Essay On Isotopes

Essay On Isotopes
Isotopes from Greenhouse Gases and Air Toxics
Introduction
In recent years, the oil and natural gas industry has continued to expand to populated areas, thus
growing a concern for nearby communities regarding volatile organic compounds (VOCs) air toxics
and human exposure.1 Current screening methods to determine exposure of toxic VOCs such as the
family of Benzene, Toluene, Ethylene and Xylene (BTEX) requires a traditional gas chromatograph
(GC), which requires high energy use and its bulky size is not ideal for long–term field deployment
and real–time measurements. Sensor technology advancements have enabled the use of low–cost
devices to measure VOCs, but require additional techniques for chemical speciation for BTEX
identification (i.e. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
VOCs are more complex hydrocarbons than CH4 that are emitted from biogenic and anthropogenic
sources. Biogenic VOCs include alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes, etc. Generally,
anthropogenic VOCs are diverse and also include aromatic hydrocarbons, most importantly
benzene, toluene, ethylene and the isomers of xylene as major components (up to 75%).5 To say the
least, there is a wide chemical composition variety of VOCs released to the atmosphere. For my
project centered in the oil and gas industry, I will focus on the aromatic compounds BTEX. Studying
the isotopic ratio of VOCs can provide insight into the photochemical transformation and physical
processing of ambient VOCs.10 Recent isotope studies on VOCs has shown the stable isotopes of C
within the compounds is consistent with the kinetic isotope effect.10 Thus, the fractionation between
the emission and the observation can determine the extent of photochemical processing, other words
the photochemical age.10 The study of isotopes within VOCs has recently developed with Rudolph,
et al., 1997 as a method was introduced to measure VOCs at low mixing ratios (3 to 5 orders of
magnitude smaller than CH4).
Methane emissions, isotopes & instrumentation
The use of CH4 isotopes in this
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Radiocarbon Dating
Organic archaeological specimens, matter that was once living, such as bone, shells, skins, fibers,
wool, etc., are all dated by use of radiocarbon dating (anything that once lived). The radiocarbon
dating process measures the Carbon–14 isotopes within the organic material being examined. This
method measures the radioactive emissions from the once living matter, comparing its activity with
the equilibrium level of living things, a measurement of the time elapsed can be made. The
radioactive isotope within the artifact will help determine the objects age.
2. Geological formations and rock samples– Potassium–argon (d)
The age of rock samples and geological formations can be determined by the method of potassium–
argon dating (K–Ar dating). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This dating method is a geochemical method, which determines the age of obsidian (volcanic glass)
by measuring the layer of film present on the rock that has been formed by diffusing water over time
onto the surface of the artifact. The obsidian, over time, absorbs water when exposed to air.
Therefore differentiating conditions the rock is exposed to will determine the amount of water the
sample absorbs. In order to use obsidian hydrations for absolute dating, the conditions that the
materials have been exposed to must be understood, (i.e. climate conditions, location of excavation
will determine hydration levels within the sample), or comparing the material to samples of a known

Radiocarbon Dating Accurate
Radiocarbon dating, which is quite often referred to as Carbon–14, or C14, is probably used the
most of all absolute dating techniques. The method is used to date all sorts of artifacts including
bones, cloth, and wood, in addition to plants. For artifacts up to about 50,000 years old, it is one of
the most specific methods of dating available. In the late 1940's, C–14 was developed by Willard
Libby. Archeologists use this dating method, which is the standard in the scientific industry to this
date. According to the Kelly Long in Why is Radiocarbon Dating Important to Archeology, "In
1948, American chemist Willard Liberty, who worked on the development of the atomic bomb,
published the first set of development in absolute dating in archeology ... Show more content on
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It is an objective method that provides more accurate ages of artifacts by measuring the amount of
C14 present in the artifact and comparing it to an already known reference artifact. According to
Michael Gagne, in Dating in Archeology, "Following the death of an organism, any exchange ceases
and the carbon 14, which is radioactive and therefore unstable, slowly begins to disintegrate at a
known rate (half–life of 5730 years, ie, after this period only half of the total carbon 14 present at
the time of death remains). The amount of carbon 14 remaining in the material to date is compared
to a reference standard (ratio 14C/total carbon, 12C and 13C) to calculate the time elapsed since its
occurrence." (Gagne, p. 1) This method actually is based on a something that occurs every day on
earth and is the foundation of life. Think about it... all living species on Earth including plants and
animals exchange carbon dioxide with their environment until they die. Marshall Brain in How
Carbon–14 Dating Works describes simply how C14 dating works. Simply said, the way the process
works is by measuring the amount of C14 in the artifact, which forms naturally when cosmic rays in
the earth's upper atmosphere strike nitrogen molecules and oxidize to become carbon dioxide. Plants
then absorb and continually replenish carbon dioxide until the plant dies or it passes onto animals
that eat the plants. After the death of the organism, the amount of C14 in the organism or artifact
decreases at a regular pace as decaying occurs. Since C14 has a half–life of 5,730 plus or minus 40
years, the object loses half of its C14 about every 5,700 years. Once the organism dies, it stops
taking on new carbon so the ratio of C12 to C14 is the same for every organism. Therefore, the age
of and artifact can be determined fairly accurately if scientists compare the ratio of C12 to C14 in an
artifact and compare it to the ratio in a

The Pros And Cons Of Radioactivity
Radioactivity has been around since the 1800s. It is very popular in the medical field. It is used my
many professionals to help diagnose and treat people every single day. Although it does have some
advantages and disadvantages, people still use it to this day. Radioactivity is defined as "the
spontaneous emission of particles". (Nuclear Energy). Radioactivity is caused by an unbalanced
nucleus in the cell. This happens because there is either an uneven number of protons and/or
neutrons. When this happens, the element is considered to have multiple isotopes. An isotope is an
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Thus, they have different
atomic weights. This is important to know because there is a such thing as a radioactive isotope.
These elements just have additional energy, and they release radiation in different forms. "There are
over 800 radioactive isotopes, some of which are natural and some synthetic." (Helmenstine).
Radioactive elements can be both artificial and natural. However, in medicine, most of them are
more than likely synthetic, since they are the most popular types. The use of radioactive elements in
medicine is still growing to this day. Many oncologists use it to treat their patients who have cancer.
Many cancer patients use this option. They use the radiation to kill off cancer cells. X–ray
technicians or radiologists will also use it to administer x–rays to people who may have a broken
bone, or need an MRI. The patient is injected with a radioactive material that helps the doctor be
able to see inside the body better, whether it be with pictures or ultrasound. Radioactive material is
defined as "material that contains radioactivity and thus emits ionizing radiation. It may be material
that contains natural radioactivity from the environment or a material that may have been made
radioactive." (The Healthy Physics Society). This happens when someone needs a colonoscopy.
They have to drink or are injected with this liquid that helps their organs and all other masses in the
body be seen better by the radioactive materials. There are many advantages and disadvantages to
the use of radioactive elements in medicines. Some advantages include the fact that

Nickel 58 Research Paper
Nickel, an element on the periodic table has many different isotopes, but the two that stand out the
most are Nickel–58 and Nickel–63.
Nickel–58, the most abundant of the Nickel isotopes, has a multitude of uses. It Nickel–58 is
primarily used as a discrete way of measuring human consumption and absorption. It can also be
used to measure energy emissions in nuclear reactors. Its appearance is solid. Neither its melting
point, boiling point, and density are available. The atomic number of Nickel–58 is 28 and its exact
mass is 57.935 g/mol. Nickel–58 has 28 protons, 28 electrons and 30 neutrons. Nickel–58 is is
silvery white . It is hard, ductile, malleable and a fair conductor of heat and electricity. The half life,
the time required to convert one half of a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Due to its stable half life, Nickel– 58 is proven to be natural. Moreover, due to it being a stable
isotope, it will not go through radioactive decay. Nickel–58 can be found in the Earth's crust (it
makes up .01 –. 02 %), earth's core and as well as meteorites where it is found coexisted with iron.
Many experts believe the core is primarily made up of nickel and iron. It can also be created through
fusion, the combining of of lighter atomic nuclei to form a heavy nucleus. The discovery of Nickel
is a story of mistaken identity and superstition. During the 1600s, German miners were sent to find
copper, but instead came upon a previously unknown nickel. Fast forward 100 years, in 1751, the
Swedish alchemist, named Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt attempted to heat kupfernickel with
charcoal and discovering its many properties, for instance it being white and magnetic, clearly
revealing this was not copper. Cronstedt is credited as the first person to extract nickel and seperate
it as a new

Multi Isotope Analysis : Significant Lifestyle Changes
Multi–isotope analysis demonstrates significant lifestyle changes in King Richard III. In 2012 the
human remains of what was believed to be of King Richard III were discovered under a parking lot
in Leicester. Analysis and historical documentation support that these remains were in fact Richard
III. The remains were of a 30 years old male with gracile features and severe scoliosis, he was found
with severe head trauma that more than likely was the cause of death. The writers of this article;
Angela L. Lamb, Jane E. Evans, Richard Buckley, and Jo Appleby use isotope analysis to discuss
and reconstruct Richards diet and migration history. Their analysis consisted of two teeth, one
femur, and one rib bone. They were hoping that they could use historical documentation and isotope
findings to help reconstruct Richards life, and they would gain knowledge about his diet and
migration history. This article explains that this case was new at the time and these were only
preliminary findings but with continued research they were hoping to find out more about this
unpopular King. Using isotope findings in order to reconstruct diet and migration is still new but
there have been advancements in this area. Richards research findings are new and researchers plan
on working with this material in hope to gain further knowledge of his life before and during the
time he was King. Researchers used two teeth, one upper whole premolar and one lower second
molar

Dating Vs Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating is a technique for determining the age of objects by measuring the decay of
radioactive elements they contain (). Radiometric dating helps to determine the age of the earth and
its organisms by measuring its radioactivity. This process is can provide dates with a fair amount of
precision. Whereas, the fossil record helps to provide clues to the past and history of life on earth. It
also proves the common occurrence of the evolution from one species to another. Each of these
theories helps to support the theory of evolution. Evidence suggest when comparing the fossil record
with radiometric dating, the proof of evolution between the two lines of evidence are agreeable.
The principle of natural selection is the process

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Radiation
Radiation is the process of which energy is emitted either by particles or waves. (Radiation, n.d.) .
Radioactive isotopes are chemical elements that have different masses and spare energy by emitting
radiation in for of alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Gamma rays are photons with high energy and a
very short wavelength of 0.0005 to 0.1nm. (What is Radioactivity? What is Radiation?, n.d.) Every
chemical element has one or more radioactive isotopes, for example carbon, it has 3 isotopes with
different mass numbers, 12, 13, and 14. Radioactive isotopes have many different useful
applications. In medicine, for example, Cobalt –60 is used as a radiation source to stop the growth of
cancer in the body. Another use for radioactive isotopes is in industry, ... Show more content on
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On the other hands there are many disadvantages for radiation, let's start, radiation takes a very long
time to break down, it is hazardous to the environment, and it is kept under water for a few years in
metal containers, also when the radiation comes out of a nuclear power plant is it so toxic for people
that are standing near it and unprotected or masked which could result in serious injury or even
death. (Pros and Cons of Radiation, n.d.). Using radioactive isotopes has a very main role in the
category of medication, in another meaning, it has many medical uses. One of the medical uses of
radioactive isotopes is that doctors can see if tibia or also known as the shinbone has a stress
fracture, but ask yourself? How can this be used? The answer is that the patient is given a small
injection containing 99T Cm which is a gamma ray creator with half–life of six hours, later on, a
couple of hours the patient undergoes bone imaging which will show if a stress fracture is in the
patient's shinbone or

John Dalton And His Atomic Theory
John Dalton did many things in his life. He was most known for his Atomic Theory, Law of
Multiple Proportions, Dalton 's Law Partial Pressures, and Daltonism. He had a noble award for
Royal Medals. Deborah and Joseph Dalton gave birth to John Dalton on September 6, 1766 at
Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England. John was born into a Quaker family. His father was a weaver
and his mother stayed at home and help with the cooking, children, laundry, etc. John had two other
siblings Mary and Jonathan Dalton. John and Jonathan both grew up colorblind. John attended to
Quaker school in Cumberland. After attending to Quaker School he became a teacher there until he
went back and spent a year as a farmhand. Then at age 15 he went and joined his brother at Quaker
Boarding School in Kendal as an assistant. After 4 years being an assistant he became a principal of
the school until 1793. In 1793, John moved to Manchester and became a Math and Philosophy tutor
at New College. There he joined the Manchester Literary and Philosophy Society . That granted him
lab access which he started writing daily logs about weather, wind velocity, and barometric pressure.
When he first moved to manchester he wrote a book called Meteorological Observation and Essays
which talked about several of his later on discoveries. John also researched color blindness which he
called Daltonism. He researched it due to him and his brother both suffered from this condition since
birth. He thought it was hereditary so he

Essay about Personal Statement: Goals in Nuclear Engineering
Personal Statement: Interests, Experiences, and Goals in Nuclear Engineering
Money and fame do not motivate my goals. Engineering in all forms is a field of innovation and
invention. Aspirations of any great engineer should be to introduce to the world a new idea, product,
or service that will make people happier and the environment safer. Success in these challenges is a
reward greater than any dollar amount or public recognition. Engineers bring societies to new levels
of civilization through their advancements in technology and discovery. The challenge to provide
people with ever–increasing standards while at the same time feeding the population with ideas of
what could be attracts my imagination, intelligence, and curiosity far more ... Show more content on
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The knowledge then expanded in an Advanced Placement Chemistry class. In physics I did a project
on nuclear fusion. The paper discussed concepts of nuclear physics never taught to me. I worked
hard to grasp the difficult theories, and my grades exhibit dedication to furthering this competence.
Mankind has limitless potential. However, we often are first forced to break down old barriers. In
the past humans have broken free of gravity and traveled through the skies. Then came the invention
of the computer. The idea of millions of calculations performed each minute may have seemed
absurd a century ago, but society's dependence on it today can never be overestimated. The future, I
believe, will be an era of power and energy.
Nuclear technology can make deep space exploration possible while making daily life on Earth
more comfortable and safer. Nuclear power has minimal threats to our natural environment, and
nuclear science can detect and cure many diseases. Seeing all the possibilities related to nuclear
engineering, I am easily drawn into this field.
Nuclear engineering, although highly controversial, is a very safe and reliable source of technology
that will improve our lives. I am very enthusiastic to be starting college soon and taking the next
step towards my chosen career. I have learned the fundamentals of math and science, and now I
want to further my education. Within time I will be given the opportunity to apply

Half Life Lab Report
Abstract
Radioactivity is the process that an atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation to form a more
stable atom, and time for radioactive material decay to half of the isotope is defined Half–life.
Radon–220 observed in the experiment theoretically has a half–life with 54.5s. Two methods
derived from the definition of Half–life and Radioactive Decay Law used to demonstrate half–life of
Radon–220 under 400V and the closest result from the whole experiment is 55.90s with 2.57%
error. The relationship of remaining atoms of Radon (1/∆T) and total elapsed time (t) is the main
idea to find out Half–life in the experiment.
Introduction
Beginning in 1896, radioactivity was the first time that mentioned in new science, the discovery of
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Radon gas injected into the chamber distributed over the volume of the chamber, and some of them
would stay at the bottom all the time and do not take part in the experiment; but only the radon das
ejected at the beginning of the each trial that is counted. A correction for the fraction of the radon
volume at the beginning of each trial relative to the total system volume must be made in the
experiment. The third factor must be taken into account is a small fraction of 220Rn escaped from
the chamber during the experiment. The total number of atoms of radon and the remaining atoms of
radon would have a huge difference at the end.
The forth factor which would affect the result of the experiment is objective. The leaf observed from
the electroscope is not clear, during the experiment, only the outline of the leaf can be seen, which
means the interval time for leaf from Mark 4 to Mark 3 is not correct because the leaf is not exactly
right on the positions of these two marks. So the results could be improved by observing the leaf
through leaf electroscope within the minimum error possible and for the skills for colleting data
using specific apparatus also need to be improved and to be more familiar with the process of the

Hydrogen Concentration And Radioactive Isotopes
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons; BUT they have the same
number of protons.
In nuclear chemistry, isotopes are shown in the following form:
Chlorine–35 is written as 35Cl and Rubidium–85 is written as 85Rb
Isotopes can be divided in two categories, radioactive and stable.
Stable Isotopes are isotopes that are not radioactive. They have stable nuclei and pose no known
physiological skills
Radioactive Isotopes is when the atom is unstable, it will attempt to gain stability by emitting
radiation in one of the three main forms. A substance is radioactive when it emits this radiation.
There are three types of radiation: α (alpha), β (beta) and γ (gamma) radiation:
Alpha Decay: is made of 'helium nucleus' (2 protons and 2 neutrons) that are ejected from unstable
large nuclei. Alpha radiation usually results when there are too many protons and neutrons in the
nucleus for it to be stable. For example, the decay of uranium–238: Beta Decay: is made up of
electrons ejected from an unstable nucleus (too may neutrons); but nuclei do not contain electrons.
Hence, the underlying reaction is the decomposition of a neutron: When neutron decomposes, it
forms an electron, which is immediately ejected as beta radiation, and a proton ('hydrogen nucleus'),
which is captured by the nucleus. Thus, the beta decay results in an

Research Paper On Phosphorus
Periodic Table / Paired Elements
Phosphorus:
Phosphorus has atomic number 15 and it is found in the periodic table with P. Phosphorus exists in
several forms like: white phosphorus, red phosphorus, violet phosphorus and as a black phosphorus.
These types of phosphorus have different properties and are called allotropes. It has a high reactivity
and it is never found as a free element on earth. The phosphorus can show the phenomenon of
luminescence. Phosphorus is discovered by Henning Brand. He isolated phosphor form the urine.
Phosphorus atomic weight is 30.973762. Electronic configuration of phosphorus is; 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3pᶾ.
Phosphorus is positioned in the group 5A, as the second element of the group, after Nitrogen (N). It
is positioned in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is used in many materials, to make carpets, curtains, clothing and drapes. These materials are
flammable and they burn easily. 20 % of bromine is used in drilling wells, sodium bromide (NaBr),
calcium bromide (CaBr₂) and zinc bromide (ZnBr₂) they are added to increases the efficiency of
drilling process in the wells. Bromine is also used in manufacture of pesticides, used to kill pests.
Bromine is very dangerous if inhaled or swallowed, it can damage the digestive system and
respiratory system and causes death.
From the reaction of Phosphorous and Bromide, Phosphorus Three bromide (PBr₃) occurs. This
compound is colorless liquid and releases fumes when in moist air due to the hydrolysis and it has a
very stinky smell. It is also used in laboratory, for conversion of alcohols in to alkyls bromides. The
reaction between phosphorus and bromine is prescribed as bellow:
P4 + 6 Br2 → 4

Explain What Number Of Natural Selenium Contain Six Stable...
3.
Samples of natural selenium contain six stable isotopes. these isotopes have the same number of
proton & electrons in each atom they differ in the number of neutrons in each atom, the atomic
mass, & their nuclear stability
Electron configuration 1S2, 2S2, 2P6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p4
Indicate the number of unpaired electrons in the ground–state atom it has 2 unpaired electrons in the
4P orbital. in a chemical reaction it is likely to take 2 electrons & become Se–2 or likely to do 2
covalent bond with other atom. it is also likely to lose all 6 electrons in its valence shell & become a
+6, or fewer electrons & become +4 or a +2 just as sulfur does above it in the same group.
It is easier for it to lose electrons than it is for Br, this is because Br has the same atomic radius (115
pm) as does Se, but Br more protons to hold its electrons from being taken, & itso has a stronger
pull for its own electrons and greater than that of tellurium. Se has a strong hold on its electrons,
because it is a smaller atom than Te, with Te's valence electrons further out the strength with which
they are held falls off by the square with distance. Te has a radius of 140 pm compared to Br's of 115
pm. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The History of the Periodic Table of elements is vast, and filled with interesting facts that not many
average people would know about, these four scientists have had all contributed to the table in some
way, and lead it to its current state, here is what they have

Isotopes and Its Uses
ISOTOPES
History of the term:
In the bottom right corner of JJ Thomson's photographic plate are the separate impact marks for the
two isotopes of neon: neon–20 and neon–22.
The term isotope was coined in 1913 by Margaret Todd, a Scottish physician, during a conversation
with Frederick Soddy (to whom she was distantly related by marriage).[4] Soddy, a chemist at
Glasgow University, explained that it appeared from his investigations as if each position in the
periodic table was occupied by multiple entities. Hence Todd made the suggestion, which Soddy
adopted, that a suitable name for such an entity would be the Greek term for "at the same place".
Soddy's own studies were of radioactive (unstable) atoms. The first observation of different ... Show
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For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is
257/80 = 3.2 isotopes per element.
Even/odd N | Mass | E | O | All | Stable | 145 | 101 | 246 | Longlived | 20 | 6 | 26 | Primordial | 165 |
107 | 272 |
Even and odd nucleons numbers
The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. Adding neutrons to
isotopes can vary their nuclear spins and nuclear shapes, causing differences in neutron capture
cross–sections and gamma spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance properties.
Even mass number
Beta decay of an even–even nucleus produces an odd–odd nucleus, and vice versa. An even number
of protons or of neutrons are more stable (lower binding energy) because of pairing effects, so even–
even nuclei are much more stable than odd–odd. One effect is that there are few stable odd–odd
nuclei, but another effect is to prevent beta decay of many even–even

Half Life Lab Report
In this experiment we will explore the meaning of half–life. We will accomplish this by getting a
handful of un–popped popcorn and cooking them in a pan. We will count how long it takes for half
of the popcorn to pop. In this experiment un–popped popcorn will resemble a radioactive nucleus
whilst popped nuclei will resemble non–radioactive nuclei. When the popcorn is popped it means
that the nucleus is stable. In this experiment, we discovered that we cannot predict when half of the
radioactive nuclei when disappear the first time over although when the first half–life occurs we are
able to calculate the half–life in the future. Half–life is the amount of time taken for half of the
radioactive nuclei to disappear. In this experiment we decided to put 16 pieces of popcorn in a pot
and then counted the seconds it took before they popped. The time it took for the number of un–
popped popcorn to half from 16 to 8 was 19 seconds. It then went from 8 to 4 in 13 seconds, 4 to 2
in 12 seconds and lastly 2 to 1 in 10 seconds. This made us come to the conclusion that the average
half–life of this experiment was 13.5 seconds. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If we picture that the side without the logo on the sweets is not a radioactive nucleus and the ones
with a logo are radioactive. This experiment would be carried out by putting M&M's in a cup and
letting them tip out. Statistically speaking there's a 50% chance that it will land up right rather than
downwards. When they are put on the table, we remove the sweets without the logo to indicate that
half of them have disappeared. When we conducted this experiment we started off with 100 M&M's.
When we did it the first time it dropped to 52 M&M'S (radioactive nuclei). When we did it again it
dropped to 27, then 13, then 8, then 3 and then 0. This resulted in there needing to be 6

Cultural Eutrophication
Eutrophication, the enrichment of aquatic environments with excess nutrients, is a naturally
occurring phenomenon characterized by excessive plant and algae growth. Eutrophication initially
increases productivity and limits light penetration, and subsequently results in reduced growth,
depleted inorganic carbon, and anoxic "dead zones" (Chislock, Doster, Zitomer, & Wilson, 2013).
Historically, primary productivity has been considered limited by an individual nutrient (Gooddy et
al., 2016). Schindler (1974) established the highly influential paradigm that phosphorus (P) is
generally considered limiting in freshwater environments. However, this has been subject to debate
by evidence of freshwater nitrogen (N) limitation, N/P co–limitation, and the role of spatial and
temporal variation (Xu, Paerl, Qin, Zhu, & Gao, 2010; Hundey, Moser, Longstaffe, Michelutti, &
Hladyniuk, 2014) Cultural eutrophication, resulting from anthropogenic nutrient pollution, and has
increased in both frequency and intensity over the past century due to intensification of agriculture,
industry and sewage disposal (Schindler, 1974). The causes and consequences of eutrophication are
important to study because of the resulting direct and indirect effects on ecosystems alongside
societal impacts (Chrislock et al., 2013). Further, the importance of this research should be
emphasized in the context of climate change, human population growth and the associated
environmental consequences of the 21st century.

Hydrogen Isotopes And Radioactive Isotopes
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable.
An isotope refers to elements that have different mass numbers with the same number of protons
and similar chemical and physical properties but a greater number of neutrons for example carbon
has 3 isotopes including carbon ((_6^12)C), carbon–13 ((_6^13)C) and carbon–14 ((_6^14)C).
The difference between stable and radioactive isotopes lies in their ability to emit radiation. That is
stable isotopes are unable to emit radiation whereas radioactive isotopes are capable of emitting
radiation such as Alpha particles α (helium nucleus), Beta β particles (fast moving electron) and
gamma γ particles (high energy electromagnetic rays). An Isotopes' stability is dependent on it
neutron to proton ratio for example elements are generally stable if in the lighter elements (those
with atomic numbers less than 20) for example lithium, the neutron to proton ratio is 1:1 and in
heavier elements (those with atomic numbers from 79–83) are stable if the ratio is 1.5:1. Also any
element with an atomic number greater than 83 is naturally radioactive as they are composed of an
unstable nucleus for example promethium ((_61^145)Pm). An element may also be classified as
unstable/radioactive if:
It has too many protons and neutron:
This results in the nucleus becoming too heavy and releasing alpha particles for example: cadmium
releases alpha particles and becomes palladium

Nuclear Medicine : A Global Link For The Scientific Community
Nuclear medicine is a relatively new process of medical practice in which radioactive material is
used to treat disease, inflammation, infection, and clotting disorders. (Nuclear Medicine
Radiochemistry Society, n.d.) The treatment of these conditions comes in medicinal form, through
radiopharmaceuticals. "[Radiopharmaceuticals] may be put into a vein, taken by mouth, or placed in
a body cavity. Depending on the drug and how it's given, these materials travel to various parts of
the body to treat cancer or relieve its symptoms" (American Cancer Society, 2014). By examining
the complications which are attempting to be solved, it is evident that the medicinal uses of
radioisotopes are a global link for the scientific community. However, in ... Show more content on
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A major characteristic of radioactive material is that it decays from one element to another through
particle and gamma decay. Essentially, all radioactive materials are byproducts of previously
decayed elements. In order to utilize the radioisotopes of their choice, providers must artificially
employ forms of specific radionuclide formation. This process is induced in a variety of ways,
namely, production in a particle accelerator or creation in a nuclear reactor.
"Overall there are some 3800 radioisotopes. At present there are up to 200 radioisotopes used on a
regular basis [in medical practice], and most must be produced artificially" (NMRS, 2003). Man–
made radioisotopes can be made through a cyclotron (a circular particle accelerator) or in a nuclear
reactor but "nuclear reactors are currently producing the vast majority of the isotopes" (Nuclear
Resource and Information Center, 2010). Consequently, focusing on the mechanics of their creation
in a nuclear reactor is the most effective way to analyze radioisotopes in medicine. "The
radioisotope most widely used in medicine is technetium–99m, employed in some 80% of all
nuclear medicine procedures–70,000 every day" (Hore–Lacy, 2009), and is the decayed
transmutation of molybdenum–99 within a technetium–99m generator. These technetium–99m
generators are actually

Finding use in “spacecrafts, pacemakers, underwater...
Finding use in "spacecrafts, pacemakers, underwater systems, electric automobiles, and remote
monitoring systems" (source 6), the atomic battery has existed for over a century and is growing to
benefit our world. The atomic battery generates electricity from a nuclear reaction, utilizing the
radioactive decay of specific elements. The atomic battery is certainly not meant for households or
as a source of common battery use, but rather powerful equipment needing to run for long, extended
periods. Atomic batteries are quite expensive, but can provide an immense amount of energy that
will conduct over an extremely long life period. This paper will explain the basic functioning of an
atomic battery, investigate a brief history of the atomic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Now we will discuss a brief history of early atomic battery development.
Henry G. J. Moseley, known for developing the Atomic Number and numerous other contributions
to physics and chemistry, created the first known atomic battery in 1913 with his demonstration of
the beta cell. He experimented with a radioactive isotope of the element radium, and the respective
emissions of beta particles, to form the first atomic battery (source 5). This first crude battery saw
minimal success and effectiveness, and it wasn't until 1954 when the "Radio Corporation of America
(RCA) began studying atomic batteries for the use of small radio receivers and hearing aids" that
atomic batteries became practical and more potential was realized (source 6). Moving forward to the
1980's, inventor Paul Brown developed an atomic battery that was much more powerful than most
thermal batteries out at the time. Brown used the emission of alpha and beta particles in radioactive
materials to create an extremely powerful magnetic field. As discussed before, these alpha and beta
particles contain kinetic energy to help collide atomic particles. The energy produced from this
system was so rapid and immense that controlling the cell was extremely difficult. This proved to be
a towering roadblock for most scientists to continue research for atomic batteries, until Brown was
able to invent an approach to encompass the uncontrollable magnetic fields. "This battery was so
powerful

Plutonium-238
Isotopes are essential to the universe in a chemical and even a social aspect, standing as a variation
of an element portrayed as unique. Important questions surround isotopes, how are they distinctive
and ultimately what is an isotope? To answer that question, isotopes are a form of an element that
differs in the number of neutrons in the nucleus but does not differ in protons of that element. An
isotope in particular that contributed to society is Plutonium–238, which is understood to be a
radioactive isotope. Understanding the basic structure according to the periodic table. Pu–238 has an
atomic number of 94. This is what classifies it as plutonium due to its number of protons. The
atomic mass, which is the sum of protons and neutrons ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Neptunium–238 undergoes beta decay which is when a proton is converted into a neutron and a
proton. The final product is plutonium–238. While plutonium–238 decays, it releases .5 watts of
energy per gram. Due to this release of energy which can be used as a viable fuel source,
plutonium–238 is used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, early pacemaker batteries, as well
as space satellites and vehicles. Though the source is widely used by NASA, the production has run
flat as well as the amount of material running dangerously low. For continued and future usage of
plutonium–238, the U.S. is establishing plans in order to run a plant that creates the isotope.
Currently, Russia is the lead supplier of plutonium–238. The hope is, by 2019, the isotopes
production will run at full

Radioactive Isotopes : What Is A Radioisotope?
Tatsuya Tsunemi
Radioactive Isotopes
What is a radioisotope?
An isotope means that same chemical elements but they are able to gain and lose some neutrons and
it means they have different mass numbers but that are all still the same element because they all
have same atomic number and same amount of electrons.
Some of them are stable and unstable and unstable ones start radioactive decay by time because of
some reasons which includes they cannot keep staying together, they have too many or too few
neutrons. This means they are a radioactive isotope and that is an isotope of any known element
with nucleus which is unstable and ends up scattering excess energy because of that nucle.
There are over 2000 of radioisotopes include man made ones. However, only 50 of them are found
in natural world today because they have half–life.
Technetium is the lowest atomic number in the periodic table which have no stable isotopes.
Natural technetium is very rare element on the earth and it often made by spontaneous fission from
Uranium–238 but amount of it is very tiny and all of isotopes from Technetium are radioactive
isotopes.
What is a half–life?
Radioactive half–life is the number of time to take for half of the original radionuclear to undergo
radioactive decay.
Technetium–99 which is the most common isotope of Technetium and it is the first chemical
element was made by people that has a half–life for 212,000 years to stable ruthenium–99 and
emitting beta particles.
Tc–99m, it is

Analysis Of Xenon In Violation Of The Nuclear Agreement
Summary:
Tehran is comprised of a various number of research centers where they perform different
experiments using different natural radioisotopes. Based on the data found in the research the
agency in charge of nuclear energy use decided to check for themselves to see whether or not Tehran
was in violation of the Nuclear Agreement. To determine whether or not Tehran was in violation of
the Nuclear Agreement, investigators calculated the decay series of their allowable radioisotopes
and the radioisotopes in violations . Using the final products to compare to the isotopes found at the
site. After the decay series of Xenon–133 the isotope Cesium–133 is formed which was one of the
isotopes found at the site, because this was an allowable ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[7] In late 2003, the Agency took samples from both the solution containing the plutonium and the
shielded boxes used in the experiments. However, inconsistencies in the isotopic composition of the
samples brought up questions about the origin of the material.("Tehran Nuclear Research Center"2 )
The research center started conducting an experiment with their Tehran Water Reactor starting in
1968. They applied the elects of uranium and plutonium by manipulating the structure of the
element. First they decided to separate the plutonium from the UO2 and then they moved to convert
and enrich the uranium. Regardless, these experiments were allowed and approved because they
were funded by world superpowers(The US and Japan and China).
Findings:
According to the technical data information, the allowable radioisotopes in Tehran were Uranium–
238 and Xenon–133. While the restricted radioisotopes that were in violation were Plutonium–239
and Polonium–208. The two Isotopes discovered at the site were Lead–204 and Cesium–133. The
first allowable radioisotope, Uranium–238 has a half–life of 4.5 billion years, decaying 14 times in
order to be in a more stable isotope Lead–206. The second acceptable radioisotope, Xenon–133 has
a half–life of 5.5 years, decaying once and releasing a gamma ray. After this decay series, Xenon–
133 becomes a more stable Cesium–133 which was one of the radioisotopes discovered at the site
which means Cesium–133 isn't in

Ap Biology Lab Report
Table of Contents
Aim 0
Hypothesis 0
Materials 0
Procedure 0
Results 1
Discussion 2
Conclusion 3
References 3
AIM
To model radioactive decay and half–life
HYPOTHESIS
The trend will mimic the pattern of the half–life of a radioactive material, with the same
approximate curve, because the M&Ms with m showing will be approximately half of the total
M&Ms at every half–life, which is the same as decaying radioisotopes, with half the atoms
disappearing every half–life.
MATERIALS
A packet of M&Ms
A clean sheet of paper (A4)
A clean jar/cupcake cup
PROCEDURE
1. Copy the table from the criteria sheet into your workbook
2. Count the total number of M&Ms in the container
3. Shake up the container to mix the M&Ms around
4. Pour the container onto the clean sheet of paper
5. Count how many M&Ms show the letter 'm' facing upwards
6. Record this number in the table
7. Place only the M&Ms showing the letter 'm' back into the jar and dispose of the other M&Ms
appropriately
8. Repeat steps 3–7 until there are no M&Ms left
DISCUSSION ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of these is curium–243, with a half–life of 29.1 years, with a graph pattern almost identical to
this experiment's. This experiment models what happens inside a radioisotope when the atoms begin
to decay, whether that be alpha, beta or gamma, (alpha being a releasing of a helium atom, beta

being an electron and gamma being the release of energy at the speed of life known as gamma rays).
In this experiment, the M&Ms without m represent the decaying atoms, which are launching
themselves out to become more stable, and the repeats are the half–lives, the M&Ms showing m are
the atoms that are still in the element. Every period of time, 29.1 years, ½ the atoms decay, and so
on until the element is completely split

Chemistry Reflection
Objectives for the lesson: *Based on the Worksheet given, higher Depth of Knowledge questions are
not asked.*
Students will be able to classify types of elements according to periodic table location.
Students will be able to distinguish and differentiate characteristics of metals, non–metals, and
metalloids.
Student will be able to determine how many electrons, neutrons, and protons are in a different
isotopes given to them.
Students will be able to calculate the percent abundances of isotopes given atomic weights for the
isotopes as well as the average atomic weight for the element.
Mr. Crowder's Lesson Plan:
11:26 – 11:34: Initiation – Welcome students, hand back old papers, and carry discussions with the
students about what they are currently discussing.
11:35 – 11:40: Initiation/Development – Remind the students about the Mole Day activities coming
up in the next day or two. Provide the students with the worksheet that they will be completing in
groups. Provide desired instructions that will help them with the worksheet. Model one or two of the
problems on the sheet for modeling sake. Inform the students to stop after completing question six,
and remind them that they can ask questions throughout the work session.
11:41 – 11:50: Development – Student groups will work on problems 1–6 on the provided
worksheet. Answer student's questions in the process.
11:51 – 12:10: Development – Begin with asking the class if there was a problem that caused some
confusion. Respond

Tridacna Research Paper
Variables of Tridacna isotopes as environmental indicators. Ontogeny, zooxanthella symbiosis, trace
elements, seasonality and relative living depth.
Abstract (In progress)
Isotopic profiles of mollusks provide insight to the biology of fossil and living specimen and the
conditions under which they live in. Isotopic profiles record seasonal variance in temperature,
salinity, dissolved oxygen concentrations and can provide evidence of changes in bio mineralization
in correlation with seasonality and ontology. The shells of Tridacna are beneficial for Pleistocene
paleoceanography isotopic studies because of their large size making it easier to gain detailed
samples of shell carbonate. The density of the shell better preserves original carbonate of the shell.
Introduction to Tridacna
The reef dwelling giant clam or Tridacna is one of the genuses that survived the waves of Paleozoic
extinction. The genus Tridacna evolved over 65 million years ago in the Eocene along with modern
corals ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Comparing isotopes of symbiont–bearing tridacnid clams and encrusting symbiont–free clam. The
carbon isotopic composition of the symbiont– free bivalve and the symbiont–bearing bivalve
Tridacna were found to be similar, suggesting that the presence of symbionts has no noticeable
effect on the isotopic composition of Tridacna (Romananek et al., 1989).
It was also found that the amplitude of δ18O was greater in specimens gathered from shallow water
because of greater environmental variability (1989). Specimen found deeper had higher δ18O and
δ13C when compared to the shallow specimen due to lower temperatures and the lesser influence of
13C depleted carbon from oxidation of organic matter in sediments and meteoric water (Romananek
et al.,

Research Report On Marine Calcareous Microfossils
Marine calcareous microfossils are extensively utilized as geochemical proxy–archives. Among the
traditional isotope proxies, δ18O and δ13C of foraminiferal tests are used as geochemical tools to
determine numerous paleoceanographic parameters, such as, paleo–temperature, sea–ice volume,
paleo–sea level, variation of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the seawater, paleo–productivity
and ocean circulation pattern (Urey et al., 1951; Epstein et al., 1953; Emiliani, 1954; Boyle and
Keigwin, 1985; Duplessy et al., 1988; Spero et al., 1997; Miller et al., 2005; Katz et al., 2008; Katz
et al., 2010). However, the reconstructions of environmental parameters from traditional isotope
proxies are not always straightforward. For instance, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In recent years, technological advancement in analytical geochemistry has offered a new suite of
non–traditional geochemical proxies developed from trace metals (e.g., Sr/Ca, Mg/Ca, Ba/Ca, B/Ca)
(Lea and Spero, 1992, 1994; Nurnberg et al., 1996; Rosenthal et al., 1997; Lea et al., 1999; Lear et
al., 2000; Martin et al., 2002; Billups and Schrag, 2003, 2004; Honisch and Hemming, 2004; Yu and
Elderfield, 2007; Foster, 2008; Allen et al., 2009) and isotopic compositions (e.g., 87Sr/86Sr, δ11B,
δ44/40Ca, and δ26Mg) of foraminiferal calcite (DePaolo and Ingram, 1985; De La Rocha and
DePaolo, 2000; DePaolo, 2004; Fantle and DePaolo, 2005; Fantle, 2010; Hodell et al., 2007;
Higgins and Schrag, 2012; Fantle and Tipper, 2014; Pogge von Strandmanss et al., 2014) that are
complementary to the traditional foraminifera–based isotopic proxies. Moreover, the emerging metal
isotopic proxies have potential to reconstruct past variability in seawater chemistry and thereby
contribute strongly to understanding the long–term variation in metal cycling (e.g. Ca, Sr, Mg) that
are directly linked to the global carbon cycle (Richter et al., 1992; Zhu and Macdougall, 1998; de La
Rocha and DePaolo, 2000; Fantle and DePaolo, 2005; Hodell et al., 2007; Griffith et al., 2008;
Higgins and Schrag, 2010; Higgins and Schrag, 2012, Fantle and Tipper, 2014; Pogge von
Strandmanss et al., 2014). However, due to

A Brief Review Of Marine Isotope Stages
Kendra McKoy
11/11/14
Paleoceanography
Draft 1
A brief review of Marine Isotope stages
Introduction
The creation of marine isotope stages we know today was a carminative effort between several
scientists and research institutions across decades. It first started with Cesare Emiliani who
transferred to the University of Miami's Institute of Marine Science in 1957. Emiliani had been
investigating the cause and nature of Quaternary glaciations by examining foraminifera fossils from
the marine sedimentary record for the Pleistocene Age. Moving to the University of Miami offered
new opportunities for Emiliani to work with ongoing drilling projects and trained individuals.
Emiliani's work was heavily influenced by Harold Urey's 1947 work on ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Oxygen isotope ratios change in the ocean primarily due to precipitation and evaporation. When
water evaporates from the surface, lighter 16O is preferentially removed and turned into vapor while
the heavier 18O is preferentially left behind. With time, this causes the ocean to be 16O depleted or
18O enriched. If the cloud precipitates out, the first isotopes to be released are the heavier 18O
while the 16O remain as vapor. It is important to note that complete precipitation or evaporation
results in no fractionation since all molecules of water are precipitated or evaporated out. Rayleigh
fractionation occurs as the water vapor moves poleward and begins precipitating out the heavier
isotopes until the vapor is progressively more enriched in light isotopes (Figure 1). The lighter
isotopes can then be stored as terrestrial ice. This mechanism explains how on long timescales the
oxygen isotope ratio can change when forming or collapsing large ice sheets. Because the changes
in the isotopic ratio are so small, delta notion was adopted with the use of an international standard.
The original standard, adopted in 1968 by the International Atomic Energy Agency, was called
Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) but has been retired for the current standard Vienna Standard
Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW). The calculation for δ18O is defined as follows: δ^18 O=
[(〖(_^18)O/(_^16)O

The Science of Radiocarbon Dating Essay
The Science of Radiocarbon Dating
When we think of history, we think of important people, places, cultures, events, and much more.
The backbone of history rests on its chronology. It gives us the "when" of basic analysis. It gives us
a frame of reference, the order of things. Before having an "absolute" way of determining dates,
history was based in guesses and assumptions. Many attempts were made to organize the dates of
the past. Some of these attempts were made by geologist. Geologist used the idea of "stratigraphic
succession" (Renfrew, 1973) which is based on the "principle that when successive layers or strata
are observed in position, the underlying ones are the earliest." (Pg. 23 Renfrew, 1973) By setting the
layers in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This changed history forever. While it created controversy, due to some people's attachments to the
old ways of dating and doubts in this revolutionary method, it proved to be the closest method to
have an accurate chronology of history. In 1955, to prove the accuracy or radiocarbon, Libby
published a graph that showed the comparison of the results of radiocarbon dating of specimens
from Egypt. These specimens had already an absolute known date. The graph proved the accuracy
of Libby's radiocarbon dating. Figure 1 (Renfrew, 1973)
Libby developed the method of radiocarbon dating though his observation of how cosmic rays
create radiocarbon. From outer space cosmic rays infiltrate earth's atmosphere. In the upper
atmosphere, these rays hit nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the air. (Renfrew, 1973). When the neutrons
of these high–energy particles (mostly protons) hit nitrogen atoms, Carbon 14 (C–14) is created. The
nitrogen atom (atomic number 7) has an atomic mass of 14 (with 7 protons and 7 neutrons). When
the nucleus of the nitrogen is hit by the cosmic ray's neutrons, the atomic number of the atom
decreases by one. The make–up of its atomic mass changes, a proton is emitted and the neutrons are
increased by one; therefore, the atomic mass number stays the same. Because the atomic number has
changed, a new element, carbon 14, with atomic number 6, has an atomic mass of 14 (with 6 protons
and 8 neutrons). (Bowman, 1990) The reaction is 14N + n = 14c + p (where n is a

The Journey Towards Nuclear Power Essay
There is a great depth of curiosity in traversing the unknown, in embarking on journeys where the
discoveries far outweigh your greatest expectations. In terms of nuclear power, the journey is still
ensuing. Has progress been made? Yes. Have policies been formulated? Yes. Has a vast deal of
information been researched? Yes. And yet, the learning continues, and it will be a never–ending
process that depends upon harnessing, refining, and innovating nuclear energy and technology. As
the old–age adage goes, however, with this learning comes knowledge, and knowledge is power.
Power and responsibility, however, are not mutually exclusive prospects, and all three of these
components are highly applicable to the atomic energy discussed in Dr. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This insinuates that the text is not intended for a mature, adult mind, but rather for a younger
generation who might yet still read those types of stories. In this way, the text becomes more
engaging, captivating younger minds while still informing them about atomic power. Each chapter,
moreover, follows the outline of "wishes": in the first chapter, "we" (the audience and the narrator
collectively), wish for power. In the second, we wish for food and health. In the third, we wish for
the atom to be our friend. This concept of friendship, intertwined with the childhood fantasy of
making wishes come true, makes the text more relatable and thereby more understandable to young
audiences (Haber). The prospect of an intended audience is pertinent due to the policy perspective
Haber and Disney are trying to convey. In fact, Our Friend the Atom is merely a method for
indoctrination in terms of soothing the public after the event of the nuclear bombings. The text
describes an end to poverty, world hunger, and a chance for peace by embracing the power of the
atom; it does so by presenting a historical context of the atom, an analogous overview of the
problem, and then describing the benefits of atomic

The And Characterization Of Project Mn ( Bpmp )
Syntheses and characterization of [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] catalysts
BPMP was synthesised via the published procedure [2b] and expected, the piperazine ring adopts
the more stable chair configuration, and the methylpyridyl substituents are found in the equatorial
positions. Reaction of BPMP with Mn(OTf)2 (ratio 1 : 1) in CH3CN under air the atmospheric
conditions this complex [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. Removing of the volatiles and washing with diethyl
ether leads to white solid that analyses as [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2]. while uncoordinated BPMP was
identified in the ether (washing) phases. The molecular structure is shown in Figure (compare
Scheme 1). The coordination around the manganese atom can be described as distorted trigonal
prismatic, and the piperazine ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This heterogeneous catalyst can be applied to a wide variety of activated and non–activated primary
and secondary alcohols. As shown in Table 3, benzyl alcohol and substituted benzyl alcohols are
converted to their corresponding aldehydes efficiently. In the case of benzyl alcohol, after 30 min,
only benzaldehyde was obtained in 99% yield. In longer reaction times (1h), the obtained products
are 97% p–OCH3 benzaldehyde and 3% p–OCH3 benzoic acid. The results show that the
substituent's have no major effect on the oxidation of benzylic alcohols. A good selectivity
experimental in the case of cinnamyl alcohol and only oxidized in alcoholic group and no epoxide
yield was obtained. Manganese(II)non–heme was also used for oxidation of secondary alcohols and
their corresponding ketones were obtained in good yields. We used hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as
the oxidant and [Mn(BPMP)(OTf)2] as the catalyst for the oxidation of alcohols. To a mixture of
substrate (1mmol), manganese non–heme catalyst (1mol %), and solvent (CH3CN = 3mL) was
added H2O2 (1.2mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 30 min at room temperature. This
system has shown high catalytic activities for the oxidation of non–activated and activated alcohols
under mild conditions as shown in Table 4. Secondary alcohols were easily converted to the
corresponding ketones in excellent yields and reaction selectivity was over 99% in all cases. Cyclic
alcohols

The Isotope Of A Isotope Analysis
The scholarly article that I have chosen that depicts an isotope analysis is based on the
stable isotope Carbon, found in nectar beverages. The main method measures the carbon of C3
photosynthetic cycle in commercial apple flavored nectars, which then has the determination
of the exact legal limit to identify the beverages that do not conform to safety standards that
were previously set by the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply. The
term adulteration is used in the article. Adulteration is essentially the contamination that is in
foods and beverages and the challenges that the industries face is a wide issue known today.
According to (RICARDO; FILHO; GASTONI; CARLOS, 2013), "To identify such adulteration, the
isotope analysis is the most sophisticated and specific technique used in the food and
beverages area. Stable isotope techniques have been used by official institutions in the quality
control of beverages as an instrument of tax assessment for fraudulent products." This goes
back to show how sophisticated the methods are with respect to quality control in the
beverage environment.
The methodology for the determination of the carbon isotope ratio (13C/12C) is based on
a mixture of compounds produced from plants of the C3 photosynthetic cycle (apple,
grape, orange, etc.) and C4 (sugarcane, corn, etc.). The C3 vegetables have relative
isotope enrichment (δ13C) from –22.00 to –34.00 per mil (‰). In C4 vegetables, the

Full Form of Elements
Israel Science and Technology Homepage
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Hebrew Name List of Periodic Table Elements Sorted by Atomic Number
Click a column title, such as Symbol, to sort the table by that item.
No.
Atomic
Weight
Name
Sym.
M.P.
( °C ) B.P. ( °C )
Density*
(g/cm3)
Earth

crust (%)*
Discovery
(Year)
Group*
Electron configuration Ionization energy (eV)
1 1.0079 Hydrogen H –259 –253 0.09 0.14 1776 1 1s1 13.5984
2 4.0026 Helium He –272 –269 0.18 1895 18 1s2 24.5874
3 6.941 Lithium Li 180 1347 0.53 1817 1 [He] 2s1 5.3917
4 9.0122 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5 10.4513
54 131.293 Xenon Xe –112 –108 5.9 1898 18 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6 12.1298
55 132.9055 Cesium Cs 29 678 1.87 1860 1 [Xe] 6s1 3.8939
56 137.327 Barium Ba 725 1140 3.59 0.05 1808 2 [Xe] 6s2 5.2117
57 138.9055 Lanthanum La 920 3469 6.15 1839 3 [Xe] 5d1 6s2 5.5769
58 140.116 Cerium Ce 795 3257 6.77 1803 101 [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2 5.5387
59 140.9077 Praseodymium Pr 935 3127 6.77 1885 101 [Xe] 4f3 6s2 5.473
60 144.24 Neodymium Nd 1010 3127 7.01 1885 101 [Xe] 4f4 6s2 5.525
61 * 145 Promethium Pm 1100 3000 7.3 1945 101 [Xe] 4f5 6s2 5.582
62 150.36 Samarium Sm 1072 1900 7.52 1879 101 [Xe] 4f6 6s2 5.6437
63 151.964 Europium Eu 822 1597 5.24 1901 101 [Xe] 4f7 6s2 5.6704
64 157.25 Gadolinium Gd 1311 3233 7.9 1880 101 [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2 6.1501
65 158.9253 Terbium Tb 1360 3041 8.23 1843 101 [Xe] 4f9 6s2 5.8638
66 162.5 Dysprosium Dy 1412 2562 8.55 1886 101 [Xe] 4f10 6s2 5.9389
67 164.9303 Holmium Ho 1470 2720 8.8 1867 101 [Xe] 4f11 6s2 6.0215
68 167.259 Erbium Er 1522 2510 9.07 1842 101 [Xe] 4f12 6s2 6.1077
69 168.9342 Thulium Tm 1545 1727 9.32 1879 101 [Xe] 4f13 6s2 6.1843
70 173.04 Ytterbium Yb 824 1466 6.9 1878 101 [Xe] 4f14 6s2 6.2542
71 174.967 Lutetium Lu 1656 3315 9.84 1907 101 [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2 5.4259
72 178.49 Hafnium Hf 2150 5400 13.31 1923 4 [Xe] 4f14 5d2 6s2 6.8251
73 180.9479 Tantalum Ta 2996 5425 16.65 1802 5 [Xe] 4f14 5d3 6s2 7.5496
74 183.84 Tungsten W 3410 5660 19.35 1783 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2 7.864
75 186.207 Rhenium Re

Nuclear advancements after the manhattan project Essay
Nuclear Advancements After the Manhattan Project
When the first atomic bomb was detonated in Alamogordo New Mexico on June 16, 1945, all the
scientists involved in the Manhattan Project understood the great destructive power of radio–active
isotopes. Although the atomic bomb was a very destructive force our world would not be as good
without it. Because of the government funding involved in the project coupled with the need for an
atom bomb, much research that otherwise may not have occurred took place in the US. The
Manhattan project opened the door to nuclear advancements and applications.
After World War II atomic research escalated into a frenzy. Many countries were trying ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) consists of irradiating laboratory–reared male insects before
hatching, to sterilize them. The sterilized males are then released in large numbers in the infested
areas. When they mate with females, no offspring are produced. With repeated releases of sterilized
males, the population of the insect pest in a given area is drastically reduced. The largest SIT
operations so far have been conducted in Mexico against the Mediterranean fruit fly and the
screwworm. In 1981 the Medfly operation was declared a complete success, and by 1991 the
screwworm eradication had yielded some 3 billion US dollars in benefits to the economy.
People also benefit from atomic research in the medical field. Many people are aware of the wide
use of radiation and radioisotopes in medicine. Nuclear medicine mostly uses radioisotopes which
emit gamma rays from within the body. Estimates show that about one out of every three hospital
patients benefits in some way from the use of nuclear medicine. Just think, every time you have an
X–ray taken you are benefiting from nuclear research. Without X–rays, doctors would have a far
greater time trying to set a broken bone if they even knew it was broken! Another common medical
procedure that involves atomic research is the Cat–Scan. During this procedure the patient is
injected with a radioactive isotope which shows the flow of blood through the

The Relevence of Carbon-14
A human skeleton is discovered at a new construction site outside a small town in Nebraska. The
remains could be from someone who died within the past 100 years or the past 1000 years or even
longer. An archeologist from a local university is called in to examine the remains. He finds
evidence that the skeleton may indeed be very old. To determine its age, he uses radiometric dating.
Radiometric dating is based on analyzing the amount of carbon–14 in an ancient example of once–
living substantial, related to what is found in a current sample of active material. The important
material on which it is established is that carbon–14 has always been constructed at the same level
in the greater atmosphere for all history.
An element is radioactive if its atomic nuclei are unstable. The nucleus holds neutrons and protons;
the electromagnetic force separates the protons because they have an equivalent charge, but the
strong nuclear force pulls the protons and neutrons closer together. A nucleus is only unchanging if
it has an even balance of protons and neutrons, or also doesn't have any extra energy. Radiocarbon
dating only works on things that were once alive and are now dead.
The level of carbon 14 in an artifact reduces by 50% every 5730 years from the moment that the raw
material from which the artifact is made no longer is exchanging carbon with he atmosphere, in
most cases this is the point of death of the animal or plant.
Carbon–14 is produced naturally in the upper

How Did Radioisotopes Change Our Life
TF Radioisotopes Isotopes have changed science and altered the fates and lives of people through
nuclear science. This nuclear medicine rescues people from the gaping jaws of death. These isotopes
give people, young and old, a second chance to live. My life, as it is, would be completely altered if
it were not for isotopes used in modern medicine. People I love would be gone without these
isotopes. Doctors around the globe use isotopes for research, diagnosis, and treatment.
Radioisotopes have changed everyone's lives without most of them knowing it. Like David Foster
Wallis says, "This is water." This quote means that this is one of many things that allow the world to
function and thrive without the realization that the substance, like radioisotopes, even exists. ...
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They once were brought from the largest supplier, chalk river Canada, but sadly, it closed. This has
caused many patients to have to wait for treatments longer because of the lower supply of the
isotopes. With a reliance on countries other than ours, we cannot predict when or if we will get
isotopes from them. The supply brought in is deeply necessary by the patients in hospitals and by
people I know and love. These foreign supplies are extremely important, and it is important to have
a radioisotope plant in the United States. We cannot always depend on our neighbors to supply our
needs in times of strife or disagreement, therefore costing innocent lives only because we don't have
a domestic supply, that is why I support the Shine Project in Jamesville, Wisconsin, and it will
become the only domestic supply of radioisotopes in America. This project will cover much of
America's demand for the radioisotopes. This project can help the people I love and care for and the
Shine Project will help millions of people and relieve them of pain or save them from

The Tsunami Of The Earthquake
The Tsunami March 11, 2011 was a day that impacted many lives. Little did anyone know that thirty
seven miles off the east coast of Japan a disaster was brewing. Tension on the Circum– Pacific Belt
was released. When this tension released the Pacific Plate was thrusted 5– 8 meters above its
previous location(book). This thrust upward displaces water, which will cause a tsunami. A tsunami
is large ocean wave that are set in motion be a major undersea earthquake(book). The upward
movement of the Pacific tectonic was the earthquake. Japan is located on the Circum–Pacific Belt.
This is the edge of the Pacific Plate that encompasses many coastal regions, and holds many areas of
a lot of tectonic plate movement(Book). The Earthquake that caused the tsunami in Japan was a
level 9 magnitude. Earthquakes of magnitudes of 8 or great would have to be a tension snap that
occurs along a segment that is around 600 miles in length(Book).This is an extraordinary length.
This is about the distance from Dayton Ohio to New York, New York. Can you Imagine a piece of
land that massive shifting upwards as much as the Pacific Plate did? The tsunami in Japan was a
wave of about 40 meters high. Since the earthquake happened 37 miles off of the coast of
Japan(Book), there was plenty of time for the wall of water to build. When the earthquake occurred
there was a retreat of all of the water on the coast. It appeared that the water had been sucked away,
but in reality it hadn't, it was gathering

How Strontium Is A Chemical Element With Symbol Sr And...
Strontium is a chemical element with symbol Sr and atomic number (protons in nucleus) 38 and
atomic weight 88.1 It is a soft, silver–gray metal, and has physical and chemical properties like to
Calcium and Barium. It is available as four stable isotopes ubiquitously (Isotopes are differ in forms
of an by number of protons in nucleus but possess a variable number of neutrons.) Strontium–88 is
the most dominant among other forms, comprising 83% of natural strontium, where in additional
three stable isotopes and their relative abundance are strontium–84 (0.6%), strontium–86 (9.9%),
and strontium–87 (7.0%). Strontium is available ubiquitous vitally as as celestite (SrSO4) and
strontianite (SrCO3), and it comprises about 0.025% of the earth's crust. There are 16 major
radioactive isotopes of strontium, but only strontium–90 has a half–life sufficiently long (29 years).
In comparison with half–lives of remaining strontium radionuclides are fewer than 65 days.
Strontium–90 decays to yttrium–90 by decaying a beta particle, and yttrium–90 decays by decaying
a energetic beta particle with a half–life of 64 hours to zirconium–90. The key health concerns for
strontium–90 are associated to the energetic beta particle from yttrium–90.2
Strontium–90 is a pure β emitter, produced in nuclear ﬁssion of (235U and 239Pu ﬁssion reaction).
When an atom of uranium–235 (or other fissile nuclide) fissions, usually splits asymmetric into two
large fragments – fission products possessing mass

The Merced River Is The Southernmost Watercourse Of The...
METHODS
Study sites
The Merced River is the southernmost watercourse of the California Central Valley presently
inhabited by Chinook salmon whose abundance has decreased by 75% since 1950 (Yoshiyama et al.,
2000). From its headwaters located in Yosemite National Park, Sierra Nevada, the Merced River
flows west to join the San Joaquín River (river km 190) and drains a watershed approximately 3,297
km2 in size. Meanwhile, the elevation declines from 3,048 m to about 18.3 m. Only the first 82 river
km are reachable by anadromous fish with access terminating at Crocker–Huffman Dam. We
estimated the percent contribution of terrestrial organic carbon sources for juvenile Chinook salmon
across four longitudinally–positioned sites: Merced River ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Restoration planning identified the rehabilitation of the floodplain functions that foster recruitment
of riparian vegetation and the quality of riparian habitat. Fall–run Chinook salmon is an important
management species in the Merced River, and numerous state and federal resource programs include
increasing its abundance in their goals. The vision has been to enhance channel, floodplain and
riparian ecosystem processes and critical habitats for juvenile and adult salmonids, in coordination
with local communities and stakeholders, to promote the recovery of healthy and diverse Chinook
salmon and steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) populations in the Merced River, while helping to
meet the abundance goals of the Anadromous Fish Restoration Program.
Robinson's restoration reach is approximately 2.4 km long and is located 16 km downstream of
Crocker–Huffman Dam. The project included a very complex suite of actions to restore Robinson's
reach which was degraded as a result of mining activities and recent flood impacts. Channel
reconfiguration and the creation of a large floodplain with native vegetation increased the river
channel's ability to transport and deposit sediments under the river's current flow regime; hence
improving channel dynamics and salmon passage concerns. These actions within the channel
produced improvements for salmon spawning and rearing through the creation of

Essay On Isotopes

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