - The pig production cycle includes gestation, farrowing, suckling, and growing periods. Good management is important for young piglets' health and survival.

1. SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
FoA-DASP
MODULE: AS 405
ANIMAL PRODUCTION II
PIG PRODUCTION
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: DR. Dyness Muze MGHENI

2. 1 THE PIG INDUSTRY
1.1 Introduction- Overview
 To note that the pig industry is very old in
developed countries
 Literature available as early as 1523 by
Fitzherbert
 World wide the pig population has been
increasing with human population.
 The pig industry has played a number of roles
in the lives of people from ancient times.
 These includes
i) Treading corn in ancient Egypt
ii) Swearing an oath on pig or piglet in
Roman armies
iii) Land preparation
iv) Pointers and retrievers for illicit
hunting
v) Provision of meat and lard
 As the human population increased rapidly in
the Middle Ages, number of pigs increased so
fast that they became a nuisance in the streets.
 A law was to be made that “He who shall wish
to feed a pig must feed it in his house”.

3.  A pig found wondering could be killed,
although there was a provision that the owner
could buy it back.
 Importance of the pig has been described in
history books as:
i) a save all
ii) universal consumer
iii) universally produced
iv) scavengers of the medieval village
and for general use and consumption
v) pig industry has been described as
the most important objects of all
English agriculture in the 13th
Century and for many of the century
to come.
vi) Fitzherbert (1523) was of the opinion
that the pig population of the country
was too small than it should be and so
he wrote “Now, thou husband that
hath both horses and mares, beasts
and sheep, it was necessary that both
swine, bees, sleep he wake he, he may
thrive….then see how many swine
thou art be able to keep.”
 The world population has since then
increased tremendously to over 800 mill. pigs
(FAO 1994).

4.  Most important is the radical change in
management systems which have enabled
developed countries of Europe as well as
South East Asia to derive more meat from
pigs than other livestock.
 In Africa, meat production comes mainly
from ruminants, having 21 mill. compared to
192 mill. cattle (FAO 1994).
 Thus in Africa, TZ being included the pig
industry plays a minor role except in some
small communities.
 In TZ pig population vary from 900-1mill.
compared with cattle population of over 19
mill.

5. 1.2 Origin of the pig
Breeds origin
 The modern domesticated pig is known as Sus
scrofa domesticus or simply Sus domesticus.
 It is believed to have descended from the wild
boar of Southern Europe (Sus scrofa) and
those of Asia, and Malayan pigs possibly the
collared pig (Sus vittatus)
 Other breeds were the wart hog (Sus
aethiopicus) and the African wild pig (Sus
procus) and the red river hog of Africa (Sus
africcnus).
 Zoologically, the pig is a member of the order
Ungulata, through the sub-order Artiodactyla
and belongs to the same family Suidae as the
domestic pig.
 The present day breeds are no doubt a result
of varying degrees of crossing between the
parents stock and their offsprings.

6. Evolution of the management systems
 Over a period of 3-4 decades the typical
system of raising pigs has evolved from what
could be termed “natural conditions” into
highly specialised and sophisticated
confinement facilities.
 While the wild pig is vigorous, active and
aggressive, the domesticated pig is a different
creature, content largely to feed and sleep,
inclined to vicious only if disturbed although
it is inquisitive.
How did it happen?
 Through breeding and selection based on
progeny testing, performance testing
 Aiming at developing an efficient pig
 The pig has been reshaped to fit into the
modern production systems.
 The emphasis has been on producing an
animal which do not become excessively fat
under conditions of being permanently
housed, and which will respond to
controlled levels of feed intake by
production of muscles and little fat.

7. 1.3 Factors favourable for pig
production/Advantages
1.High feed conversion efficiency (1 kg
carcass from 5 feed is possible).
2.Prolificacy (Farrowing 6 – 14 piglets twice
per year).
3.Short reproductive cycle (Thus many –up to
16 or more piglets raised per sow per year).
4.High dressing percentage (65 % to 80 %
and also small proportion of bone, hence
high % of edible meat in carcass).
5.Pork is nutritious and energetic due to high
fat content and slightly low water content.
6. Efficient converters of waste and by-
products into pork. Pigs can utilize a variety
of by-products unsuitable for human
consumption.
7.High capacity to consume feed in
proportion to their weights and hence can
make more rapid gains proportion to their
live weights than calves or lambs.
8.Hardy and adapt well to various climatic
conditions without impairing the
reproduction or performance.
9.Flexibility in housing
10. No competition with crop for land.

8. 11. Easy to breed your own pigs.
1.4 Factors limiting pig production
1. Shortage/high price of concentrates. Pigs
cannot perform well entirely on roughages
or bulky feeds.
2. In most cases pigs compete with man and
other non-ruminants animals and even
ruminants for food.
3. Diseases and parasites (Zoonotic diseases
and parasites e.g. Porcine cysticercosis,
taeniosis).For more information Read
(Kimbi et al., 2010).
4. Stench and drudgery
5. Fast inbreeding
6. Religious and social taboos
7. Pork has to compete with other meat which
can sometimes be produced at low cost
 need to formulate least cost feeds (>70 %
of the total cost is from food)
 try to reduce labour and overhead costs
 look for good markets
 Add value to the product by processing
and sell to niche markets (supermarkets,
tourist hotels, restaurants and mining
areas).

9. 2. BREEDS OF PIGS AND PIG BREEDING
2.1 Breeds
1. Large White/Yorkshire
Origin:
Yorkshire – England
Characteristics:
 White body, erect ears, face is dished,
heavy and deep shoulders
 Susceptible to sun burn
 Large and fast growing litters
 Although docile, docile by virtue of its
size, it‫׳‬s apt to behave like a local
rhinoceros.
 Good for bacon production
 Relatively hardy

10. 2. Landrace
Origin:
Denmark
Characteristics:
 White long body, droopy/floppy ears,
straight long snout, fine fore quarters
 Produces very lean meat
 Excellent for bacon
 Sometimes succumb to stress and may
require high standard of management.
3. Saddleback
Origin:
SW England (Essex and Wessex)
Characteristics:
 Black body with a white saddle / belt
across the shoulders and fore legs, long
straight face, droopy ears.
 Good mothering ability
 Good for outdoor conditions

11. 4. Hampshire
Origin:
USA
Characteristics:
 Black body with a white belt across the
shoulders, short snout, thick erect ears.
 Good for outdoor conditions.
5. Other breeds of pigs are:
 Duroc
 Poland China
 Berkshire
 Pietran
 Tamworth
 Lacombe
 Hereford
 Chester White
 Spotted pigs
 Mangalitza
 Criollo
 Ashanti (China)
 Bakosi (Cameroon)
Reading Assignment

12. Read about these breeds and make notes on
their origin and characteristics.
2.2 Pig breeding
Traits of economic importance in pigs
1. Sow productivity. That is total litter weight
at weaning. This is an indication of the
milking and mothering ability of the sow
and vigour and growth rate of the pigs.
Large litters are not advantageous if a sow
is poor mother or piglets are too weak.
2. Rate and efficiency of gain
3. Carcass desirability- leanness
 Systems of breeding which can be used in pigs
include:
 Pure breeding
 Inbreeding
 Crossbreeding
 Outcrossing and line breeding
 All these can be generalised as:
 Inbreeding and

13.  Crossbreeding systems
 What happens when these two systems are
applied in pigs?
TRAITS INBREEDING CROSSBREEDING
1.General
performance
 Decline  Improved
2. Fertility  Improved  Decline
3. Litter size  Decreased  Increases
4. Mortality  Increases  Decreases
 Libido  Low  High
 Sexual maturity  Delayed  Improved
 Mature size  Reduced  Increased
 Growth rate  Reduced  Improved
 Effects of
recessive genes
 Uncovered  Masked
 Traits with low heritability like reproductive
traits (e.g. litter size and vigour can be
improved by crossbreeding)
 Whereas, traits with high heritability like
carcass (body length, mature body size, leanness
can be improved by selection).

14. 2.3 The Pig Cycle
Cycle specification Duration
1. Length of oestrus 21 (19 – 23) days
2. Duration of heat 2- 3 days
3. Time of ovulation
after onset of oestrus
35 hrs
4. Life of sperm in the
female genitalia
24 – 40 hrs
5. Life span of eggs < 24 hrs
6. Age at puberty 6- 8 months
7. Age at first service 8 months
8. Gestation period 114 days
9. Suckling period 8 weeks (variable)
10. Reproductive
longevity
4 – 8 years
11. Longevity 12 – 15 years

15. The following are production and productivity
targets which can be achieved in the tropics:
1. Pigs farrowed per litter 9
2. Pigs weaned per litter 7
3. Pigs weaned per sow per year 14
4. Litters per sow per year 2
5. Weaning wt. (kg) at 8 weeks 10- 12
6. Litter wt. at weaning (kg) > 70
7. Weaning service interval (days) 5 – 10
8. Age at first service (months) 8 – 9
9. Growth rate (kg/day) 0.5
10. Age at slaughter at 90 kg (months) 6 – 7
Caution: In order to achieve these more attention
should be focused on:
 Creep feeding
 Care at farrowing and thereafter
 Mating procedures and
 Feeding of growing pigs

16. 3. MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG PIGS.
3.1 Factors influencing performance of suckling
pig.
1.Teat position and social rank. Anterior teats
produce more milk than posterior teats.
2.Number of teats versus little size
3.Order in birth
4.Milk ability of the sow which in turn depends
on:
i) Age. Milk yield increases up to the 4-6th
parity, then decline.
ii) Litter size. The larger the litter size the
more the milk, but the less milk per
piglet.
iii) Body condition and nutritional level
before and during lactation
5.Creep feeding
6.Stress (heat, lack of water, fighting, poor
mothering ability of the sow)

17. 3.2 Colostrum
 The baby pig is born with little or no
antibodies and has to suckle the mother to
acquire immunity from the immunoglobulins
in the colostrum or first milk.
 Functions of colostrum:
i) Provision of passive immunity- lasts
for 3 days
ii) Provision of nutrients –excellent
source of Vitamin A, C, and E.
 Since the permeability of intestine to protein
responsible for immunity is reduced
drastically (gut closure) with time after birth,
it is essential that piglets suckle immediately
after birth.
 For 24 – 36 hrs after birth the pigs readily
absorbs intact protein unchanged through gut
wall.
 The general health and survival of the
newborn pig depends on this absorption
which not only provides antibodies but is also
accompanied by rapid rise in serum proteins
and an increase in blood volume.

18.  The composition of the colostrum changes
rapidly until after one week it resembles
normal milk.
Table1. Composition of sow’s milk/colostrum
Hrs/days
after birth
% fat %Protein % Lactose
5 hrs 4.5 15.0 3.0
2 days 9.5 8.0 4.5
45 days 7.5 7.0 5.5
Digestion in the young pig (AS 104)
From birth until about the age of five weeks
the concentration and activity of many
digestive secretions in the young pig are
different from those in the adult animal.
 During the first few days after birth the
intestine is permeable to native proteins.
 In the young pig, as in other farm animals,
this is essential for the transfer of -

19. globulins (antibodies) via the mother's milk
to the newborn animal.
 The ability of the young pig to absorb these
proteins declines rapidly and is low by 24
hours post partum.
Reasons for this condition
i) Proteins digested differently. The piglet
stomach initially produces only a limited
amount of hydrochloric acid and
pepsinogen, but it does secrete chymosin.
This operates at pH 3.5 to break the peptide
bonds between phenylalanine and
methionine in casein. It clots milk, thereby
avoiding flooding the small intestine with
nutrients. As the piglet develops, pepsinogen
and hydrochloric acid secretion increases.
ii) CHOs are also digested differently in
young pig. Table.2 shows the activity of
some of the important carbohydrates in the
young pig.

20. Table 2 Weight of disaccharides hydrolysed
per kg body weight per hour by small
intestine enzyme in young pigs
Lactose
(g)
Sucrose
(g)
Maltose
(g)
Newborn 5.9 0.06 0.3
Five weeks 0.8 1.3 2.5
Table 2 indicates that there is variation in
the enzymes activity:
 The activity of lactase is high at birth
and reaches a maximum in the first
week of life and then slowly declines
over the third or fourth week.
 Maltase activity increases from the
fourth week,
 Sucrase reaches a constant level

21. between weeks 4 and 8.
 -Amylase activity is present at birth
but remains low until about four weeks
of age.
Significance of enzyme activity in
rearing of piglets:
i) Early weaning (14 days of age)
These differences in enzyme activities are
of special significance where piglets are
reared on early weaning diets. If young
pigs are weaned at 14 days of age, their
diet, especially regarding the types of
carbohydrates, should be different from
that for animals weaned later. Early
weaning mixtures usually include a high
proportion of dried milk products
containing lactose.

22. ii) Late weaning (3-4 weeks)
For later weaning at 3 - 4 weeks cooked
cereals are included in the diet since raw
starch is incompletely digested in the SI
and passes to the large intestine, where it
is fermented by bacteria, causing
diarrhoea.
3.3 Management Requirements of Piglets
1. Adequate warm environment to conserve scarce
energy
2. Adequate and constant nutrition (energy,
protein, vitamin, minerals and water). Access
to suckling
3. Safety from overlying by the sow (mother)

23. 3.4 Operation during the first week
3.4.1 Day 1 (1st
Day)
i) Help the piglets to find the teats
ii) Assist weak piglets. They can be held at
the teats to avoid competition or given
10 cc of 20 % solution of glucose by
intra-peritoneal injection or 10 – 20 cc
cow colostrums by syringe or stomach
tube
iii) Novel (umbilical cord) should be tied off
to prevent loss of blood (cut in such a
way that 3 to 5 cm remain and this
portion dipped into a tincture of iodine
to avoid navel infection...”novel ill”
iv) Keep piglets warm to avoid hypothermia
and hypoglycaemia. Piglets are born
with only 1% fat in the body (compare
with 16 % in humans). They are
therefore highly susceptible to low
temperature.

24. 3.4.2 Other operations during 1st
Week
1. Clipping/cutting needle teeth or “wolf” teeth (4
canine teeth) two on each jaw
i) to prevent injury and infection of the sow's
udder,
ii) prevent injury to piglets during encounters
(when fight or play among themselves),
iii) make handling easy.
2. Identification
 Identification should be done on the first days
to establish identity by using:
i) ear notching
ii) ear tattooing numbers
iii) ear tagging
3. Iron supply
i) Iron dextran injection (more dependable
method
ii) Ferrous sulphate solution (spraying or
swabbing the sow’s udder with the solution
daily until the piglets starts to eat creep feed.
iii) Commercial source of iron in a form of pills
or pastes to be administered individually are
also available
iv) Place clean red soil in the pen

25. v) Let the sow farrow in a non-concrete (earth)
pen
Why iron supplements?
 It is administered to prevent anaemia. The
new born pig has only a limited reserve of
iron for haemoglobin synthesis owing to
inefficient placental transfer of iron to the
foetus. The new born pig contains only about
50 mg of iron stored in the liver and the daily
need is about 5 or 10 mg. Since the sow’s milk
is also very low in iron, the suckling pig must
be supplemented with iron to prevent
anaemia.
 Thus the amount to be supplemented should
be 150 to 200 mg to meet the needs for iron
until iron containing dry feeds is eaten in
significant amount say about 3 weeks of age.

26. 3.4.3 Operations after 1st
Week
1. Operation No. 1- Creep feeding
 Due to inadequate milk supply
 Even out differences in growth, avoid runts
 Accustom piglets to solid foods so as to ease
transition
Important changes in the enzyme activity
that occur in GIT of a young pig (AS
104):
 Important changes in digestive enzymes as it
grows
 These enzyme changes affect the suitability
of various carbohydrates and proteins for
the baby pig during its early life.
 The newly born pig has very little or no
pepsin enzyme activity.
 Pepsin activity increases gradually up to 7
weeks of age
 Pancreatic amylase activity is very low at
birth and increases gradually up to seven
weeks of age.
 Amylolytic activity (CHO digestion enzymes)
is also very low at birth (negligible).

27.  This increases markedly during the first 5
weeks of age.
 Lipolytic (fat digestion) activity is high at
birth and remains high throughout.
 Sucrase and maltase activity rise steadily
from negligible levels at birth to significance
levels in 1 – 2 weeks.
 This is the reason why very young pigs
cannot utilize sucrose but can utilise lactose.
 The lack of sucrase in the newborn pig and
the slow rate of increased production of
enzymes accounts for danger of death among
pigs fed a diet rich in sucrose (e.g. high
molasses based diets).
 Lactase (enzyme for milk sugar) activity is
high at birth.
 Lactose utilization decreases as the pig
becomes older because the production of the
enzyme lactase, which breaks down lactose
decreases reaching minimum levels at 4 – 5
weeks of age.
 The ability of the baby pig to utilize lactose is
reduced rapidly with age.
 After 4 weeks it reaches very low levels while
ability to utilize feed protein increases in the
opposite direction.

28.  Thus trypsin, pancreatic amylase, pepsin
increase and at the 4th
week they persist in
high levels.
 The normal pattern of enzyme is suitable for
milk digestion up to 21 – 28 days (3 to 4
weeks) because the sow's milk yield increases
up to maximum quantity at this time.
 There after supplementary food is necessary
and the need arises for the piglets to be able
to digest other raw material.
 The change therefore takes place from a
predominantly milk proteins {(Rennin or
chymosin) which resemble pepsin in
activity} and sugars (lactase) and milk
fats (lipase) digestion enzymes towards
other proteins (proteolytic enzymes)
and starch (amylose) digestion
enzymes.
 Usually after 3 – 4 weeks milk is no longer
adequate and after 8 – 9 weeks milk
production is negligible.
 Thus creep feed should be introduced after
the second week.
 The creep feed should be palatable, highly
digestible and nutritious and not dusty.

29. 2. Operation No.2- Castration
 Castration should be done early in life,
preferably the first 2 weeks of life.
Benefits and/or advantages of castration
Use a clean scalpel or sharp knife + disinfectant
 Boar odour- meat from mature boars has
objectionable odour when cooked. This is
produced by a fat soluble substance: 5 androst –
16 –ene –one present in the flesh and stored in
the preputial gland.
 Prevent unplanned matings
3. Operation No. 3- Weaning strategies
 Remove sow and leave the piglets in the pen at
least for week
 Avoid mixing with other litters
 Continue with the palatable creep feed
 Feed frequently and in small amounts
 Avoid scours.
 Avoid abrupt weaning-in many piggeries
weaning is abrupt and affect the pig both socially
and nutritionally. Having established a close
relationship with the sow and dominance order
within the litter often based on teat position, the

30. weaned pig finds itself completely disoriented
when removed from the sow.
Additional weaning strategies
 Pigs from several litters are often regrouped by
size.
 The group of pigs will normally spend the first
few days adjusting to these changes during
which time very little feed is consumed.
 This courses an additional stress, superimposed
on an already difficult period in terms of the
digestive physiology of the pig.
 The pig's digestive system has been programmed
to cope with liquid milk until weaning and has
then to make a transition quite rapidly to digest
solid food (if creep feed was not provided).
 By the 3rd
of 4th
day after weaning the pigs have
normally adjusted to the new environment and
food intake increases drastically.
 This sudden intake of food causes much
undigested food to pass to the lower gut
resulting in an imbalance of the microbial
population and consequently a scour problem.

31.  These changes in social grouping, housing and
diet are occurring when the pig's immunity is at
its lowest.
 Remember that the new born piglet has no
protective immunity at birth and it is only after
its first suckle and intake that passive immunity
is imparted to it.
 This lasts for about 10 – 14 days
 Active immunity to disease organisms
encountered in the farrowing pen does not build
up until 21 – 24 days of age.
 Ability to resist a disease challenge is therefore
at its lowest during the period when the disease
causing organism will invariably result in
symptoms of that disease.
 Likewise any change in the management system
that may result in a change of balance in the
normal gut micro organism population will
probably result in the development of scour.
 This problem will be intensified if disease
organism such as E. coli is present in significant
numbers in the gut.
Reached here on 13/12/2010…………………………

32. WHY SHOULD WEANERS BE FED
FREQUENTLY IN SMALL AMOUNTS
a). The volume of the gut increases with live weight as
well as with the amount of supplementary feed
consumed.

33.  The larger the gut the more food that can be
consumed and the greater the potential for more
rapid growth.
 The amount consumed depends also on the rate at
which the gut is emptied and vice versa.
 When the pig eats only once or twice per day, it
consumes a large quantity of food in a short time.

34.  This result in the stomach being emptying large
mass of semi-digested food into the upper small
intestine, which causes a heavy loading in
digestive capacity of the gut.
 This may result in the food passing along the tract
too fast to be completely absorbed and hence
supplies a nutrient source for the micro organisms
lower down the intestinal tract.
 When a similar amount of feed is consumed in
small amounts at more frequent intervals, the
stomach empties intermittently which is more
gentle on the digestive tract and allows the
enzymes more time to act on the substrate.
 There is less likelihood of undigested nutrients
reaching the large intestine for proliferation of
micro organisms living there.
b). The degree of acidity (pH) in the digestive tract
varies along the length of the tract, generally
being very acidic (pH of 2 - 3) in the stomach and
near neutral (pH of 6 - 7) in the other parts.
 The low pH (pepsin have optimum activity at two
different pH levels (2.0 and 3.5) of the stomach is due
to HCL secretion of the stomach on the first day of
life.

35. New findings
Although the large intestine is recognised
as the site of major microbial fermentation,
there is a microbial population in the small
intestine. Recent work with sugar beet pulp
given to pigs fitted with ileal cannulae
showed that a large proportion (47 per
cent) of the neutral detergent fibre fraction
was digested prior to the terminal ileum.
This breakdown is the result of microbial
activity in the stomach and small intestine
and acid hydrolysis of some of the fibre
fractions.
OTHER ADVANTAGES OF ACID CONDITION
 HCL is known to be higher in weaners (weaned pigs)
than at any other time of its life and this initially
allows ingested bacteria to pass through the stomach
unharmed and to multiply in the lower intestine.
 This establishes the population of the micro organism
along the GIT (flora and fauna) and symbiotic micro
organisms for hind gut fermentation.
 With normal diets there is always a certain amount of

36. material which is resistant to the action of the
enzymes secreted into the alimentary canal.
 The large intestine plays an important role in the
retrieval of nutrients, electrolytes and water in the
digesta.
 The lower pH of the stomach after this time prevents
multiplication of any bacteria that are consumed
except Lactobacilli which proliferate in the stomach
and small intestine but do not harm the piglet.
 Whenever the pH of the stomach contents rises,
bacteria whose multiplication would normally be
limited are allowed to increase in number and pass on
through the stomach to the intestine.
 However, the barrier of entry to the potential disease-
causing organisms is lowered.
 In practice, when the pig is fed the pH of the stomach
will initially rise towards the pH of the food i.e. about
6.0 to 6.5.
 The stomach then secrets HCL and over the period
that the food remains in the stomach the pH will
slowly fall towards pH 2 to 3.
 Whenever the diet is eaten in large quantities at infrequent
intervals, the pH of the stomach will tend to remain higher
than if the food was consumed little and often.
 This is because the food will buffer the pH of the stomach to
a higher value and the HCL produced will not be able to
adequately permeate the large food mass. The overall effect

37. of this is that the pH of the stomach does not fall as low as it
should resulting to low enzyme activity.
c) Another important facet of stomach pH is its
effect on the functional ability of the protein digesting
enzymes.
 Protein digestion starts through the action of the protein digesting
enzymes.
 Digestion of protein starts through the action of the pepsin in the
acid environment of the stomach.
 It is important that the acidity falls below pH of 4 otherwise this
enzyme will not function.
 Any food passing the stomach before the pH has fallen to this level
will not have its protein completely digested in the small intestine.
What is the fate of such foods?
 This site is post absorption and nutrients from hind gut
fermentation will not be absorbed to the system
 This is likely to cause an increase in the microbial
population in the lower gut and a disturbance in the normal
distribution of bacterial types such as E. coli will become
prevalent and consequently may lead to development of a
scour condition.

38. 4. MANAGEMENT OF GROWING PIGS
GROWTH RATES
 Piglet’s birth weight is between 0.6 and 1.4 kg
depending upon breeds, litter size and parity.
 Most breeds have an average of 1.2 kg for most
productive genotype.
 After 6-7 months live-weight will have increased
to 100 kg which represents approximately an 80-
folds increase in weight.
 Pigs therefore have a rapid growth rate; this
explains their high nutrient requirements and the
reason why feeding must be optimal.
(graph1)
 The rate of growth is not constant (graph 2)
 In absolute terms daily live-wt. gains increase up
to 100 kg for European breeds are of the order:
i) 400g following weaning
ii) 500g at 30 kg
iii) >600 g up to 40 kg
iv) 700g between 60 and 70 kg after which
they fall progressively.
(graph 3)

39.  If weight gain is related to live weight gain i.e the
relative GR, it is evidence that this declines from birth
(graph 4)
 As illustrated in the graphs shown it indicates
that at 20 kg LWt. the critical period has been
passed.
 The protein content of the diet can be reduced
 It should be born in mind that although the
amount of feed required per 100 kg gain during
each period of growth steadily increases, the
feed conversion and growth rate cannot be
maximized until a weight of about 90 – 100 kg is
reached.
 Average daily gain (ADG) tends to increase
from birth to puberty (6 months) and then
decreases until maturity (graph 3).
 Maximum slaughter weight for most pigs lies in
the range of 65 – 110 kg live weight.

40. Development of body tissue
 At birth the pig has a relatively large head in
relation to the rest of the body and its
development is most pronounced during
gestation.
 This proportion diminishes progressively.
 As the pig grows the hind quarters form a
square, with height being equal to length (graph
5)
 As the pig grows much older other tissues like
muscle and fat are deposited to the body at
different proportions (Table 3)
Table 3: Development of body composition in pigs.
LWt. Body composition (%)
(kg) DM CP Fat Ash Skeleton Muscle Fat
tissues
Birth 20 14 1 4 18 46 2
20 40 14 12 3 14 45 19
50 45 13 16 28 12 44 25
90 50 13 28 25 10 43 32
150 60 11 45 20 8 40 50

41.  The older the pig the more the tendency to lay
down fat in its carcass.
 Restricting the feed intake can control this to
some extent.
 Fat deposition require more dietary energy than
other body components and consequently give a
lower liveweight gain per unit of food intake
(lower feed efficiency).
 The higher the daily gain or the lower the feed
conversion ratio (FCR) of a group of fattening
pigs the greater the profitability.
(graphs 5 and 6) Development of tissues and Development of
muscle tissues with LWt. Gain)
 Table 4. Body composition as influenced by sex
Sex Bone Muscle Fat tissue
Male1
100 100 100
Castrated male 91 98 146
Female 96 97 137
Castrated female 87 89 151
1
Characteristics of the male are taken as a base ( =100)

42. 4.1 Growing pig require the
following conditions
1. Sufficient space to allow the pigs to select a
dunging corner and a lying area. Group the
pigs into different weight and maintain
uniformity in weight in each pen. The
maximum number of pigs in each pen
should preferably not exceed 20. Pigs
establish a stable social society through
establishment of a linear type dominance
hierarchy which follows after encounters.
One pig become dominant to all others and
the last one becomes submissive to all. This
has been described up to 18 animals.
2. Clean pens. The pens and troughs should be
cleaned thoroughly everyday.
3. Fresh and clean water all the time
4. Routine and regular feeding. Twice per day
feeding is preferred to once per day.
5. Least stress. Frequent mixing should be
avoided. Avoid moving one or a few pigs to
pen occupied by other pigs. If a mistake was
made in mixing the pigs/litters at an early
age such that they are homogenous in a pen
it be advisable to maintain the groups

43. because if they are sorted out afresh, the
fighting which will resume may create
serious stress and even death.
6. Should it be necessary to reallocate the pigs
into pens the following strategies should be
done:
i) Try as much as possible to equalize the
number from each pen and mix them in a
neutral pen.
ii) Wash the pigs with used engine oil
iii) Place straw, grass or hay inside the pens to
keep the pigs busy.
iv) Offer plenty of food.

44. 4.2 Factors affecting performance
of fattening pigs
1. Sex:
 Sex has little effect on growth
rate until puberty.
 Thereafter males with higher
body size have slightly greater
growth rate and other trends
being:
i) The FCR
(Entire males>Female>Castrates)
ii) The ADG
(Entire males>Female and Castrates restricted)
2. Age of the pig (ADG and FCR vs age)
(graph 2)
3. Nutrition: details will be given during
feed requirements and feed
formulation
4. Breeds: Genetic potential of the pig.
There are very significant difference

45. between well bred breeds and local
breeds. Local breeds have low GR
than well bred breeds. ADG is rarely
500g, whereas Lwt. of 100 kg cannot
be achieved until 10 months of age for
the local breeds. These differences are
therefore controlled by genetic
factors. Breeds of high genetic
potential for GR growing faster than
those of low genetic potential.
5. Environmental conditions (e.g.
temperate vs tropical conditions)
6. Dominance order and space/pig
Feeds and feeding of growing pigs
 Feeds for pigs will be given extra wt later but feeding
regime is given in table 4.
 Restrict feeding is given in Table 4. Growing pigs for
slaughter, however, require large amounts of energy and
protein. For this reason it is a common practice to feed
them ad libitum .

46. Table 4: Feeding scale of pigs
Age (Weeks) LWt (kg) Daily feed
allowance (kg)
Up to 10 Up to 20 1.0
11 25 1.2
12-13 30 1.5
14 35 1.7
15 40 1.9
16 45 2.1
17 50 2.3
18 55 2.4
19 60 2.5
20 65 2.6
21 70 2.7
22 75 2.8
23 80 2.9
24 85 3.0
25 90 3.1
30 95 3.2
31 100 3.3

47. 5. MANAGEMENT OF
BREEDING HERD
5.1 Selection of the breeding herd
 Animals for breeding should be
selected early
1. The breeding boar should have the
following characteristics:
a) No hereditary diseases in all its pedigree.
b) Its maternal parent should have high
fecundity, good mothering ability, large
litters, high growth rate and high feed
conversion efficiency.
c) No any other abnormality
d) Long body, good body conformation with
good muscling properties.
e) During growing the breeding boar should
score a high FCE and high growth rate.

48. 2. The breeding gilt/sow should have the
following characteristics:
a) No hereditary diseases or abnormalities
in all its pedigree.
b) Long body, good body conformation with
high proportion of hindquarters that is
sturdy and firm feet.
c) During growing, the gilt should display a
high FCE and high growth rate.
d) At least 12 teats, evenly distributed and
lateral distance between equivalent pair
of teats should not be excessive.
3. Puberty and breeding age: Puberty is reached
at 6 – 7 months. The normal practice is to
breed the gilt so that it farrows at the age of
one year.
5.2 Management practices
5.2.1 Feeding
 Feed 2-3 kg per day to sows/gilts/boars.
 Feed should be adequate in minerals and
vitamins
 Avoid over feeding
 Provide clean and fresh water all the time
 Flush sows in poor condition

49. 5.2.2 Exercise
 Provide enough space for plenty of exercise
 Under hot environment water for wallowing
may be necessary.
5.2.3 Signs of heat
 Enlarged and red vulva
 Restlessness
 Frequent urination
 Occasional loud grunting
 Occasionally white mucus discharge from the
vagina
 Mounting (early oestrus) and being mounted
(standing heat)
5.3 Management of boars
5.3.1 Sows to boar ratio
 The Sows: Boar ratio is 15 -20:1 for a young
boar
 The Sows: Boar ratio is 25 -30:1 for a mature
boar
 Maximum number of services per boar (see
plan in Table 5).

50. Table 5: Plan for maximum number of services
per boar
Maximum number of services per boar
Per day Per week Per month
Mature boar
(>15 months)
3 12 40
Young boar
(<15 months)
2 8 25
5.3.2 Mating
It is important to follow a breeding calendar to be
able to obtain optimal conception rates in a piggery
unit. Observe the following:
 Oestrus cycle is about 21 days. After mating
check for return to heat after 3 weeks
 Heat period lasts for 40 – 60 hrs.
 Mate the animal twice at 24 hrs interval. The
first mating should be preferably be 12 hrs
after onset of signs of heat
 Gestation period is about 114 days

51.  Mating must be supervised and recorded.
Copulation takes up to 25 minutes (average 7
minutes). Up to 500 ml of semen is passed into
the uterus.
 Order of ejaculation
v) Stage 1: gives watery fluid with tapioca
like pellets (1 – 5 min.). This forms 5- 20
% of the ejaculate which is a gelatinous
material from the Cowper's gland.
vi) Stage 2: give sperm - rich fraction (2 –
5 min.). This is whitish uniform fluid
constituting 30 – 50 % of the ejaculate
vii) Stage 3: give sperm – poor fraction (3 –
8 min.). This is gelatinous material plus
some clear fluid which forms 40 – 60 %
of the ejaculate.
5.3.3 Oestrus length
 Although oestrous lasts for about 2 – 2.5
days, gilts tend to remain on heat for only
one day
 About 12 – 18 ova are released from the
ovary 26 – 36 hrs after the onset of heat
 This release of ova usually occurs at the
beginning of the 24 hr period of a full heat

52. during which the sow will stand quietly
(Man-riding –on – rump test).
 Normally most of the ova released will be
fertilised and become implanted, but there is
often a 40 % embryonic mortality.
5.4 Parturition
5.4.1 Routine observations
 Farrowing time is the most critical time for
piglet survival.
 Major losses of piglets occur at this time due
to poor mothering ability of the sow and bad
husbandry.
 The following preparations are necessary
i) Prepare the farrowing pen/crate. Wash
and disinfect
ii) Place fresh bedding material (e.g. wood
shavings, saw dust, rice husks)
iii) Prepare the sow (deworm it one week
before, wash it with acaricide or use
engine oil and place the sow in the
farrowing pen)

53. iv) In the farrowing pen (farrowing crate)
should be:
 Guard rails
 Creep area/box /brooder with
infrared lamp
 Creep feed 2 weeks later
5.4.1 Signs of parturition
 Extreme nervousness and uneasiness
(restlessness)
 Enlarged and sometimes reddened vulva
 Protrusion of the mammary tissue and the
abdomen
 Possible mucus discharge
 Milk in teats (24 hrs prepartum)
 Frequent urination
Practical issues
 Supervise the farrowing sow, if too nervous
remove the piglets and reintroduce after
complete farrowing.
 Help the piglets to find a teat
 You may be forced to even up litters
because of:
i) In case of orphan pigs
ii) Large differences in litter size

54. iii) Sow produces no milk at all due to
disease condition
WHAT TO DO!
 Remove the adopting sow from the pen
 Mix the piglets and let them run together
for some minutes.
 It would be advisable to smear the piglets
with the after birth liquid of the adopting
sow.
 Watch so that if they are not accepted they
should be removed and tried on other
sows.
 If everything fails raise them on cows milk
(warm and feed 5 times per day)
5.5 Feeding the lactating sow
 Adequate feeding is essential for rich milk
production
 On the first day feed nothing but plenty of
water
 On 2nd
to 7th
day raise feed a small amount
of food and raise gradually up to 6 kg
per day
 After first week feed ad libitum if litter size
is more than 6 or use the formula
3 + 1/3 kg per piglet

55. For example if you have 12 piglets 1/3 kg per
piglet = 4 kg
Therefore the sow will get 3 + 4kg = 7 kg per
day.
5.6 Weaning
 Reduce feed gradually to 2 kg
 Remove the sow and leave the piglets
 In practical terms, it is the total intake of feed in
complete reproduction cycle that is crucial, and
the distribution of feed between pregnancy and
lactation is of less importance.
 However, surplus energy consumed by the sow is
deposited by the pig as fat can be mobilised for
production purposes in times of energy shortage.
 Deposition and mobilisation cycles are
theoretically inefficient since each phase requires
energy to effect the chemical changes involved
 However, milk production efficiency in the pig is
rich and thus it is important to liberally feed the
lactating sow while restricting the pregnant sow.
Reached here..................20/12/2010

56. 6 PIG NUTRITION
 In most commercial piggeries, over 70 % of
the cost of production goes to feeding.
 It is imperative to understand the nutrient
requirements of pigs and formulate rations
which will be efficiently utilized while at the
same time being cost effective.
 One has to develop appropriate feeding
strategy for maximum utilization and
minimum (least) waste.
Nutrient requirements of pigs
 To be able to formulate appropriate ration
of pigs it is important to know their
nutrients requirements
 Why are pigs more prone to nutritional
deficiencies than other farm animals?
i) Pigs consume more concentrates and
less roughages than other farm
animals because the are monogastric
stomach (simple stomach)
ii) They have less or negligible protein
and vitamin synthesis in the stomach

57. compared to ruminants. Need to be
supplied in their diet
iii) They grow relatively faster in relation
to their body size
iv) They have shorter reproductive cycle
and produce large number of the
young ones
v) They start reproductive life when less
mature. Pigs continue to grow up to
4th
lactation or more
 Pigs require in addition to water:
i) Carbohydrates
ii) Protein
iii) Fats
iv) Minerals
v) Vitamins
 For practical purposes pig’s diet must
contain generally the following nutrients
concentrations:
i) Energy = 13 MJ/kg
ii) Protein = 13 – 20 % CP
iii) Least (minimum) CF = preferable
less than 5%
iv) Calcium = 0.6 – 0.8 %
v) Phosphorus= 0.4 – 0.7 %
vi) Lysine = 0.7 – 1%
vii) Methionine + Cystine = 0.5 – 0.7 %

58. Table 5: Nutrient requirements of pigs
Nutrients Growing Finishing Pregnant
sows,
boars
Lactating
sows
10-50 kg 50 – 100
kg
DE
(MJ/day)
13 -26 44 26 74
CP (%) 15 -20 15 14 16
Requirements (% of diet)
Lysine 0.75 -0.95 0.60 0.45 0.6
Methionine +
Cystine
0.5 – 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4
Calcium 0.6 -0.8 0.5 0.75 0.75
Phosphorus 0.5-0.65 0.4 0.6 0.6
NaCl 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Requirement (g/day)
CP 200-300 300-400 250-350 700-1000
Lysine 9-14 19 10 40
Methionine +
Cystine
5-8 11 5 20
Calcium 7-11 16 15 30-40
Phosphorus 6-10 12 10 20-30

59. References
1. Lekule F. P. (1998). Pig production.
Teaching Compendium. Windhoek
Sept/October 1998. 32 pp.
2. Miller, E. R., D. E. Ullrey and A.J.
Lewis (1991). Swine Nutrition.
Butterworth-Heinemann, a Division
of Reed Publishing (USA) Inc. 673
pp
3. Payne, W. J. A. (1990). An
introduction to animal husbandry in
the tropics. Longman, Scientific and
Technical. Copublished in the United
States with John Willey and Sons.
Inco. 605 Third Avenue, New York,
NY 10158. Pages 627 to 683.
4. Pond, W. G. and J. H. Maner (1974).
Swine Production in the Temperate
and Tropical Environments. W.H.

60. Freeman and Company San Francisco
646 pp.