Cell Theory Research Papers

Cell Theory Research Papers
What is the cell theory? The cell theory states three main things: Every living thing is made up of
one or more things, cells carry out the functions needed to support life, and cells come only from
other living cells. The cell theory gives us a foundation for our knowledge about living things, and
what they do. The process of developing the cell theory took about 200 years. Along the way, we
can see examples of tenets of the nature of science being used. The three main tenets of the nature of
science are: Scientific ideas are durable, science demands evidence, and scientific knowledge is
subject to change.
During the early stages of development for the cell theory, Robert Hooke recorded his findings so as
to have evidence to back his theory. He knew that science demands evidence, and that is likely why
he drew what he saw when he looked through a microscope. Scientists need evidence to support
their claims, and without evidence, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With the cell theory, we can see how durable any idea becomes. We still have the cell theory today,
more than 150 years after it was agreed upon among scientists, and virtually nothing has changed.
We still have the three main aspects of the cell theory, and as far as I can tell, they are going to stay
that way.
The development of the cell theory shows how scientists have to observe things, write down their
observations and publish their findings. This allows other scientists to replicate the same
experiments the original author has published. This allows their experiments to be verified by other
scientists, and accepted as valid scientific theories. As technology changes, newer experiments may
show more details and shed more light on the subject. But the basic theories are still intact, we are
just adding more details.
The cell theory gave us a better understanding of how cells work in our world. Many scientists
worked on it, and we still have the basic cell theory today, more than 150 years
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Epigenetic Modifications In Germline Cells
Epigenetics is a field of study concerning genetic modifications due to changes in gene expression,
rather than changes in the gene itself. There are countless epigenetic modifications that regulate
gene expression, such as DNA Methylation or Gene Silencing, and all of these changes, if they
occur in the germline, are preserved through DNA multiplication, and thus will be passed on to
progeny. Moreover, these alterations can also take place in the somatic cells of the body and still be
passed on to the next generation, through an interrelated alteration that takes place in the germline
cells. It is this observation that has baffled scientists for generations, as it is an idea that truly lies at
the heart of the "nature vs. nurture" argument. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This "germ plasm theory", as it was dubbed, was a belief that gripped the scientific community for
decades thereafter, since no one knew how to disprove that germ cells were the only agents of
heredity. In modern times, this elusive "Weismann Barrier," between germ and somatic cells, has for
the most part been debunked through various studies, yet it still remains an elusively intangible idea
for some.
Most scientists now agree that environmentally–induced changes can be passed on to future
generations through lasting epigenetic modifications, but they exact mechanism for how this occurs
remains unknown. In a paper head authored by Sally Eaton of University of New South Wales in
Australia, extracellular vesicles (EVs), specifically exosomes, are proposed as a mechanism by
which these environmental effects could effect a transmissible change in germline cell's

Sickle Cell Anemia Theory
Sickle Cell Disease was informally diagnosed in the early 1900's by Dr. Ernest Irons. It wasn't until
the 1950's that it was studied intensely. Linus Pauling and Harvey Itano were the first ones to
critically study this disease. Sickle cell disease (SCD) was the first to be called a molecular genetic
disease by Linus Pauling. Vernon Ingram later studied the disease into great detail which led him to
discover the key difference in between SCD hemoglobin (Hb SS) and normal hemoglobin (Hb)
(Adewoyin, 2015). Finding what caused the mutation which led to a change in shape from circular
to sickle shape erythrocytes was something Pauling attempted to identify. In the paper in which he
studied SCD, he proposed various ideas for the change in shape ... Show more content on
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This was proven with the Longswoth scanning diagrams of carbonoxy hemoglobin. It showed four
different images of normal, sickle cell anemia, sickle cell trait, and a 50–50 mix of the first two. The
first two images (normal & SCD) showed one peak each while sickle cell trait gave out two peaks
on one image. The last image of 50–50 mix of sickle cell anemia and normal hemoglobin
strengthened the idea of sickle cell trait been a hybrid due to the two peaks shown on the diagram,
since it highly resembled the sickle cell trait figure. The two peaks given from the 50–50 mix figure
that suggests less than 50% of the hemoglobin are sickle shaped in sickle cell trait. ( Pauling et al.,
1949) After knowing the clearly knowing the differences between sickle cell anemia and normal
hemoglobin Pauling and Itano still didn't how or where the change occurred. The paper proposed
that there was a difference in numbers of ionization groups between both hemoglobins. Itano
specifically proposed there was a number variance in the globin or heme. He proposed along with
Pauling that it is probable that normal and sickle cell anemia hemoglobin may have different globin

What Are The Three Postulates Of Cell Theory
LESSON 1: CELL THEORY AND ITS PARTS/ORGANELLES AND FUNCTIONS
Living and Non–living Things
All the things we see on earth are created by God Almighty. The rocks, air, soil, chemicals, plants,
trees, animals, humans among others exist on earth. But, we can classify them as living and non–
living things. Living or biotic things have life, and therefore, governed by cells which performed
roles for life to occur. These are plants, animals and humans. On the other hand, non–living or
abiotic things do not have life but they are essential to the existence of life. These are the rocks, soil
and air.
Cell and Cell Theory
The cell is a basic unit of life (Bolsover et al., 2004). It is the basic unit of plants, animals and
humans. Cells serve as the building blocks of life for example of ... Show more content on
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The union of human egg cell and sperm cell forms a new life (Lodish et al.).
Table 1. The three postulates of cell theory and its explanations.
POSTULATES EXPLANATION
Cells are the fundamental units of life Life is governed by cells, the basic unit. Life exists because of
cells. Without cells, there is no life on earth.
All organisms are composed of cells All life forms on earth are made up of cells. Microorganisms,
plants, animals, and humans are composed of cells.
All cells come from preexisting cells Cells originated from ancestral cells existing long time ago.
These cells undergo evolutionary modifications and adaptations with the physical environment.
General Cell Structures and Functions
Based on Bolsover et al. (2004), a cell has parts, structures or organelles (Table 2) that have a
respective function as a whole for life to occur (Figure 2). Generally, cells have parts such as
nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes and cell membrane.
Different structure has different function but working as a whole. One structure cannot make life
possible but many complex structures and functions contribute to the existence of

Cell Theory
1. Cell Theory is an explanation that says everything is made of cells. It continues on to say that
those cells came from preexisting cells. Cell Theory is a theory because it is a frame–worked
explanation of an observation made by many biologists like Anar Van Leeuwenhoek. Van
Leeuwenoek studied plant stems, pond water, and gathered a conclusion that generally, all of those
things are made of cells. Other biologists like Louis Pasteur added onto this idea that all organisms
are composed of cells. A theory is also composed of two components; a sequence of patterns in the
world and the thing or catalyst that is responsible for the pattern. The sequence of the pattern in Cell
theory is that every organism in the world are made up of cells. ... Show more content on
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The fatal flaw in my experiment of cloning a single plant, creating a population of 100 plants that
are genetically identical, and raising these plants in identical environments with no variation in traits
is that there is no variation to show any difference(s) in the experiment.
3. A salt crystal dropped into a beaker of water becomes smaller and eventually seems to disappear.
However, the same salt crystal remains intact at the bottom of a beaker of octane because Sodium
Chloride is ionic and would get attracted to the water. The octane is hydrophobic and has nothing for
the salt crystal to bond with. The water is polar and hydrophobic, which gives the salt the ability for
the oxygen atoms in the water to be attracted to the Sodium ion, and the hydrogen atoms to the
chloride ion.
4. Molecules with carbon–carbon bonds have more potential energy and lower entropy than carbon
dioxide because the carbon to carbon bonds are held together loosely. Because the carbon to carbon
bonds are held loosely together, the bond has low entropy, high potential energy, and more usable
energy. The Carbon dioxide is held tightly together, has high entropy, and will have low potential
energy because the charges will be attracted to the oxygen. This results in the carbon dioxide to have
less usable

Stem Cell Theory Of Aging Essay
Introduction
Every day we naturally lose skin and blood cells throughout our body; however, these cells are
replaced through the proliferation and differentiation of stem cells found in pools throughout our
bodies. Stem cells are found in most adult mammalian tissues, where they maintain normal tissue
homeostasis and participate in tissue repair and regeneration in response to damage (Lui & Rando
2011). The physiological process of aging may be the result of stem cell loss and a decline in the
homeostatic and regenerative capacity of all tissues and organs (Lui & Rando 2011). In fact, the
stem cell theory of aging proposes that as we age, we fail to replenish the unique pool of stem cells.
Consequently, this prevents us from replacing lost, differentiated cells and results in the inability to
maintain and repair damaged tissues or organs. Therefore, it is important to understand the
molecular mechanisms involved in the loss of stem cell function and find plausible solutions for
treating age–related diseases.
There are two classes of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult (or somatic) stem cells – this
research will focus on the latter. Adult stem cells (ASC) are undifferentiated cells that can proliferate
and differentiate into multipotent cells. Multipotent cells have the ability to give rise to multiple
tissue types but are limited in their ability to indefinitely divide. Unlike embryonic stem cells (ESC),
which are pluripotent and have the ability to divide

Reproduction, Symbiosis, And Eukaryotic Cell Essay
Holy Martyrs Ferrahian High School
Reproduction, Symbiosis, and the Eukaryotic Cell
Research Paper
Aram Kazorian
AP Biology
Mrs. Lee
18 October, 2016 The research that was conducted had the specific purpose of addressing questions
on topics of individuality, reproduction, symbiotic relationships, all based around the idea of
endosymbionts and the endosymbiotic theory with the eukaryotic cell. Symbiosis are the
relationships between organisms that can either harm or benefit themselves. And the topic of
symbiosis brings questions to the table about evolution, individuality, and cooperation between the
organisms, especially when the eukaryotic cell and the evolution of it is involved; however, before
we delve into these questions it is important to operationally define reproduction. In this case
reproduction has evolved over time into three forms of itself: simple, collective, and scaffolded.
Simple can be easily defined in the form of prokaryotes and bacteria. Collective can be described as
humans, as we have reproducing parts inside of ourselves(cells). And scaffolded can be explained as
reproductive objects that reproduce based entirely on surrounding resources, with the example being
viruses. We will discuss how reproduction and the evolution of it applies to the eukaryotic cell as
well. The conceptual framework that will be discussed in further detail later on, was made to further
discuss Lewontin's view on evolution by natural selection. He proposed three

Schleiden: Hypothesize Charles Darwin's Theory Of Evolution
Schleiden was one of the primary German biologists to declare Charles Darwin's theory of
evolution. He became a professor of botany at the University of Dorpat in 1863. He resolved that all
plant parts are made of cells and that an undeveloped plant organism arises from the one cell. He
studied plant structure under a microscope and saw the inner cell components. He observed that the
cell nucleus was very serious, and believed that it might be connected with cell division. Schleiden
was a german botanist and founder of the cell theory. Further, he said that plant embryos produced
from single cells. He was also an early evolutionist, hypothesizing about the chance of large–scale
evolution over time in plants. He further formulated the idea that

The Theory Of Cancer Stem Cell Theory
The Scientific Community has two main theories about how cancer grows to form tumors. The
cancer stem cell theory states that tumors are like normal cells because stem cells control their
growth (Blanpain, 2015). However the contradicting theory is the stochastic model in which all cells
have the ability to grow and divide, so the cells that make up a tumor are not organized in any sort
of system. I take the stance that tumors are grown through an organized system and that cancer stem
cells are at the center of the growth of a tumor instead of just a byproduct. All cancerous tumors
have a basic structure of a large group of cells with a small cluster of cells in the center of the tumor
that are responsible for the growth and recurrence of cancer. These central cells are the most difficult
part of the tumor to destroy. Mutations in tumor suppressor genes are essential for promoting and
allowing tumors begin forming, through spontaneous or even hereditary forms of cancer (Collins,
1997). Cancer is caused by mutation in genes, however not all mutations can cause cancer but
certain combinations of genetic mutations do cause cancer (Blanpain, 2015). Cancer cells are cells
that divide uncontrollably due to mutations in genes; the mutations in oncogenes and tumor
suppressor genes largely affect the aggressiveness of cancer (Yokota, 2000). Through lots of
research it has been proven that cancers are heterogeneous and show different functions and
phenotypic traits at cell level

Explain Why Facts Are Needed To Make Sense Of Facts
The prescribed title of "facts are needed to establish theories but theories are needed to make sense
of facts" ties into much of the knowledge we experience in our educational careers. This prescribed
title comes with some ambiguous terms that require some clarification to perform an accurate
analysis of the validity of this statement. For the purpose of this essay, facts are information that
have been proven to be true, and theories are a superposition of ideas strung together to explain
theories. By claiming that "theories are needed to make sense of facts," there is an assumption that
facts automatically cannot be understood without the existence of some initial basis of knowledge
that proves the fact to be undeniably true. To support the prescribed title selected, I will be using the
areas of knowledge of science and religion. This leads me to ask, What constitutes a fact? ... Show
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On the other hand, theories would not exist without the connections suggested through facts. A
theory cannot arrange information in a meaningful way because we have no way to access the
information limited by a theory. Reason is needed to understand the prescribed title because the
deductive reasoning requires to look at reality by using a theoretical framework, which theories
make sense of facts. However, inductive reasoning allows you to incorporate your observation into a
theory.
In the area of knowledge of science, Darwin's theory of evolution is evaluated to provide
understanding of the statement "facts are needed to establish theories but theories are needed to
make sense of facts." Evolution is the change in heritable characteristics of a species over time.
Isolated populations, after a long period of evolution, gradually diverge into a new species. Facts of
Darwin's theory comes from evidences such as fossil records can proves that many species have
become extinct. Secondly, it shows succession in the forms and shapes of

Cell Theory: The Properties Of Eukaryotic Cells
The first ever cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He discovered them under microscope
with very thin slice of cork and he saw different world live in it, and because of this experiment he
called them cells. The first person to witness live cell was Antony Lan Leeuwenhoek, although first
man to make microscope was Zacharias Janssen.
In biology, cell theory is experimental theory which illustrates properties of cell. It was developed
by three German scientist's discoveries, they are Mathias Schleiden, Theodor Schwan and Rudolph
Virchow. The cells are basic unit of structure in all living organism and as well as unit of
reproduction with steady improvements made to microscopes over time. The development of light
and electron ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They perform same kinds of functions and in same way. They both are confined by selective barrier
known as plasma membrane, surrounded by cytoplasm and full of small structures called ribosomes.
They both have DNA that carries genetic information for operating the cell.
Humans are Eukaryotes! Eukaryotic cells are far larger and more complex than prokaryotes cells.
They are typically 10–100m in diameter and these cells are found in animals and plant cells. They
contain many organelles. The eukaryotic cell has often been compared to a factory where different
machines and peoples have different jobs , all are working together with one purpose. Efficiency is
improved by division of labour, the sharing out of jobs. The cell as whole is divided into
compartments celled compartmentation. Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus enclosed by double
membrane and communicate with cytosol via nuclear pores. The purpose of this nucleus is to set
apart DNA related functions of big eukaryotic cells into smaller chamber and within this nucleus is
nuclear chromatin that contains organisms genome. DNA stores organisms entire genetic
information. DNA is usually linear and complexed with proteins called histones. Eukaryotes have
larger ribosomes such as 80s. Ribosomes are made out of special class of RNA molecule. The
existence of ribosome is temporary after synthesis of polypeptide chains two subunits separate and
break. Eukaryotic cells have cytoplasm that is filled with

Is Cloning Ethical Or Not?
"Is Cloning Ethical or Not?"
Cloning is the process of making an identical copy of any living thing such as gene, cell, or a whole
organism. The varieties of cloning are gene, reproductive and therapeutic. Gene cloning is the
process in which a gene of interest is located and copied out of DNA extracted from an organism.
Reproductive cloning involves creating an animal that is genetically identical to a donor animal
through somatic cell nuclear transfer. The A procedure in which damaged tissues or organs are
repaired or replaced with genetically identical cells that originate from undifferentiated stem cells,
basically it involves creating copies of cells to make someone better. Cloning used to be something
that was only in science fiction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the ethical theory of utilitarianisms, the rightness of act depends on its consequences.
"Utilitarian's believe that the purpose of morality is to make life better by increasing the amount of
good things (such as pleasure and happiness) in the world and decreasing the amount of bad things
(such as pain and unhappiness)" (Nathanson 1). Cloning can promote happiness. For example,
cloning to produce children serve several purposes. Pros of cloning may enables a parent to keep a
living connection with a dead/dying child or spouse, enable parents with no eggs and sperm create
genetically related children, enable lesbians to have children without the use of donor sperm, enable
gay men to have children without the use of donor eggs though a surrogate would have to carry the
clone, and animals who are endangered can be cloned to save their species. Not to mention, cloning
for biomedical research might lead to advances in medical knowledge and toward treatments and
cures. Relating to utilitarianism, from the "2004 VCU Life Sciences Survey", "fifty percent of
respondents in 2003 favored human cloning if it is limited to research for the treatment of disease"

Ethical Implications Of Stem Cell Theory
Introduction to Cells
Nature of Science: Search trends and discrepancies although most organisms follows the cell theory,
there are exceptions. Ethical implications of research: research involving stem cell culture is
growing in importance and raises ethical questions.
Glossary: (Many of these terms can have several meanings, remember that only care about their
significance in the field of Biology)
1. Cell
2. Homeostasis
3. Negative and positive feedback
4. Evolution
5. Adaptation
6. Playing
7. Sexual Reproduction
8. asexual reproduction
9. Growth
10. Development
** This and all glossaries must be printed or written by hand and placed in the folder on the first
divider. It may be revised periodically and receives points for RR%.
Reading ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
3– All the functions we perform are related to the cell, the cell is what makes all vital functions
within the body, such as energy production, among others.
3– List and explain the characteristics of all living things (they are about seven of these, uses
examples to at least two species of different kingdoms in your explanation of c /

Difference Between Plant And Animal Cells
CELL OBSERVATION LAB
By Alexandra Escaja–Heiss, Ashley Reeves, & Christine Constant
Period G1/B3a – Living Systems
10/22/15
Purpose To identify the difference between plant and animal cells, recognize their structures, and to
better understand the various functions of those cell organelles.
II. Background In 1665 Robert Hooke used an early light microscope to look at a thin slice of cork.
Under the microscope the cork looked to have thousands on empty chambers, which Hooke noted
looked like "cells", so he coined the term.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch scientist who was named the father of microbiology. He was
the first person to look at living cells and bacteria under a slightly more advanced single–lens
microscope in 1676 and 1683.
Matthias Schleiden was a German scientist who observed different plants in the late 1830's. His
observations concluded that the plants were all composed of cells. Another German scientist,
Theodor Schwann, observed that animals were also composed of cells.
Later on, Rudolf Virchow concluded that the nucleus was the structures responsible for cell division,
which created the third part of the cell theory, stating that all cells came from other pre–existing
cells.
The Cell Theory is as follows –
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure in organisms
3. All cells come from pre–existing cells
More Information on Cells:
Cell size is limited

History of Medicine Essay
The practice of medicine has been shaped through the years by advances in the area of diagnostic
procedures. Many of these advances were made possible by scientific breakthroughs made before
the 20th century. Modern medicine arguably emerged. Both normal and abnormal functions
(physiology and pathology) were increasingly understood within smaller units, first the tissues and
then the cells. Microscopy also played a key role in the development of bacteriology. Physicians
started to use stethoscope as an aid in diagnosing certain diseases and conditions. New ways of
diagnosing disease were developed, and surgery emerged as an important branch of medicine.
Above all, a combination of science and technology underpinned medical knowledge and ... Show
By using their microscopes, they found that every living plant and animal they examined was made
of cells. As microscopes were improved, scientists were able to see smaller and smaller organisms.
They found that no matter how large or small the organism was, it was made of cells, leading to cell
theory. For example, a German biologist, Theodor Schwann discovered that all plant and animal
cells were divided into cells by looking through his microscope. He also discovered that the cell is
the basic unit of organization in organisms. Cells can be grouped together to form tissues, which can
in turn be grouped together to make an organ. Organs can be grouped together to form a system,
which is part of an organism. He was able to use microscopes to see the ways that cells work and
help to determine which kind of microorganisms (bacteria) is causing the disease and making people
ill. This is particularly valuable in the study of the components of organisms, where physicians are
able to overcome a treatment of method to kill disease cells and restore people¡¦s health. The
microscope revealed not only the cellular structure of human tissues, but also the organisms that
cause diseases. The discovery of cells led scientists to study cells and discover more information
about cells; this, allowed scientists to find ways to prevent or cure diseases. The use of microscopes
has made many

The Theory Of The Cell Theory
The cell–theory is regarded as one of a scientific and fundamental theory in biology, which
describes that all living organisms are composed of cells and have different properties. The theory
explains the concepts of what cells are made up of, what their functions are, and how they originate.
This theory was developed in the 18th century by three German scientist's Matthias Schleiden,
Theodor Schwann, and Rudoplh Virchow, which was a special contribution to the modern biology.
Although cells were discovered earlier than the 18th century after the invention of microscopes,
these were the scientists who developed the study. The theory explained three basic concepts in
modern biology; Living organisms are made up of cells, cell is the basic unit of structure and
organization in living things, and all cells are from other living cells. With advances in the
technologies in the current years, the secrets of living organisms and new discoveries have been
increasingly been revealed.
In 1665, cell was first discovered by Robert C. Hooke with the help of a compound microscope that
he built. He was one of the utmost experimental scientists during the seventeenth century, who
further improved the microscope and helped advance it uses and results with the help of lighting.
During his time he made anticipations to many of the important discoveries and inventions of
instruments but sadly failed to complete those discoveries. His first experiment with the microscope
was on a thin slice of

Historical Development of the Cell Theory
Biology Notes
1. Organisms are made of cells that have similar structural characteristics. 1 Outline the historical
development of the cell theory, in particular the contributions of Robert Hooke and Robert Brown.
The development of the cell theory starts in the 1600ʼs with Robert Hookeʼs discovery of cells when
viewing a piece of cork under a microscope and describing them as a nun house. Anton van
Leeuwenhoek was crucial in the development of microscopes making simple microscopes through
advanced lens making techniques that enabled him to see 300X and also discovered bacteria. Robert
Brown later in the 1900ʼs made the discovery of the cell nucleus. 2 Describe evidence to support the
cell theory. 1. All living organisms are composed of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Inorganic Substances are substances that do not contain carbon as the main element, except for
carbonates, e.g. water, mineral salts. Chemical Component Lipids Description Contains carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen and store energy. Energy is more difﬁcult to release for cell use. Breaks down
into fatty acids Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and nitrogen. Used in the cell for structure,
storage, movement and transport of cells.
Use Oil is lipids at room temp. Storage for the cell and major fuel Body growth, (cell growth) Cell
Structure
Proteins e.g. Gelatin
Nucleic Acids
DNA + RNA largest and most complex of the organic molecules. Contains Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen. They (carbohydrates) are used in respiration, storage of energy and some for structural
support.
Its subunitʼs product controls the function of the cell and the cell organism Respiration, storage of
energy and some for structural support.
Carbohydrates
– Mono saccharide – disaccharide – polysaccharide (starch)
2 Identify that there is movement of molecules into and out of cells For Any cell to work it has to
function with its outside environment, this means that the cell needs to take in substances needed for
them to work and to expel waste and other substances. This movement happens through the cell

membrane, the cell membrane is semi–permeable (letting some things in but not others, selectively)
What goes in Gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), Nutrients

Inside Out Theory
The origin of the eukaryotic cell is a concept that is widely debated in the world of science. In 1970,
Lynn Margulis proposed the endosymbiotic theory. More recently, Baum and Baum (2014) came out
with the "Inside–out" theory for the origin of the eukaryotic cell. They refer to the endosymbiosis
theory as the "Outside–in" theory. These two models propose that the eukaryotic cell arose from
prokaryotic origins. Only one of these theories is more parsimonious.
In the endosymbiosis theory, Lynn Margulis proposed the origin and evolution of the mitochondrion
and the chloroplast, two eukaryotic organelles (Bergstrom and Dugatkin, 2016). She hypothesized
that these two organelles were not originally internal components of a eukaryotic ancestor, ... Show
The "inside–out theory is more parsimonious than the "outside–in" theory in that it can explain
eukaryotic cell organization by the formation of extracellular blebs that enveloped the proto–
mitochondria. This theory describes the whole process of eukaryotic cell formation including the
formation of a nucleus and ER. The endosymbiosis theory lacks the explanation for the formation of
any of the other organelles. It only describes that bacteria was phagocytized and became the
membrane bound organelles seen today. The endosymbiosis theory is not continuous; it makes a lot
of "jumps" in the formation of the eukaryotic cell in its

Why Viruses Are Not Living Organisms
In general, viruses are a distinct group comparing to others. Viruses have similar characteristic as a
living organism, but it also lack some of the element that a living organism have. Viruses are a
hereditary material that may be single strand genome, or other may contain a double strand genome
which is ribonucleic acid or deoxyribonucleic acid. Viruses are very small species, when a virus is
not in contact with a cell, it is just a protein that contains a genome. In the other hand, when it is in
contact with a cell, it will requires help from the cells that have been inserted into to duplicates
itself. I agree that viruses are considered not living organisms because they can not do many
functions by themselves without entering a cell.
Cell theory define Cells as the basis of life in the universe, all living organisms are made of cell, and
all cells created by other old cells. There are many types of cells that can be categorize. Prokaryotic
cell and eukaryotic cell. These two types of cell have similarities and differences. ... Show more
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It is a stained area in the cell and closely compacted together. It has two membrane that looks like
envelope that isolates the nucleus parts from the rest of the cell. Nucleus have many function, and
one of them is to make rRNA and collect proteins. Also, it tells the cell what to do regard specific
things. Golgi apparatus is sacs of cisterna, that looks like folds. Golgi modifies, describes, packs,
and concentrate protein. It delivers protein to the outside of the cell, during revising and correcting
the protein. In conclusion, viruses cannot survive without cells, from my perspective, I can see that
viruses are nonliving because they are dependent on the living cell and can not do much without
access a living

Pros And Cons Of Ageing
What is ageing:
According to the oxford dictionary, ageing is the process of change in the properties of a material
occurring over a period, either spontaneously or through deliberate action.
In biology, the term Senescence is used, which describes biological ageing. Each cell in the human
body experience stress and damage from exogenous and endogenous sources. These cells then
respond, in a manner, which could lead to cell death or cell recovery. This is where ageing comes
into play, where the cells try to recover, but fail in doing so correctly. The remaining cells
subsequently have permanent damage, which hinders them from working at their full potential. This
process continuously happens inside the human body. Aging is also a good ... Show more content on
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This would reduce the need for old age homes. As figure 4.1 shows, with age comes experience.
This means that by raising the life expectancy and health of people, you would also increase the
availability of experienced gathered, that could be shared and utilised.
Cons:
As a person gains years to their life, they experience many heartaches, friends dying or just plainly
tragedies that occurred. This could cause a build up of psychological damage, and tend to make a
person non–functional. Therefore, if a person were to live an extended lifespan, they might not live
it happily. Increasing the average lifespan of people, would also decrease the mortality rate in the
populations, which would only add to the current problem of overcrowding in the world. Ethics
When we look at the ethics behind an extended lifespan, you also need to take a look at the
consequences of these actions. The main ethics are mainly; Will everyone have an equal chance to
an extended lifespan and will there be enough room for the new

Cell Theory Evolution
Biologists use the ideas of cell theory, hereditary and genetics, and evolution through natural
selection in many different ways. While being very different areas of study, they all share a core
idea. This idea is that cells duplicate, and sometimes experience random mutations. From this very
basic idea, scientists can theorize that all life on earth came from one or a few very simple cells, and
are related through this. But the diversity of life today also shows how these related cell groups
evolved and changed.
Cell theory is the scientific knowledge that cells can only come from other cells. Years ago, when
the idea of spontaneous generation was disproved, a new theory came into play and allowed
scientists to learn that cells split and duplicate, sometimes experiencing random genetic mutations.
This led to the question: if all cells come from other cells, then where did the very first cell come
from? Some scientists believe that perhaps spontaneous generation happened once, billions of years
ago, to start the chain of life. Others theorize that the first cells came from an asteroid from another
planet. The first cells split and grew and split and grew, until they started to mutate and ... Show
During sexual reproduction, the offspring inherits traits from both parents, causing the offspring to
possess a completely unique DNA blueprint. The traits that it inherits, and the traits that another
creature of the same species inherits from it's own parents, can be very different, but still belong to
the same species. Some genes are recessive, and don't show until there's a double copy. For
example, a dog's grand–sire had blue eyes. The trait was passed on to it's parents and then to it, but it
doesn't show because it is recessive. It breeds with a dog who's dam had blue eyes, and their
offspring have a chance of inheriting two copies of the blue–eyes gene and, in turn, having blue

Essay on Ethical Theories of Embryonic Stem Cells
Researching the future potential of embryonic stem cells is the new hot topic debate in ethics. The
moral objections from two opposing sides clash in a political and ethical battle of who is correct.
Each faction tries to define the classification of what deserves unalienable human rights. Likewise,
determining what is classified as human behavior such as sentiment, interests and pain has been the
ground on which pro–stem cell research stand. Since these embryos share only genetic similarities
and no human characteristics, it is permissible to this stance to kill them in the name of medicine.
On the other hand, anti–embryonic stem cell research believes that the human life begins at
conception. Consequently, the status of the embryo is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The authors opinion is plainly seen in the first paragraph, "I argue for a compromise position that
accords respect to the embryo as a form of human life, but which is distinct from Kantian respect for
persons," (Steinbock, 2007). The first view is that embryos should receive the protection and rights
that all human beings have because they are genetically human. Steinbock counters this statement
with the definition of a human organism, "an organism is defined as an integrated while with the
capacity for self–directed development," (Steinbock, 2007). This classification of what a human
organism is demotes the human embryo as not human because the embryo has no heart, no brain and
no organs. In other words, it has no similar traits as a human adult. It has the capabilities to become
a baby, but will it ever become one? Another view, as described by Steinbock, is that embryos have
no moral status. Embryos have the same genetic makeup as humans, but they don't act or exhibit any
human characteristics. Steinbock states,
Morally, they are no different from any other cells in the human body. A blastocyst certainly looks
nothing like a born human being, or even a fetus, but more importantly, it has none of the
characteristics of a human person. It is those characteristics, such as sentience, consciousness, self–
awareness, capacity for language, rationality, and moral agency that

The Theory Of Batteries And Electrochemical Cells
In class I was introduced to the concepts of batteries and electrochemical cells. I am really interested
in batteries and how they work and what goes into making a battery. I was inspired to this
experiment mostly because I want to study electrical engineering in university and I wanted to find
out the chemistry behind the production of the electrical energy in batteries. During my reading, I
found out that the first battery was actually invented by Italian physicist Count Alessandro Volta and
was demonstrated to Napoleon Bonaparte in 1801. Constructed from alternating discs of zinc and
copper wit pieces of cardboard soaked in brine between the metals, this was the first battery that
produced a reliable steady current of electricity. The reason why this works is because, as I found
out, batteries use the process of redox reactions to create voltage. I also found out that the difference
in reactivity leads to the voltage that will be produced. Voltage is a measure of the amount of energy
which each coulomb of electrons can carry. The more readily a species loses electrons, the bigger
the build of potential energy and the higher the voltage. The reason why transition metals are used is
because they are very good conductors of electricity and they have seas of electrons so electrons can
travel within them fairly easily. There is a table that provides the results of experiments where these
various compartments are connected to a hydrogen electrode. It is known as the

Purpose Statement For Diabetes
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
According to International Diabetes Federation, approximately 592 million people worldwide would
be suffering from diabetes by 2035 and this would be a major economic burden to the society
globally. Detail knowledge of normal physiological processes at cellular and molecular level will
give me a better understanding in dealing with pathological conditions in human body. Insight of the
structure and function of organelles, chemical composition of enzymes, hormones, their interaction
and expression in structural and functional unit of life can significantly help in bringing down
morbidity and mortality associated with metabolic disorders like diabetes and various other diseases.
Grown up in a family of medical professionals, the curiosity to explore various life processes was
not only acquired but also inherent. I want to take a leap forward of what my parents and
grandparents practice and 'Cell and Molecular Physiology' or 'Immunology' as major will surely
make me accomplish in achieving my aim of life.
As a small child, I had seen the agony of patients and limitations of medical profession in dealing
with various illnesses. I had innumerable queries which were beyond my capability to understand ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While working with Deepti Foundation and attending to children suffering from HIV, I came across
an orphan, emaciated child at AIDS rehabilitation centre. Fear, bigotry, anathema regarding AIDS
still prevail in our society resulting in infringement of fundamental human rights. Besides
medications, treatment and nutrition, sincere efforts should be made for rehabilitation of children in
society so that they live a dignified life. The morbidity and agony of the child, limitations of anti–
retroviral therapy due to advanced stage of the disease and ostracism had significant influence on
me in choosing a career in life sciences and continue music and piano as my hobby and

The Discovery Of Cells And The Cell Theory
The cell. The most basic form of life, and yet the most complex structure Mother Nature has to offer.
For hundreds of years, man has tried to crack its codes, to try and find what makes it tick; but it
seems that the deeper we go into the study of cells, the more questions appear too. The purpose of
this entire essay is to educate my readers on cells, our discovery of cells and the cell theory, where
we believe they first appeared, and how we have learned to manipulate cells to cure diseases like
cancer. I will also talk about how our knowledge of cells has changed our medicine and agriculture,
and how ethnic some of these changes are. But first, let us talk about the discovery of cells and the
cell theory. Robert Hooke, an english scientist, was the man who first discovered the cell in 1665,
proof being a book he released at that time called Micrographia. In this book, Hooke gave 60
observations of random objects under a compound microscope with a magnification of 30x. Because
of this, he was not able to see the internal structures in the cell, like nuclei and vacuoles, and what
he proclaimed to be cells were just empty cell walls of plant tissues. He shared his observations with
The English Royal Society, until they started receiving letters from a scientist named Anton van
Leeuwenhoek. The letters stated that Anton made use of a microscope containing improved lenses
that magnified objects up to 275x, enough to identify the living parts of a cell. He kept on sending

An Outline of the Cell Theory Essay
Chapter 2 IB Biology
2.1 Cell Theory
2.1.1 Outline the cell theory (2).
All organisms are composed of one or more cells
Cells are the smallest units of life
All cells come from preexisting cells
TOK: cell theory replaces the former ideas of spontaneous generation or abiogenesis in which
inanimate matter assembles itself into living forms Exception: muscle cells– more than 1 nucleus,
very long; (fungal cells) hyphae roots– not a single unit; protoctista– not specialized to single
function; subcellular things like organelles 2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory (3).
Robert Hooke first described cells in 1665 while observing cork with a microscope he built. Coined
the term "cell" Antoine van Leeuwenhoek ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As organisms grow, cells divide. 2 small cells are more efficient than one. Alveoli in lungs
maximize surface for gas exchange.
2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties (1). Different things come
together to make process
Cells–tissues–organs–etc.
Ability to reproduce themselves. Allows possibility of growth and for replacement of damaged or
dead cells. 2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized
functions by expressing some of their genes but not others (3). Start out as single cell that
reproduces at a rapid rate then the resulting cells go through a differentiation (different cells–
different functions– to run an organism) process to produce all required cell types that are necessary
for organism. Every cell in a multicellular organism contains all the genes of that organism.
However, the genes that are activated vary from cell to cell. Differentiation– when we break
something complex into its component pieces, they each appear to be simple. Combined, they can
perform a whole new function. Cells within a multi cellular organism specialize their function.
Examples: muscles cells, cardiac cells
This differentiation process is the result of the expression of certain specific genes but not others
Genes allow for the production of all different cells in the organism Each cell contains all the
genetic info for the production of the complete organism Each

Theories Of Aging
Why do people age? Over the "ages" people have wondered how do we age? Do our genes
determine our lifespan? Does damage to our DNA affect how long we live? There have been many
theories answering that one question and few are right and some still have to be proven. People
aging isn't magical, aging is scientific. Chemistry is behind aging.
The first theory is that we live as long as we do because our genes determine how long we live. This
means that we have a gene that tells our body how long we have to live. If this is true we could
change that gene and live longer than predetermined. For example that gene is a timer that is
counting down, imagine you could add time to the timer prolonging the time left. Different animals
have proven this theory to work. A type of worm can to 300 years old, which could support the first
theory that genes determine your lifespan.
The second theory is that over time our body and DNA receive damage until the point when our
body will not function anymore. This theory states that how long we live ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The Error Hypothesis refers to the errors, which occur in the chemical reactions in producing DNA,
RNA, or proteins because the metabolic system is not 100% accurate. Cell death is the reason for
unrepaired errors due to insufficient energy or nutrients. The Free Radical Theory refers to
molecules, which have a strong tendency to link to other molecules messing up their functions. They
are produced for metabolism and sometimes produced by accident if oxygen is always present. The
Cross–Linkage Theory states that the aging of living organisms is due to the formation of bridges
between protein molecules in the DNA, which cannot be broken by enzymes that interferes in the
production of RNA by DNA. Can be caused by metabolism. The Brain Hypothesis refers to the
aging is caused by a breakdown in the homeostasis of the

Biology: Explain Cell Theory
(I) Explain cell theory? What are some current hypotheses of how the first cell could have come into
existence? What is the evidence that supports these hypotheses? During my time in the introduction
of biology, I have learned that Cell Theory can be defined as one of the basic principles of biology.
Now credit for the formulation of this theory is given to several German scientists such as Theodor
Schwann and Rudolph Virchow. In Biology, Cell Theory states that every single living organism are
composed of cells. Also, these cells can be either unicellular or multicellular. According to cell
theory, the cell is characterized as being a basic unit of life. Furthermore, cells arise from pre–
existing cells which means that they are not derived ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The two most basic types of bonds are characterized as either ionic or covalent. Ionic bonding is the
complete transfer of valence electrons between atoms and it is a type of chemical bond that
generates two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds require an electron donor, often a metal, and an
electron acceptor, a nonmetal. Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This
type of bonding occurs between two atoms of the same element or of elements close to each other in
the periodic table. This bonding occurs primarily between nonmetals; however, it can also be
observed between nonmetals and metals. Hydrogen bonding is the interaction involving a hydrogen
atom located between a pair of other atoms having a high affinity for electrons and such bond is
weaker than an ionic bond or covalent bond. Also, hydrogen bonds are able to exist between atoms
in different molecules or in parts of the same molecule. Cells use bonds to store energy and perform
metabolic processes by breaking down bonds that contains energy, but energy must be added to get
any energy out. This is the true driving energy for biochemistry, where cellular respiration provides
energy by forming the strong oxygen bonds in carbon dioxide and water, breaking the weaker bonds
in carbohydrates and sugars. In photosynthesis, energy from the sun is used to break the carbon
dioxide and H2O bonds, and the fairly strong oxygen bond is formed as well. So, in fact, more
energy is available when the weakest bonds are broken in favor of the stronger bonds being formed.
Lastly, ATP provides energy when it transfers phosphate moieties to more strongly bonded glucose
or fructose

The History of Cell Theory
The History of Cell Theory
As we all probably know today, every single living being is made up by cells – the building blocks
of life. As much as we would like to take this fact for granted, we cannot help but acknowledge and
remember the works and discoveries of earlier scientists which all contributed to our today's
understanding of the cell theory. The cell theory being; all living things are composed of one or
more cells, cells are organisms' basic units of structure and function, and cells only come from
existing cells. Their discoveries lead to the development of inventions necessary to induce further
research in the area which resulted in the creation of devices such as the microscope.
Robert Hooke
Robert Hooke was probably ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Theodor Schwann
Theodor Schwann was a German physiologist who defined the cell as the basic unit of animal
structure. He discovered what are today known as the "Schwann cells" and made important
discoveries from observing that an egg is a single cell that would develop into a complete organism.
He was therefore able to conclude that in addition to Schleiden's theory, animals were also made up
of cells and consequently all living things would be made of cells. He was one of the main
developers of the cell theory and also discovered that membranes, nuclei, and cell bodies were
common in cells and learned to compare them in between animal and plant tissues. This all aided the
development of the cell theory because this is one of the final steps to the main ideology that all
living things are made up of cells.
Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf Virchow was a Prussian scientist who contributed greatly to the cell theory, stating that cells
arose from each other and this was how many diseases were spread. This leads to the development
of the cell theory in the way that one of the main ideologies of the cell theory is the fact that cells
only come from existing cells.
Homo Faber
The development of the cell theory, and the people who helped to do so relates to the Area of
Interaction of Homo Faber because only with the demand and need of further research and studying,
would

The Study Of Cells From 330 Years Ago
The study of cells started about 330 years ago. Before that time cells escaped notice because of their
small size. With the invention of the microscope and its subsequent improvement, cells became
visible and many new discoveries were made about them. Even today the study of cells reveals more
detail, and its secrets, which are in fact the secrets of life itself, are revealed with ever increasing
clarity. In 1665, English Scientist and Microscopist Robert Hooke described a honeycomb–like
network of cellulae (Latin for little storage rooms) in cork slice using his primitive compound
microscope. Robert Hooke used the term cells to describe units in plant tissue (thick cell walls could
be observed). Of course he saw only cell walls because cork cells are dead and without protoplasm.
He drew the cells he saw and also coined the word cell. The word cell is derived from the latin word
cellula which means small compartment. Hooke published his findings in his famous work,
Micrographia. Hooke anticipated some of the most important discoveries and inventions of his time
but failed to carry many of them through to completion. He formulated the theory of planetary
motion as a problem in mechanics, and grasped, but did not develop mathematically, the
fundamental theory on which the English physicist Sir Isaac Newton formulated the law of
gravitation. Hooke 's most important contributions include the correct formulation of the theory of
elasticity, which states that an elastic body

A Unifying Concept: The History Of Cell Theory
The car. It all started long ago when Ferdinand Verbiest invented a self–propelled vehicle using a
steam engine. Then to Henry Ford, creating the first combustion engine to today with cars that can
park themselves, stop themselves, and even drive themselves. Over the years scientists have been
making scientific developments of what civilians thought were impossible. For many years
scientists have been discovering new and outrageous breakthroughs changing history, yet people
still believe that scientific knowledge is definite. The belief that scientific knowledge is absolute is
absolutely ridiculous given that biologists are still discovering new information and disproving
previous knowledge. According to Karl Mathiesen, of The Guardian, a new plastic ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This tells us that the microscope has been around forever, but even though it has been around for a
long time, it has evolved overtime allowing us to see particles better proving that scientific
knowledge has changed over time. With this change we are able to accomplish scientific
achievements because we can see more in depth. Even though people believe scientific knowledge
is absolute, we can obviously see the scientific changes. In 1665 the cell was discovered by Robert
Hooke when he was examining a very thin piece of cork when he discovered honeycomb–like
structure, but he did not know what was in these so–called cells at the time. "His cell observations
gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells" (Cell Theory, 2).
Here we can see that what Hooke's observations said are not the case anymore, we have discovered
that there are many different organelles in a cell. Many people believe that scientific knowledge is
not absolute but obviously we can see that it

Biological Theory Of Aging Essay
There are many factors that influence the aging process, and there are many theories and sub–
theories that try to explain the complex process of aging. Aging changes the biochemical and the
physiological process. The theory that best aligns with my view of aging is the biological theory
because you can see these changes every day; maybe you see them in yourself, possibly others. Cell
and molecular biologist examine and propose theories to explain the aging process. There are many
biological theories that, in my opinion, do a great job at explaining outcomes and results of aging;
they do so in a way that is understandable, and these theories have much credible research behind it.
There are two main aging theory categories: programmed and error theories. Programmed theory
assert that aging is an essential and innate part of the biology of people, and that aging is
programmed into our body systems; the three main programmed theories are the programmed
senescence theory, the endocrine theory, and the immune theory. These theories explain changes
over time, and these changes cause symptoms and signs of aging.
The programmed senescence theory is about the process in which a cell loses its ability to divide,
grow and function; loss of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The stress theory of aging states that the biological system sustains damage from prolonged
exposure to stress. Studies, conducted by endocrinologist Hans Selye, show that when there is
prolongs stress stress–related hormones are released from the pituitary gland. Having been
prolonged, stress causes high levels of these hormones continue to be released and weaken the
immunity system; the body becomes susceptible to physical symptoms of illness. In a
groundbreaking study that compared mothers of chronically ill children with mothers of healthy
children, it was found that the stress from the chronically ill children was inversely associated with
telomere

Cell Theory : The Basic Structural Unit Of All Living...
Cell
Name
Institution
Cells In general, cells in plain words can be described as the basic structural unit of all living
organisms. These are very small particles which can be only observed under a microscope (Doerr,
2009). Moreover, the word cell is derived from a Latin word 'cella' which means a 'small room'. The
cell was first discovered in the year 1665 by Robert Hooke. However, the cell theory was developed
many years later in 1839 in which Matthias Jakob and Theodor Schwann stated that all living
organisms present consist of one or more cells (Nature, 2014). In addition, their theory also stated
that all cells are generated from preexisting cells and various functions incur within the cell and the
cells emerged on the Earth around 3.4 billion years ago.
Depending on this definition, all living organisms which include plants and animals on earth are
divided into cells. Actually, cells are tiny compartments, which hold biological equipment inside
(Doerr, 2009). The equipment which is inside the cells is necessary for any organism to live.
Moreover, cells were considered to be a simple box of chemical reactions, but today it is recognized
as a very complex system of molecular machinery that can easily surpass a modern city in
complexity. However, each cell consists of two essential parts which are known as the nucleus and
cytoplasm (Nature, 2014). Cytoplasm is the jelly type material found within the cell which contains
water, dissolved gases and food.

Cancer Stem-Cell Theory Essay
The cancer stem cell theory hypothesizes that tumors or cancers arise from mutations or epigenetic
changes in normal stem cells. These mutated or genetically altered stem cells possess the properties
of the normal stem cells such as the ability to self–renew, differentiate into any type of body cell,
and resist apoptosis. Hence, the cancer stem cells (CSC) are named so. It is also suggested that
because of the above–mentioned properties of the cancer stem cells, the current anti–cancer
therapies are not entirely successful (Gil et al, 2008). Despite surgery and other therapies, even if
very few of these cancer stem cells survive, they can continue to act as a source for more tumors,
even though the therapies eliminate all visible signs ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some strategies that can be used to target the cancer stem cells:
1) Stem cells possess markers that are different from the differentiated cells. One method can be to
develop treatments that target only the cancer stem cells and not the healthy differentiated cells.
2) Investigate to find markers that distinguish between cancer stem cells and healthy stem cells.
3) Prevent self–renewal of the stem cells within the tumor mass: Targeting proteins that regulate the
cell cycle in the cells of the tumor mass can be a potential strategy to prevent the self–renewal of the
cancer stem cells. Bao et al (2006) reported that proteins involved in regulating cell cycle, especially
at the checkpoints play an important role in determining the CSC resistance to radiotherapy. This is
because radiotherapy leads to DNA damage, which activates the checkpoint proteins and increases
their expression. In vivo and in vitro studies have shown that inhibition of checkpoint proteins such
as Chk1 and Chk2 decrease the radiotherapy resistance ability of the brain stem cells that were
previously radiotherapy resistant (Gil et al, 2008). This strategy coupled with radiotherapy and/or
elimination of the tumor mass by surgery can potentially prevent relapse of cancer.
Tumor progression or cancer development in humans takes decades to develop because this process
requires multiple insults like mutations and epigenetic changes in the DNA. These changes

Cell Theory Research Paper
Cell structures are a very unique component in life. Cells have the ability to accomplish many tasks.
Theses tasks may include identifying genetic information, the gossamer endoplasmic reticulum
subway system and the fibril laced cytoskeleton. All of these parts are needed in order to have life.
Before all of this occurred, we developed a cell theory. The cell theory was basically used to explain
how every living thing is made out of cells. In the cell theory there were three principals that it
followed. The first principal was that all organisms are composed of one or more cell, and the life
processes of metabolism and heredity occur within these cells. The second was that cells are the
smallest living things, the basic units of organization ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cytoskeleton consist of polymer of identical protein subunits that attracts one another and
assemble in long chains. In the cytoskeleton there are three different kinds of fibers. The three fibers
are actin filament, microtubules and intermediate filaments. Actin filament are composed of two
protein chains loosely twined together like two strands of pearls. Microtubules are the largest
cytoskeletal element and it is formed from nucleation centers near the center of the cell and radiate
toward the periphery. Meanwhile, the intermediate filaments is considered to be the most durable
element of the cytoskeleton. They are a mixed group of cytoskeletal

Cell Theory
1.Cell theory just give a description of a cells. Like all living things are made up of cells
individually. Also describes how cells can reproduce and metabolize by themselves; which means
that they are living small organisms. Germ theory just clarifies on how these microbes are
responsible for the infectious diseases that enter the body.
2.Acellular microbe is not a living cell, so its not able to reproduce or metabolize. The acellular
microbe is grown within a host (human). It can be identified as a viru, virion, and prion. Its really
small compared to a cellular microbe since it is around the size of a organelle and a large molecule.
While the cellular microbe is bigger and can be spotted better on microscope. A cellular microbe is
living. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Unlike the gram negative wall, which has two. Beneath the glycocalyx there's the first layer called
the peptidoglycan for the gram positive cell wall. As for the gram negative cell wall is a lot more
complex. It has plasma membrane on the bottom of the glycocalyx. This plasma membrane has a
toxin (endotoxin) that can cause very fatal symptoms to a patient; even shock can occur. Right under
this toxin wall there's the peptidoglycan.
4.During sporulation can occur when one cell can construct one spore. The way this formation
works is by when the cell that this bacteria is in a chemical environment in which it is stressed that
it'll form spores within the cell. The spore itself doesn't not have a metabolism. Although it does put
a battle whenever WBC (white blood cells) and any type of disinfectants try to get rid of it. The
bacterial endospore is made out of a dense keratin outer coat and a chromosome that does contain
genetic material.
5.The plasmid is a extra piece of genetic information of DNA that lies within the bacterial cell. It
results that there is a 2 sources of genomic material in the bacteria within the cell. On the other hand
transposon are combined to the genetic material of the cell that was already there Resulting that
there still is one source of genetic information in the

The Theory Of The Cell Theory Essay
Introduction
The cell theory is composed of three ideas from three different German scientists. In 1838, scientist
Mattias Schlieden said that all plants were made from cells. One year later in 1839, scientist
Theodor Schwann said that all animals were made from cells. In 1855, scientist Rudolf Virchow said
that all cells come from other cells. These three ideas were put together to form the cell theory. The
cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things, and all cells are produced from other cells (McGinnis, 2011).
Prokaryotic cells are the simplest systems that exhibit all of the signs of life. They reproduce by
binary fission, a process where the DNA is duplicated and the cell splits in two. They are the
smallest types of cell, and have a large array of abilities. Some prokaryotes live in the absence of
oxygen, some in extreme cold or heat, and some at the bottoms of oceans. These extremist
prokaryotes are known as archaebacteria. The most common prokaryotes are eubacteria, and are
found nearly everywhere on Earth (Blamire, 2001).
Prokaryotic cells can vary in their structure depending on where they reside, but all prokaryotic cells
have certain features in common. All prokaryotic cells have a cell wall; a cell wall gives structure
and shape to the cell while providing a place for the flagella to anchor. They have a plasma
membrane, which is just inside the cell and serves as a

How Did Multicellularity Evolve?
In the beginning, there were single cells (Unicellular organism). Presently, millions of years later,
most plants, animals, fungi, and algae are composed of multiple cells that work collaboratively as a
single being. Despite the various methods these organisms achieved multicellularity, their
conglomeration of cells operate cooperatively to consume energy, survive, and reproduce. But how
did multicellularity evolve? Once or multiple times? How did a solo cell transition to associating
and cooperating with other cells? The origins of multicellularity are one of the most interesting
topics and evolutionary innovations in biology. Currently, there are three main hypotheses for how
multicellularity had arisen. First ''Symbiosis hypothesis,'' this

Essay on Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis is the theory that eukaryotic cells were formed when a prokaryotic cell ingested
some aerobic bacteria. The first step of the evolution of a eukaryotic cell is the infolding of the
cellular membrane. This process takes place when the plasma membrane folds inwards and develops
an envelope around a smaller prokaryotic cell. Once the smaller cell is engulfed, it becomes
dependent upon its host cell. It relies on the host cell for organic molecules and inorganic
compounds. However, the host cell also benefits because it has an increased output of ATP for
cellular activities and becomes more productive. This ATP comes from the mitochondrion (the
aerobe) that is engulfed.
All eukaryotic cells contain the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The protein–synthesizing machinery in mitochondria and chloroplasts resemble prokaryotes. This is
shown through their ribosomal RNA and the structure of the ribosomes. The ribosomes are similar
in size and structure to bacterial ribosomes. fMat is always the first amino acid that is in the
mitochondria and chloroplasts transcripts. The antibiotics that act by blocking protein synthesis in
bacteria also block protein synthesis in mitochondria and chloroplasts. These antibiotics do not
interfere with protein synthesis in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotes. The inhibitors that effect the
protein synthesis of eukaryotic ribosomes do not change the protein synthesis of the bacteria,
mitochondria, or chloroplasts.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have two membranes that surround them. The inner membrane is
probably from the engulfed bacterium and this is supported by that the enzymes and proteins are
most like their counterparts in prokaryotes. The outer membrane is formed from the plasma
membrane or endoplasmic reticulum of the host cell. The electron transport enzymes and the H+
ATPase are only found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of the eukaryotic cell. (2)
Currently, there are two major competing theories for the endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotic cells.
The first theory claims that the eukaryotic cell is a combination of an archaeon with a

Cell Theory Research Papers

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