Assessment Critique Essay

Assessment Critique Essay
Assessment Critique Sandra Whitney California State University, Northridge SPED 501 M/M Dr.
Haney A. General Information The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition
(KTEA–II) is an individually administered measure of academic achievement for ages 4.5 through
25. The test is available in 2 versions. The Brief Form assesses achievement in reading, math and
written expression. The Comprehensive Form covers reading, math, written language, and oral
language. It also provides an analysis of students' errors. Examiners can obtain a Comprehensive
Achievement Composite in about 30 minutes for younger children and 85 minutes for the oldest
students. The Comprehensive Form has 2 independent, parallel forms (A and ... Show more content
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The core composites for Reading (.96), Mathematics (.96), and Written Language (.93) are also
highly reliable. However, the Oral Language composite (.87) and Oral Fluency (.85) fall below the
desired (.90) standard for reliability. The Sound–Symbol and Decoding composites are adequately
reliable at all age levels. Because of the format for the subtests for the Reading Fluency composite,
it is not possible to evaluate the internal consistency. The internal consistency coefficients are lower
for subtests than composites. Most of the Reading and Mathematics subtests, and the Spelling
subtest coefficients are sufficiently reliable. The majority of coefficients for the Oral Language
subtests and the Written Expression subtest are less than (.90). The coefficients for Nonsense Word
Decoding are acceptable; but the majority of coefficients for the Phonological Awareness,
Associational Fluency, and Naming Facility are below (.90). To assess the stability of the KTEA–II
scores over a period of weeks, the test was administered twice to 221 children from three grade
ranges (Pre–K to Grade 1, Grades 2 through 6, and Grades 7 through 12). The retest interval ranged
from 11 to 60 days and averaged 3½ to 4 weeks. Alternate–form reliability was also examined in
this analysis because about half the students took Form A first and Form B second; the other half
took the test in the opposite order. The reliability correlations for the three grade ranges for the
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Predicting Performance Of Post Graduate Education From...
Predicting performance in post–graduate education from admissions information –––comparisons of
health professions with pharmacy
Richard E Wilcox, PhD* and Kenneth A Lawson, PhD ABSTRACT
Objectives. The goal of the present review was to assess the state of performance prediction in
health care programs generally, versus performance in pharmacy schools, using didactic and non–
didactic admissions measures. This is important because clinical success represents a combination of
skills that are not fully predicted by either type of measure alone.
Methods. PubMed searches were conducted focusing on work published from 2000 onwards, since
it is during this period that non–didactic admissions measures have come to be incorporated into the
applicant evaluation process. Relevant papers that were available as free full text were used. When
these papers were not available by direct import into EndNote, we went directly to the journal to try
to retrieve the paper.
Results. Published literature clearly showed that prediction of performance in the didactic portions
of health care programs is straightforward when based on pre–health care GPA and achievement test
scores. The best predictions are achieved when both measures are combined. While significant
statistical prediction is achieved in virtually every study, the percent of total performance variance
accounted for is also consistent and uniformly small – in the order of 25%. Similarly, there is now
an emerging consensus that

The Importance Of Individual Achievement Tests
one in clinical or school settings. Group achievement tests might also be considered as educational
achievement tests, since these instruments are apparently employed in academic settings. On the
other hand, individual achievement tests may be an important measurement tool in the diagnosis of
learning disability. Not only do these tests render documentation of impaired scholastic performance
in crucial areas as reading, writing, and numerical ability, some achievement tests can aid in
identifying certain skill deficits relative to learning disabilities. In an ideal manner, individual
achievement tests should be used in conjunction with other measurement tools, especially
intelligence tests. According to Aiken (2003b), any test of ability (general intelligence, special
abilities, achievement) actually assesses what people have achieved. Specifically, the items on
intelligence and special abilities tests require test takers to manifest some accomplishment, just like
those on achievement tests. Educational achievement tests often serve as reliable predictors of
school marks compared to tests of intelligence and special abilities, but still cannot completely
replace them. It is notable to mention that the individual's attainment measured by general
intelligence tests are indeed broader and the products of less formal and usually less recent learning
experiences compared to the ones measured by standardized achievement tests (Aiken, 2003c).
Cohen et al. (2013b) regarded that the

Inclusion In Special Education
Students across America with special needs have been integrated into classrooms with populations
of general education students. This integration of students with special needs and students in general
education is called inclusion. Inclusion is no longer an option for schools to choose or not choose.
Federal law now requires the inclusion of all students with special needs if that placement is the
least restrictive environment.
Public Law 94–142, which states that education will be provided to all handicapped children, was
enacted to prevent discrimination that was considered wide spread (Elliott et & McKenney, 1998).
An amendment to this act in 1990, titled Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), stated
that the education of that person would include all academic areas, as well as the vocational and
technical areas of education (Cronis & Ellis, 2000). Many high school instructors believe that the
process of including students with special needs into general education classes demonstrates reverse
discrimination for general education students. "Some feel that there is a failure to meet the needs of
either regular or special education students" (Winzer, 1998, p. 2). Because inclusion causes a change
in how educators teach and students learn, it becomes important to analyze the effects of inclusion
on the general education students to best serve both populations.
Teachers struggle with the concept of inclusion for a variety of reasons. Some feel that the students

Ap Psychology Achievement Test
The purpose of this section is to identify the procedure which took place in the process of obtaining
data about the demographic norm regarding to the Psychology Achievement Test that was
developed; and to describe the demographic norm who participated in this project. With the aim of
obtaining the demographic information of the participants, the developer team designed an
assessment survey, which was administered along with the achievement test. In it the participants
were expected to answer nine questions without provided their names with the intention of
remaining anonymous. This nine items of the survey were divided on two section. The first section
are question regarding to the participant general information such as gender, age, major, ... Show
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In a sample of 151 of participants (N=151), 109 participants (N=109) identify themselves as female
while only 42 participants (N=42) were self–identify as male. In other words, females are embodied
by the 72.7 percent of the population while male exemplify only the 27.8 percent of such
population. Even though there was a significant difference, it does not affect the validity of the test,
because both sexes were able to perform the test with equal opportunity. Later in this manual the
reader can find that there were not gender bias founded on the test. By the contrary, the gender gap,
which was founded into this test participants, only reflect a high education nationwide phenomenon,
which is the gender gap in college students. As Alon and Gelbgiser (2011) explains, after the
expansion of the higher education system, which took place in the 70s, started occurring many
dramatic changes in the system. As a result of these changes, in the academic year 2004–2005,
females incorporated the majority of student who received an undergraduate degree. To be exact, the
57 percent of bachelor degree recipients were females, according with the report of the US
department of Education, 2005b (Alon and Gelbgiser,

Study of the Influence of Teacher Effectiveness
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background to the study
As a teacher in the secondary school system in Nigeria for many years, experience has shown that,
there are two categories of teachers – the good or effective teachers, and the bad or ineffective
teachers' observable from among teachers in the school system.
The effective teachers are perceived to be fully equipped naturally and professionally to lead their
students to success in competitive standardized tests, as well as inculcate in them, values that would
make them exhibit behaviours that are generally desirable and acceptable.
On the other hand, the ineffective teachers do not care about the success of their students in
examinations, and, in some cases, students who pass through such teachers, ... Show more content
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This behaviour has the tendency of reducing productivity and efficiency on the part of the teachers.
These ill–behaved teachers as they may be described may tend to produce their types from among
the students, since children tend to emulate adults they see as their models. In the fore–going
descriptions of teachers in the school system, it is evident that, there exists two categories of
teachers, but what attributes or characteristics define the effective and ineffective teachers?
Highet (1977), in identifying the kinds of teachers, said that, there are good or effective teachers,
and bad or ineffective teachers, and amateur teachers who are neither good enough nor too bad in
teaching activities. In this study, the researcher categorized teachers into two, because whatever that
is not good, in definitely, bad. Denigrating the bad teachers, Highet (1977), said that bad teaching
wastes a great deal of effort, and spoils many lives which might have been full of energy and
happiness. Giving support for the existence of effective and ineffective teachers in the school
system, Vernon cited in Gammage (1971), said that most of those in the teaching profession who are
well adjusted are somewhat extroverted, but many other personality types do excellent work and
that there are certainly, large number of misfits. The researcher, through a wide range of consultation
in various literatures, has firmly established the

Importance of Educational Research
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| | | | | | | | | | | Research NotesBrief Notes on Science and Practice from Joseph Witt, PhD, Senior
Scientist Why Research is ImportantSchool professionals have an increased awareness of the way
the term "research based" is being used by publishers. It has become a completely meaningless
phrase in recent years. Every type of intervention, assessment, or curriculum product now carries the
label research based. In particular, intervention publishers shamelessly proclaim that their products
are based upon research despite a complete absence of scientifically based research. Reasonable care
can be taken by school–based professionals to determine if a product has ... Show more content on
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These skills or behaviors are arranged in an instructional hierarchy which, when properly
understood and used, takes students to very high levels of achievement. This view has influenced the
development and nature of iSTEEP assessments. The assessments used in RTI are most frequently
those which derive from curriculum–based measurement (CBM). CBM type assessments originated
in Precision Teaching (PT) with individuals such as Clay Starlin using oral reading fluency probes
and phonemic awareness probes in the late 1960's and early 1970's prior to the "invention" of CBM
by Stan Deno in the late 1970's. The use of assessment in iSTEEP is more aligned with the original
goals of PT than with CBM as it has evolved. A major difference between PT and CBM is the
manner in which performance criteria are established used. Binder (1990) conducted an analysis of
CBM and PT and observed differences in how standards for performance (now called benchmarks)
are developed and used. PT uses performances standards. A performance standard is the level of
performance for a skill that will support retention, maintenance and application of the skill. Data are
used to set performance standards for important prerequisite skills such as phonemic awareness and
oral reading fluency so that acquisition of these tool skills leads to smooth and quick progression
through a curriculum or skill hierarchy. In contrast CBM

Clergy
OVERVIEW
In 1998, more than 13 million children (19 percent of all children) under age eighteen lived in
families with incomes below the official poverty threshold. Although children age eighteen and
under represent 26 percent of the United States population, they comprise nearly 40 percent of the
poverty population. Despite a steady decrease from 1993 (23%) to 1999 (17%) in the rate of
children in poverty, the United States still ranks highest in childhood poverty among all
industrialized nations.
In the United States, income poverty is defined by the poverty threshold, developed in 1959 and
based on expected food expenditures (thrifty food basket) for families of varying sizes. Each year
the threshold is adjusted for the Consumer ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Moreover, longitudinal designs allow for an assessment of how the timing (early vs. late) and
duration (transient vs. persistent) of poverty may differentially affect children's outcomes. When
possible, this discussion presents finding from studies that used standardized tests of school
readiness, achievement, and cognitive ability, and controlled for key family and child characteristics,
in its review of the impact of poverty on children's educational outcomes.
Early childhood. During the 1990s, the nation was inundated with reports on the importance of the
early years on children's brain development and later cognitive achievement. While some of the
reports may have overstated the issue and understated the importance of a child's later years on
development, evidence suggests that the early years may be a critical period of development in
which family poverty has particularly strong effects on young children. As seen in Table 1, poverty
occurring early in a child's life (age two to four) is associated with large effects on indices of child
school readiness and cognitive outcomes.
Judith Smith and colleagues (1997), using data from two national datasets, showed that family
poverty was significantly associated with lower scores on several measures of child cognitive and
school readiness outcomes for children age three to four years, even after controlling for the effect
of mother's education,

An Article From The New York Times
This analysis is about an article from The New York Times "How Do We Get More People to Have
Good Lives?" by Thomas B. Edsall. Edsall is an American journalist and academic. In his article,
Edsall argues that in order to make the future young poor get out of poverty, America needs to treat
both private and public sectors in early childhood programs equally. To start his article, Edsall
mentions the Obama administration's big investment in education to promote math, reading, and
science skills for the school children. According to the National Center for Education Statistics,
from 2007 to 2013, the reading scores of fourth graders have increased 0.45 percent, and the math
scores from them too have grown 0.83 percent. The attempt of trying to raise test scores from the
government shows that "both cognitive and character skills" place a significant part in life
opportunities as well as "weapons in the contest for economic and social status." Edsall moves on
with an example from the book "Persistence, Privilege, and Parenting." The book discusses that
children with better background can achieve more in life and are more likely to raise their own
children better than others. For general knowledge, cognitive skills come from a shift in knowledge–
based economy due to the decline in "manufacturing employment, the growth of the technology and
financial sectors, and labor recruitment from a global talent pool." Edsall makes a comment on this
problem of education reform that it is too

The Challenge Of Educational Equity Essay
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Type your title Precios Armstrong
Discussion Board #2
EDL 700
Dr. Martin
Dr. Shepard
The Challenge of Educational Equity
If two people are swimming and one is drowning, is it appropriate to administer life–saving
strategies to both or just the individual in need? Most would answer emphatically that the best
choice is to provide resources to the one that requires them. However, exchange an individual who
is drowning with student equity of access to excellence andJustdebate will likely ensue. Yet, just as
seen in the drowning analogy, equal student treatment is not always appropriate. It does not ensure
equity of access. Duke (2010) points out that "equal opportunity ... may be insufficient to make up
for the accumulated effects of poverty, racial bias, and other social hurdles." Public school is an
extension of a manmade construct, government. As Tawney instructs, "because men are men, social
institutions–property rights, and the organization of industry, and the system of public health and
education – should be planned, as far as possible, to emphasize and strengthen, not the class
differences which divide, but the common humanity which unites them. (Jackson, 1992, p. 15)
So it is appropriate that the creation and administration of public schools should provide for the
educational needs of its constituents in a matter that explicitly recognizes as well as programs for
their varying needs. While the mission is clear, the method and the challenges to that

The Importance Of Learning A Secondary Language
The vast majority of the people residing in the valley, especially in the city of Brownsville, Texas
are fluent in both Spanish and English, and therefore considered bilingual. Brownsville has been
considered a highly illiterate and poorly educated city, where learning a secondary language such as
English, drastically changes those discriminating statistics. The argument is that learning a
secondary language indeed supports literacy development from an early age, by reading aloud to
children, making them participants of a learning incentive, and family literacy practices. A
development in literacy significantly increases reading achievement test scores, helps students
become better at grammatical judgment and word recognition, and improves their cognitive
development.
In the article "Learning to Read across Languages: Cross–Linguistic Relationships in First– and
Second–Language Literacy Development" by Keiko Koda and Annette M. Zehler, showed that
reading aloud to children in elementary schools, in a secondary language increases their
phonological awareness as they relate their slight knowledge from their first language, and apply it
to the new acquisition of the second. The authors claimed that "the field of second (L2) and foreign
language reading has pursued an understanding of factors that impact the reading process, one of
which is first language (LI) literacy." To support their claim, the authors brought together theories
and research on the interaction of languages,

Achievement Test Weaknesses
I agree with Koretz's argument about the weaknesses of achievement tests. As the term implies,
achievement tests are intended to measure learners' accomplishment in acquiring a particular skill or
knowledge. In most tests, the scope of testing is narrowed to measuring learner's intellectual ability.
Most test makers create test items which resemble the ones in high–stake exams in which the items
are created based on Bloom's Taxonomy. These test items are limited to measuring the cognitive
capability of the learners. This raises of the issue of the goals of education. Are the goals of
education limited only to being able to apply cognitive based knowledge and skills? As an educator,
I believe that education should enrich learners not only with knowledge but also with soft skills such
as communication and interpersonal skills which I deem essential. . Learners need to be exposed the
kinds of learning that we as an educator, value. A learner's achievement should not be limited to
what they can regurgitate. For instance, when I assess my learners' project work, I provide scores
not only for the end product but also for the manner in which they have approached the task given
because I value the kinds of habits that the learning task can instil. I give scores for ... Show more
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I agree with him that test preparation has always been a point of debate among many. It is not news
that high–stakes exams have powerful influence in many households and the pressure from parents
as well as school administration has resulted in teaching to the test. As the test results play a vital
role in determining a learner's future, schools are expected to teach learners to score better results
which will help them to secure a place in universities and colleges. Gawthrop has the same belief
and has supported by stating, "Universities use standardized tests to assist in selecting applicants"
(Gawthrop,

Essay on Ability Grouping
Ability grouping is a widely spread practice used among many educators today. Between–class
grouping is by far one of the most commonly used types of ability grouping. "The goal of this
grouping is for each class to be made up of students who are homogeneous in standardized
intelligence or achievement test scores" (Snowman, Biehler). In this type of grouping, the schools
separate their students into different classes or courses. "Between–class ability grouping is where
students spend most of the day in ability groups and use the same or similar curriculum substantially
adjusted to their ability levels" (Ability Grouping 3). "For example, in elementary schools, students
from the same grade levels may be grouped by ability for reading and ... Show more content on
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This impacts their achievement level and in turn affects their self–esteem. Such consequences cause
the students to lose interest in school, and in the long run, many of these students begin to drop out.
Although there are certain benefits to between–class ability grouping, they are outweighed by the
negative effects this type of grouping can produce. Ultimately, the focus should not be on how to
label students, but rather, on the quality of the education the students can receive while working
with peers in specific subject areas.
Regrouping is another type of ability grouping. Students of the same age, ability and grade, but from
different classrooms, are brought together for a specific subject such as reading or math. According
to their goals, activities, and individual needs, the students are grouped and then regrouped again.
There are two common regrouping strategies: teacher–led groups and student–led groups.
Teacher–led groups are effective in introducing material, summing up the conclusion made by the
groups, and meeting the common needs of the groups. These groups typically include whole class,
small group, and individual instruction. Whole class instruction allows the teacher to introduce new
material to the entire class. It also allows students to use their prior knowledge to form new
acquisitions. "Small groups can provide opportunities for working with students who have common
needs, such as reinforcement or enrichment" (Valentino, 2000, 1).
Individual

Children Coping With Parent 's Dissolution
Children coping with parent's dissolution have more problem adjusting to life events: "Research on
interparental conflict and child adjustment" has shown that parental conflicts that are overt, intense,
and child related are more strongly associated with child maladjustment than conflicts that are less
evident (covert), intense, and not child related" (Davies & Cummings, 2006; Grych & Fincham,
1990). In a long term consequence, there are chances that they, when growing up, do not believe in
marriage, and the risk of them getting divorced is higher than children from an intact family.
Children from a divorced family witness interparental conflicts frequently, which shapes their
pessimism that marriage problem is unsolvable as well as divorce is easier and acceptable (Cui,
Fincham, & Pasley, 2008; Segrin, Taylor, & Altman, 2005). As a relationship is not always about
love but it is also about frustration, disappointments and arguments, without patience and efforts
from both partners, the connection will not stay strong and healthy. This motivates them to give up a
relationship easily, rather than putting effort to work it out. They tend to commit less to their partner.
This pattern in adolescent/ young adulthood can predict their rough marriage in the future.
The study named "The effect of parental divorce on young adults' romantic relationship dissolution:
What makes a difference?" conducted in a large undergraduate Southern college examines nearly
600 young adults about

Early Childhood Intervention Programs For Children 's...
For decades, early childhood intervention programs, including child–care program facilities, have
created controversial debates on the long–term effects that they have on a persons childhood and
more importantly, their future development. Although there are various debates on early childhood
intervention effects on future development, early intervention programs tend to show long–term
effects on cognitive and academic achievement, and positive effects on occupational prestige and
depressive symptoms. However, early childhood intervention programs do not show long–term
effects on future behavioral development and social competence. In essence, it is these outcomes
that provide insights as to why early intervention programs enhance or diminish the future
development among children. In turn, the early child–care programs tend to have positive effects on
a persons reading and mathematical skills at the high school level. Early childhood intervention
programs including child–care facilities, offer numerous amounts of support to children's future
development. In particular, research has concluded that early intervention programs show long–term
effects on cognitive and academic achievement such as reading, and mathematical achievements.
For example, in Campbell and Ramsey's article on the development of cognitive and academic
abilities, the authors focus on the effects of early childhood programs and a child's intellectual level
and academic achievement. The experiment included a

Testing And Measurement Of Assessment
PSYC502 Tests and Measurements
Unit 1 Exam: Introduction and Methodology of Assessment
Total Points Possible – 100
Due Sunday at 11:55 pm Eastern Time at the end of WEEK 3
Chapter 1
Answer two questions. Points possible = 10 pts ea.
Identify the contributions made by each of the following individuals to psychological and
educational assessment: Alfred Binet, J. McKeen Cattell, Francis Galton, Hermann Rorschach,
Charles Spearman, Lewis Terman, Edward Thorndike, Robert Woodworth, and E. K. Strong, Jr.
All of the individuals mentioned in this exam question are considered great contributors to the fields
of not only psychology, but education as well. Most had an important place in the realm of
measurements in the area of mental health. Our text talks about how Alfred Binet was a psychologist
from France that developed the very first mental health test for scholastic achievement (Aiken, L R.
& Groth–Marnat, G., 2006). The American psychologist was J. McKeen Cattell and his focus was
on experimental psychology but he also made his mark on the Galton's test and methods. That
leading to the next psychologists, Francis Galton, he was from England and our text stated that his
primary study was unclear, yet it mentioned that he was known as the founding father of individual
psychology (Aiken, L R. & Groth–Marnat, G., 2006). What he did do was place the majority of his
focus on studying intelligence and the origins of intelligence which then lead to the development of
various

The No Child Left Behind Act
How could the idea of No Child Left Behind Act and standardized testing become such a terrible
problem, that it has led to a generation of students that are not properly educated and prepared for
college and the "Real World"? My Working thesis is that standardized testing should be removed
from the school system because it is not testing what children know but teaching them how to test.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which was passed Congress with overwhelming support in
2001 and was signed into law by President George W. Bush on Jan. 8, 2002, is the name for the
most recent update to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. The NCLB law¬ which
grew out of concern that the American education system was no longer internationally
competitive¬¬ significantly increased the federal role in holding schools responsible for the
academic progress of all students. It put a special focus on ensuring that states and schools boost the
performance of certain groups of students, such as English language students, students in special
education, and poor and minority children, whose achievement, on average, fell below their peers.
States did not have to comply with the new requirements, but if they didn't, they risked losing
federal Title I money.
The No Child Left Behind Act dates back to Brown v. Board of Education, when the U.S. Supreme
Court outlawed racial segregation in public schools and determined that the "separate but equal
doctrine" which was unconstitutional.

Questions On The's Exhibit No
1. Please look Student's Exhibit No. __. Is this your report?
2. It is accurate that the last sentence of the first paragraph of your report you stated "This evaluation
was requested for diagnostic clarification and treatment planning"?
3. You testified in direct examination that you diagnosed Gabriella with:
Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Combined Type (F90.2)
Mathematic Disorder – mathematical fluency (F81.2)
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (F91.3); and
Rule Out: Mood Disorder
Is that correct?
4. Are you familiar with the DSM–5?
5. What is the DSM–5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – 5th edition)?
6. Did you utilize the DSM–5 in diagnosing Gabriella?
7. Please look at page 9 of your report. Isn't it correct that number–letter combinations which begin
with F and precede your diagnosis are IDC–10 codes that coincide with DSM diagnosis and are used
as billing codes for medical reimbursement?
8. Are you familiar with Individuals with Disabilities In Education Act (IDEA)?
9. What it is?
10. What is the special education eligibility criteria for specific learning disability in the area of
mathematics under the IDEA?
11. What is the special education eligibility criteria for other health impaired under the IDEA?
12. Did you apply the IDEA criteria in your evaluation of Gabriella?
13. IF NO – Is that because of your stated objective to diagnosis Gabriella?
14. If YES – On what page and paragraph of your report are your findings pertaining

Does A Lengthened School Day Make A Difference? Essay
Does a lengthened school day make a difference? Kindergarten plays a crucial role in the growth
and development of children. It is at the kindergarten level where the child begins the basis for the
rest of their pathway through education. Educators are constantly looking into new ways of
improving the kindergarten curriculum and environment in order to provide their students with the
most adequate education possible. There is always some criticism when it comes to change; as in the
case of changing half–day to full–day kindergarten.
Changes in society and education over the years has contributed to the prominent interest of
changing from half–day to full–day kindergarten programs in many countries around the world. Due
to the increase in single parent and dual employment households, studies have shown that parents
and guardians tend to favour full–day over half–day kindergarten programs, eliminating the
difficulties associated with scheduling both a kindergarten and a child care program during the same
day (Housden & Kam, 1992, n.p.). Many single parent households and dual income families are also
highly attracted to the idea of full–day kindergarten as a result of its potential to eliminate additional
day care program costs. By having full–day kindergarten programs, many families no longer have to
worry about paying for both a kindergarten program and a day care program.
After extensive research, I have found a number of studies comparing full–day and half–day
kindergarten

Test Of School Achievement : The Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests...
Due to concerns regarding T'Niq not having his glasses during the administration of the WISC–, he
was administered the CTONI–2 to obtain a measure of his general intelligence utilizing a nonverbal
format. T'Niq obtained a full–scale IQ score of 79 on the CTONI–2 which falls at the 8th percentile,
indicating that he scored at or above 8 percent of his peers. This score falls within the poor range.
T'Niq's score of 79 on the CTONI–2 is consistent with his score of 73 on the WISC–IV administered
at age 9. Woodcock–Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (WJ–IV–Ach.) The Woodcock–Johnson IV
Test of Achievement (WJ–IV–Ach) is an individually administered test that provides measures of a
child's level of academic performance in the areas of reading, math, and writing. The test of school
achievement is norm–referenced, which means T'Niq's performance is compared to a national
sample of other children within his age range. Individual subtests and composite scores are defined
as follows: READING The Basic Reading Skills composite measures T'Niq's ability to read a list of
words and correctly pronounce nonsense words. T'Niq's standard score of 72 falls in the low range
at the 3rd percentile, indicating that he performed the same as or above 3 percent of his same–aged
peers. Based on T'Niq's performance on this composite, it appears that he will benefit from explicit
instruction on word recognition skills and phonics skills. Reading Fluency refers to the ability to
read quickly and

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Migrant Students
Cumulative disadvantage by definition is when a group of people experience many disadvantages in
life as a result of many cumulative occurrences.In this essay I will be critically exploring how
cumulative disadvantage amongst migrant students constitutes itself in education.Migrant students
around the world find themselves suffering from a cumulative disadvantage due to six primary
factors in relation to education ; the Role of Institutions,Streaming,Parental Choice,Knowledge of a
host language, Post Second Level Pathways and Integration.
Merike Darmody proposed that the disadvantage affecting migrant student is likely to have an effect
on their future prospects such as their progression to further education, their position in the labour
market ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This inability to attend the better schools contributes in large part to the achievement gap between
migrant and native students.This lower educational achievement leads on to migrant students
pathways being limited.This is demonstrated by the fact that students that attend schools with a
socio–economically disadvantaged intake do not perform as well as their counterparts in better

Children 's Eating Habits Are Not Consistent With...
Gardening can range from fruit orchards to residential yards to fields with rows of crops. It involves
a very active participation in the growing of plants and includes labor intensive activities. Gardening
can be considered a relaxing activity for many individuals. Many classrooms and parents have taken
to teaching their children the skills of gardening at a young age. Involving children in the process of
growing their own food improves their fitness, causes them to eat healthier, makes them feel pride in
growing something, gives them a sense of self–reliance and instills in them skills and values that
become important for the rest of their lives.
Current research shows that children's eating habits are not consistent with recommended ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The program lets children grow their own food which creates interest in eating what they grow and
instills in them the values that children can learn from growing food and cooking it From Water's
experience, when a child has been involved in the whole process of growing they take pride in it
when it is ripe and are more likely to eat the crops they produced. In an interview Water stated,
"When kids grow food and cook it and serve it, they want to eat it. All of the very important ideas
about sustainability and nutrition come in by osmosis. They 're engaged with all of their senses.
Once they 've spent a year in the program, they know where the compost heap is, they know what
compost is, they know when the raspberries are ripe, they know how to plant seeds." (Broache, p.
50). Water witnessed firsthand the benefits of gardening through observing the children who
participated in her program.
Another nutrition education program called Hearty Heart and Friends was created in the 1980s. The
program lasted for ten weeks, involving twenty sessions with school–based curriculum. Sixteen
lower school classes participated in the study. Half the students were the control while the other half
participated in the experiment. Those participating in the experiment received the Hearty Heart and
Friends program in their classes while the control classes learned in the traditional style of education
curriculum. Data was

Schools Need 21st Century Materials And Resources
Schools need 21st century materials and resources to serve 21st century students. There needs to be
a change in ideology regarding the function of the library in todays society. "For centuries, libraries
have remained essentially separate, even competing with one another to establish and maintain the
greatest collection, and now they need to recast themselves as platforms rather than storehouses.
(Palfrey, 2015) With the introduction of the internet and online information libraries need to rebrand
themselves. Libraries around the world can now share information with one another in real time, and
the competition for resources has ended. That said, there is still value in networking with other
agencies devoted to education and information. John Palfrey, author of Biblio Tech suggests that,
"Libraries must act as ambitiously networked institutions, connecting their network effectively with
partner intuitions: archives, historical societies, museums, and other cultural heritage organizations."
(2015) More agencies are partnering up to give their patrons access to the best and most credible
information. #Learning Commons The year of the Learning Commons is ablaze on social media.
Teacher–librarians are embracing technology as a way to reach new audiences and share resources.
The social media of choice for these tech savvy teachers is Twitter, and their hashtag is YearLC.
(Loertscher, D., & Koechlin, C., 2015) Twitter is being used as a marketing tool to rebrand

• Compare and Contrast the Constructs and Measures of...
Define the term test The term " test" comes from the late 14th century old French word for a "small
vessel used in processing precious metals" (Harper, 2010, Para. 1). Thus in the 1590s records show
its use as "trial or examination to determine the correctness of something" (Harper, 2010, Para. 1).
According to Hogan, 2007, p. 38) The standards for Educational and Psychological Testing defines
test as, "an evaluative device or procedure in which a sample of an examinees' behavior in a
specified domain is obtained and subsequently evaluated, and scored using a standardized process."
Furthermore, Hogan stated that a test is a systematic and standardized qualification procedure or
device that produces information about ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Neuropsychological tests are designed to give information about brain function and the central
nervous system. According to Hogan, (2007), assessing brain function includes "tests of memory for
verbal and figural material, psychomotor coordination, and abstract thinking" (Hogan, 2007, p.8).
Compare and contrast the concepts of reliability and validity and discuss how they affect the field of
psychological testing. Moreover, the two of the most important concepts in testing are reliability and
validity, whereas validity refers to if the test measures of what it aims to measure. On the other
hand, reliability refers to the consistency of the measurement (Hogan, 2007). Hence, both concepts
give tests their value. Further, a measure can be reliable validity; however, a test cannot be valid if it
is not reliable. According to Hogan, (2007), the expected components of testing are consistency,
replication, and dependability. Thus, using these terms, a test consistently must produce the same or
similar information, and it must tend toward replication "within a certain margin of error" (Hogan,
2007, p. 113). Furthermore, the test must be dependable and produce the same score for an
individual. However, validity is the most important characteristic of a test. According to (Hogan,
2007, p. 157), it is the imprecise to question the validity of a test, but rather "refer to the

Annual Achievement Test Analysis
1. There are three benefits of progress monitoring in comparison to an annual achievement test. The
first benefit is the administered test gives teachers' feedback immediately. Allowing to accurately
use the students' scores gives an introduction to the second benefit. The second benefit is teachers
will be able to take the information from the test and make adjustments to their teaching methods. If
the test results demonstrate that students are not comprehending a specific area of learning, the
teacher can instantly make adjustments. The last benefit is teachers receive the information
immediately, because they do not have to wait for the scores from the assessments to be evaluated.
The annual achievement test is the opposite to progress monitoring, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Daily progress monitoring will allow teachers to see students' level of performance, and determine if
modifications should be done. Step 3: Graph the Score– Graphing students score is helpful for
teachers to have visuals of students performance. When making adjustments on a lesson, the teacher
will know what areas the student needs additional support or clarification. Step 4: Set Goals– Setting
goals for students' academic performance will demonstrate the progress throughout the year, or
where the student needs to continue to work on to reach their academic goal. Step 5: Make
instructional decisions based on CBM data– CBM data will help the teacher become aware of what
instruction is working for the students or what areas need adjustments based on the student's
performance. Step 6: Communicate Progress– Sharing the data with parents and academic
professionals will give everyone an understanding of the student's progress throughout the school
year, and how close they are to their set

Half Day Vs. Full Day Kindergarten
Half–Day Vs. Full–Day Kindergarten: How a Southwest Washington Elementary School Score's
Measure Up The popularity of full–day kindergarten (FDK) has grown over recent decades. The
number of students attending FDK in the United States (US) has escalated from 30% in the early
1980's to 55% by 1998 (Walston & West, 2004), to 77% reported in 2011. This increase can be
posited as a reflection of societal changes and newly emerging educational priorities stemming from
papers and reforms such as 1983's A Nation at Risk and 2001's No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
which have increased focus on standards and accountability through high stakes testing. The
rigorous standards and associated accountability have created a demand for more time ... Show more
Most education stakeholders support the extended day of FDK because they believe it provides
long–term and short–term academic advantages, behavioral benefits, as well as support to parents in
the workforce. Length of Day There have been positive and negative outcomes found in the
literature associated with the additional time a FDK student experiences. Early childhood theorists
such as Piaget and Vygotsky speculate that larger blocks of time are necessary for young children to
engage in the process of learning (Eliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield, & Travers, 1996). Cooper, Allen,
Patall, and Dent (2010) state that benefits of FDK include higher academic achievement, fewer
grade retentions, easier transitions into first grade, better socialization and self–esteem, less hurried
instruction, fewer transitions, lower child care costs, more learning opportunities for low–income
children, and greater academic quality. A major argument repeated in the literature is the additional
hours of kindergarten provided in FDK better prepares children for first grade which will result in
decreased need for grade retention (Wang & Johnstone, 1999). Ideally, the extra time in the school
day allows for teachers to provide a relaxed classroom atmosphere in which children can experience
kindergarten activities in a less hurried manner (McConnell & Tesch, 1986). The literature posits
several negatives to the extra time

Importance Of Progress Monitoring On Annual Achievement Tests
Rebecca Murphy
EDEX 790
Assignment #1
September 9, 2015
IRIS Module: Classroom Assessment (Part 1)
1. List three advantages of progress monitoring over annual achievement tests.
Progress monitoring is used to access students' academic performance, to quantify a student rate of
improvement or responsiveness to instruction, and to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. The
main advantage of progress monitoring over annual achievement tests is that it consists of frequently
administered tests rather than just one testing session. Progress monitoring is an example of a
formative assessment. The goal of a formative assessment is to monitor continuously student
learning. Year–End assessments are summative, and they are administered with ... Show more
Once a teacher has determined the instructional sequence for the year, each skill in the sequence is
assessed until mastery has been achieved. Then the next skill is introduced and assessed. On the
other hand, CBM is where assessments are given multiple times over multiple skills across the
school year. This means that with CBM all skills in the instructional curriculum are assessed by each
test; therefore, a pre–determined instructional sequence is not required.
It is important to note that CMB does monitor the maintenance of skills where mastery measurement
does not. Like stated previously, CBM all skills are assessed by each test, meaning the teacher or
other professionals are constantly viewing data to whether certain skills are being mastered and then
retained.
3. Name three ways CBM can be used to help at–risk students.
CBM can help teachers keep track of progress and growth. They do this with numbers and graphs
for visual, concrete illustrations. They are also compared to the end–of–year goals. CBM can also
help to determine if the curriculum needs to be changed for students not showing progress. This
could mean identifying those skills that students are having the greatest difficulty. Some students
might even be identified as needing special education services. The data that CBM can have a
decisive impact on instructional strategies. For, the information it provides can be used to compare
the effectiveness of different instructional

Does A Lengthened Day Make A Difference? Essay
Does a lengthened day make a difference? Kindergarten plays a crucial role in the growth and
development of a child. It is at the kindergarten level where the child begins the basis for the rest of
their path through education. Educators are constantly looking into new ways of improving the
kindergarten curriculum and environment in order to provide their students with the most adequate
education possible. There is always some criticism when it comes to change; as in the case with
changing half–day to full–day kindergarten. After extensive research, I have found a number of
studies comparing full–day and half–day kindergarten programs that show young children benefit
more from a developmentally structured full–day kindergarten program, most notably in terms of
academic achievement. Having the extra hours during the school day allows students to learn more
and apply what they have learned. In this paper, I propose to answer the question of whether it is
more beneficial for young children to attend full–day as opposed to half–day kindergarten programs,
in relation to academic achievement, while exploring some of the attitudes and opinions that
surround full–day and half–day kindergarten programs. I would also like to make note that the
majority of research used in this paper is derived from studies conducted within the United States,
and the purpose of improving education in the United States is slightly different than that in Canada.
Research has suggested that young

Standardized Tests Do Not Measure Student Achievement...
Standardized testing has been around since the mid 1800's. Even though testing has been around for
a long time it is still debated whether or not it should precisely "score" students. Students have been
subjected to standardized tests frequently through their years in school due to laws which have been
passed by Congress. Decisions about the evaluation of schools and students are recurrently made by
government authority and are often not in the best interest of teachers, students, or their classroom
environments. What do students achieve from standardized testing? Achievement means something
that somebody has succeeded in doing. "Achievement is more than just test scores but also includes
class participation, students' ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ever since then standardized testing has been a huge part of education. Teachers across the nation
had to teach to the curriculum instead of what they thought the students needed to learn. Nowadays
colleges strictly look at ACT and SAT scores rather than classroom grades, because they believe that
some teachers grade on a curve and are not giving the students a fair chance. Standardized tests are
an unreliable measure of student performance. A 2001 study published by the Brookings Institution
found that 50–80% of year–over–year tests core improvements were temporary and "caused by
fluctuations that had nothing to do with long–term changes in learning..."("Standardized Tests").
Teachers are stressed over if they are teaching "correctly". They went to a 4–year college, some even
more, to get a degree in something that they wanted to do, either for themselves or for the children,
and now they have to "teach to the test". Tests can only measure a portion of the goals of education.
A pschometrician, Daniel Koretz says, "standardized tests usually do not provide a direct and
complete measure of educational achievement."(Harris, Harris, and Smith). Standardized testing has
many positive effects such as getting used to standardized tests. Some say that they are more reliable
at measuring student achievement. Without standardized tests the policy makers would have to rely
on tests scored by individual schools and teachers

The Effects Of Father Involvement
Fathers should spend time with their children because it can help them perform better in school, it
can help with their development, and help them flourish in life. "The dad effect starts as early as
birth. A review of studies by Father Involvement Research Alliance shows that babies with more
involved are more likely to be emotionally secure, confident in new situations, and eager to explore
their surroundings." According to Sarah Allen, PhD and Kerry Daly, PhD in May 2007 the main idea
about this subject is "The Effects of Father Involvement". Infants with fathers that are highly
involved in their lives are better problem solvers as toddlers and have a higher IQs by age three.
"School aged children of involved fathers are also better academic ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Ellis, Yasmine S. Khan, Victor W. Harris, Ricki McWilliams, and Diana Converse states that fathers
have a huge impact on children's well–being. They start off stating that "American families have
changed dramatically over the last century. Currently, about one half of all children in the United
States will live apart from their fathers some time during their childhood because their parents have
separated (Smith, n.d.). Of all children born in the year 2000 to married parents, 50 percent will
experience the divorce of their parents before they reach their 18th birthday (Fagan, 2000). In
addition, the proportion of births to unmarried women has increased greatly in recent decades, rising
from 5 percent in 1960 to 41 percent in 2011 (Child Trend Data Bank, 2013)." Fathers are different
from mothers in how they play with their children, mothers more likely nurture their children in
contrast because fathers spend more time engaging in stimulating playful activities and promoting
and advising independence. When you have fathers that spend time with you at a young age will
most likely develop greater abilities to start school with higher levels of academic readiness
according to Allen and Daly in 2007 and "throughout development, high levels of father
involvement have also been associated with greater child tendencies to be more patient and have
increased aptitudes for handling the ongoing stresses associated with schooling and

Peer Pressure Towards Negative Behaviour and Classroom...
Children are often viewed as happy, carefree beings without having to care for most stressors in life.
However, take a closer look and we would understand that children do have their growing pains as
well. In this research, children are defined as young kids below the age of 12. As they grow older,
they undergo many changes in their life, and it is of no surprise that they need to learn to cope from
the situation based on those changes. This study is designed to understand the underlying theories
and factors that could affect the children's development through the environmental influences that
may promote or affect the development of behavior and achievement through peer pressure and
classroom quality (Adams, Ryan, Ketsetzis, and Keating, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Although conformity and compliance are relatively similar, they too, have differences. Compliance
is a specific response to a specific request, while conformity generally involves unspoken pressure
to behave in a particular manner. Generally, compliance involves request which could be explicit
such as using the foot–in–the–door technique. Most of the time, in compliance, the child is told to
respond or complete the task told in a desirable manner; while in conformity, a person is expected to
behave in a particular manner (Cialdini and Trost, 1998).
Compliance plays a major role in building and maintaining relationships where children learn to
behave in a certain manner to maintain status quo (Cialdini and Trost, 1998). When we comply with
an instruction, we receive praises, or lavished with social acceptance and gifts. By doing so, the
children feel accepted, wanted and loved by other peers. In a way, compliance acts as a form of
conditioning the behavior expected from their peers (Cialdini and Trost, 1998).
It is easy to view compliance as a form of concession due to the obligation children might have
towards their peers. Studies have found that with compliance, children tend to bend towards peer
pressure and it has a significant effect towards negative behavior (Adams et al, 2000; Fanti and
Henrich, 2010). This isn't surprising, as children

Wide Range Achievement Test-Four Paper
This paper defines and critiques the Wide Range Achievement Test–4 (WRAT–4). The first test
edition was created by Joseph Jastak and Sidney Bijou in 1941 and was published in 1946. "The
WRAT–4 was developed and published by Dr. Gary S. Wilkinson and Dr. Gary J. Robertson in
2006" The age group suitable for the test, is 5–94 years. The purpose of the test is to gauge
individual or group ability in reading, word comprehension, sentence comprehension, spelling, and
math computation. The entire test kit is available for $325 and consists of the following:
"Professional Manual, Blue Test Forms (25), Green Test Forms (25), Blue Response Forms (25),
Green Response Forms (25), Blue Sentence Comprehension Test Forms (25), Green Sentence
Comprehension

Effects Of All Day Kindergarten Programming On Academic...
Effects of All–Day Kindergarten Programming On Academic Performance and Classroom Social
Behaviors Pamela DeBraal pdebraal@yahoo.com Introduction For many children, kindergarten is
the first experience of being in an educational setting. The number of children in the United States
who attend either public kindergarten has increased dramatically within the last decade
(Clemiinshaw & Guidubaldi, 1979). There has been a long standing debate within the academic
community about the advantages students gain from attending a full day kindergarten class to those
that only attended half day kindergarten. Some critics of full day kindergarten feel a full day
schedule is developmentally inappropriate and too taxing. The few studies addressing this issue
found no evidence of increased student fatigue either (McConnell & Tesch,1986). None the less, the
question still remains as to the added benefits for those students who do attend a full day
kindergarten schedule to those that do not. Today, more than 93 percent of all 5–year–olds attend
kindergarten, but those kindergarten classes can vary widely (Karweit, 1992). A key difference, and
one with significant implications for state budgets, parents, and children, is whether the class is a
full–day or half–day program. Some kindergarten classes meet for up to six hours per day, following
the same full–day schedules found in the lower primary grades. Other kindergartens use a half–day
schedule, meeting for only two

How Did Horace Mann Use Standardized Tests Measure Ability...
In 1845 educational pioneer Horace Mann had an idea. Rather than administering annual oral
exams, he suggested that Boston Public School students prove their knowledge through written
exams (Gershon, 2015). According to Gallagher (2003), Mann's goal was to find and replicate the
best teaching practices so that all students could receive an equal education. Unlike Mann's exam,
many of the first widely adopted standardized school tests were designed to measure ability rather
than achievement. Intelligence tests, and similar assessments that became popular in the early
twentieth century, had a quality of scientific objectivity. The Army Alpha and Beta Tests, developed
during World War I to group soldiers by their mental abilities, became a model for the schools
(Gershon, 2015). Gallagher (2003) suggested that testing offered a way to identify students who
might go on to great things while avoiding wasting resources on "slow children." This went along
with the increase of academic tracking to determine which career paths were appropriate for
students. In the 1960s, the federal government started pushing new achievement tests intended to
assess instructional methods and schools. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Grodsky, Warren, and Felts (2008) researched the complicated relationship between testing and
social inequality. They found that some supporters of testing have promoted it at least partly as an
solution to rigid class structures. For an example, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was designed
in part to make top colleges into places for bright young men from all backgrounds, not just the
children of the elite. Though, modern critics note that standardized assessments largely reflect
socioeconomic status, mainly because students from privileged backgrounds with average scores
can increase their results by taking expensive private test preparation courses (Gershon,

Research Paper
Research Paper – Class Size
Class size is a very popular topic that is greatly research through out educational settings. Class size
deals with how many students are in the classroom at once. Class size can vary greatly. It can
depended on the location of the school, where the more rural areas have only one high school while
in a city environment there could be twenty–three high schools in one area. Location also depends
on the amount of population in that area. Class size also can depend on the level of schooling. Such
as in a major university there could be two hundred students in one class, while in a local
elementary school there is only eighteen students in one class. Class size can depend on what kind
of class is being taught. In ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It also can deal with how much the student as learn and understanding of the information. Many of
times academic achievement is shown by grades that are given out by the teacher. The teacher gets
these grades by test and assignments the students perform by using the information they gain in
class. Academic achievement is very important and all schools want everyone student to have high
academic achievement.
Depending on the class size academic achievement can either be positive or negative. Positive
academic achievement means the student is learning and understanding the information and can use
it effectively. While negative academic achievement is that the student does not understand the
information that is being given to them, which results in not being able to use the information they
learn. This will lead failure in tests or assignments.
In one research study in Tennessee researchers had elementary grade students attended the same size
class for four years. The one class had more then twenty students while the other class had only
fifteen students. After each year of the study the students took the Stanford Achievement Test
battery and received separate scores for reading, word–study skills, and mathematics. At the end of
the test they found out that the students in the smaller class of fifteen students were 0.5 months
ahead of the other students by the end of kindergarten, 1.9 months ahead of the other students at the
end of 1st grade, 5.6 months ahead of

Woodcock-Johnson 4 Test Of Achievement Analysis
Achievement Tests The Woodcock–Johnson IV Test of Achievement (WJ IV) is used for individual
ages two to ninety years old. A major strength of this assessment is that it provides a broad coverage
of skills that can be assessed for the child to truly learn their strengths and weaknesses. For English
as a Second Language students, the administrator can administer certain clusters of subtests to
determine a child's cognitive–academic language proficiency. Also, the test has many
accommodations listed to help when testing English Language Learners, visual impairments, and
other disabilities to provide the best testing environment for the student. A weakness of this
assessment is that since so many subtests exist, it can become very easy to over ... Show more
A major strength of this assessment is that this assessment has a Nonverbal Index. This is beneficial
for students who are not yet proficient in the English language or struggle with language.
Administering the Nonverbal Index allows the administrator to gain a better understanding of the
child's abilities because their language issues are not working against them with this test. Also, this
assessment has two theories of intelligence that can be tested: the Luria neurological processing
theory and Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory of intelligence. With the Luria Model, you will
obtain the Mental Processing Index of Learning Ability, Sequential Processing, Simultaneous
Processing, and Planning Ability. With the Cattell–Horn–Carroll model, you will obtain the Fluid–
Crystallized Index with the areas of long–term storage and retrieval, short–term memory, visual
processing, fluid reasoning, and crystallized ability. This assessment is also more child–friendly
because of the visuals throughout the test. A weakness of this assessment is the administrator will
not be able to obtain a score for auditory processing and processing speed with this assessment,
requiring the administrator to utilize another intelligence assessment. This assessment has two
intelligence theories options to choose from: the Luria

ACA Code Of Ethics : Evaluations, Assessment, And...
The ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014) is a critical resource for counselors involving assessment.
Section E in the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014) is devoted to explaining evaluations,
assessments, and interpretation. E.1. states, "The primary purpose of educational, mental health,
psychological, and career assessment is to gather information regarding the client for a variety of
purposes, including but not limited to, client decision making, treatment planning, and forensic
proceedings" (ACA, 2014, pp.11). Counselors should only use assessment tools in which the
clinician has been trained. Before a clinical begins to counselor a minor, the counselor must receive
written permission from the legal guidance or parent. Informed consent is essential because the
client may not understand what is being measured and how the results will be used. If the parent
does give the school consent to participate in the examination or testing for psychological services,
the test results should be offered in a language that the parent, students, their teachers, and
administers understand (Association for Assessment in Counseling, 2003). Therefore, the counselor
should include background information that would help explain the test results. Also, the test
administers should know the measurement characteristics (Association for Assessment in
Counseling, 2003). Therefore, the test administers should be able to answer questions regarding the
test results, what assessment was used, and the

The Gap Between Blacks and Whites Test Scores
The Gap Between Blacks and Whites Test Scores
The "gap" as referred to in the title, is the distribution of the scores on achievement tests that differ
between black and white students in the United States. The purpose of this study was to record the
degree of the gap in achievement scores, decide how much of the racial gap is due to social–class,
how the gap differed in the 30–year period, and how that which is credited to the social–class has
changed over the years. Differences in social–class, family structure, and discrimination against
blacks as a disgraced group are all proposed causes for the black–white gap in test scores. If the gap
is caused by a difference in social–class or family structure, then when the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Answer: The authors compared the degree of the gaps before and after they adjusted for social–
class. 3. How have the gaps changed over time? Answer: The authors calculated the gaps from data
in cross sections over a 30–year period and studied the trend over time. 4. Is the portion of each gap
that is independent of social–class changing over time? Answer: Yes, the authors contrasted the rate
of change over time in the social–class–adjusted gaps. These surveys give convincing evidence that
the gaps have decreased over time, but are still widely spread. The authors conclude that it would
take over 50 years to close the gap in reading achievement scores and over a century to close the gap
in mathematics and science achievement scores. The adjusted gaps for social–class, family structure,
and community variables were closing from 1965–1992. At this rate of change over the entire
period, they would close in the same amount of time as the unadjusted gaps. The rate of change for
the unadjusted gaps seem to have reversed after 1972. These results do not give a lot of support to
the theory that the gaps in average test scores are caused by the differences in social–class and
family structure. Thus, it supports the theory that the gaps in test scores are an outcome of other
factors, such as discrimination.

Strengths And Weaknesses Of Computer In The Classroom
1. The first application involves utilization of the computer as a record keeper and retriever.
Teachers and administrators programme the computer for processing data of the students for
instructional purposes such as printing report cards, storing and retrieving tests and examinations
results, pertinent details about students (age, sex, community, family background etc.) and
scheduling students for classes in the case of streaming of students ability wise or due to large
strength of the college or shift system, for the purpose of guidance and counseling , cumulative
records, counsellor's records, file and details about vocational interest, aptitude and information and
psychological test results can be stored in the computer and retrieve as and when needed.
2. The second is to use the computer as a laboratory computing device, which is one of the most
frequently used educational application. A single terminal, teletype or electronic typewriter is
installed in the classroom with a direct access to an externally placed computer. Students are
encouraged to develop their regular classroom assignments. Talented and over–achieving students
can be encouraged to develop their own software of help the peer group in preparing software to suit
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This makes it possible for the computer to accept and act upon a variety of different kinds of
response from the learner and to provide information in textual, graphical, and animated form
(Rushby, 1989). Kaput (1992) enlisted there are three advantages of usage of technology in teaching
and learning; (i) interactivity, (ii) connectivity and (iii) controlling of learning environments.
Furthermore computer suggest opportunities for learner–control, improved enthusiasm, associations
to the real world, and enhance student achievement as measured in variety of ways, including, but
not exclusively limited to, "standardized achievement

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