Review strategic transformation in Chapter 15 of your textbook.docx

Review strategic transformation in Chapter 15 of your textbook
This strategic transformation of police organizations is seeking
to create a department focused on crime prevention, community
engagement, information management, managerial
empowerment and accountability, and the control of crime. It
requires that police executives actively engage the process of
designing and restructuring their organizations to ensure that
desired public safety outcomes occur by intention, not by
chance. The four key activities associated with this
transformational process are as follows:
• creation of a strategic vision
•mobilization of commitment
•institutionalization of the change
• measurement of progress
(p407)
Reference
More, H. W., Vito, G. F., & Walsh, W. F. (2011).
Organizational behavior and management in law enforcement
(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN-13:
9780135071526
URL:
http://gcumedia.com/digital-
resources/pearson/2011/organizational-behavior-and-
management-in-law-enforcement_ebook_3e.php
Fact Sheet 2012

SOCIAL SERVICE WORKERS:
AN OCCUPATIONAL OVERVIEW
Social service workers serve on the front lines in our
communities, providing public
services and much needed social assistance. They work in a
variety of settings, including mental
health clinics, schools, homes, community centers, hospitals,
and private practice.
This fact sheet will outline: general employment facts about
social service workers,
including projected occupational growth, typical education
requirements, and salaries; the
benefits of a union for social service workers, the presence of
women and minorities, and
occupational challenges.
Basic Employment Data
workers in the U.S. Social
service is a broad occupational category, which includes health
educators, mental health
counselors, marriage and family therapists, probation officers
and correctional treatment
specialists, rehabilitation counselors, school and career
counselors, social and human service
assistants, social workers, and substance abuse and behavioral
disorder counselors.1

and families. Counselors work
in schools, community centers, government agencies, and
private practices, among other
settings. In 2011, there were 244,560 educational, vocational,
and school counselors;
110,690 rehabilitation counselors; 114,180 mental health
counselors; and 76,600 substance
abuse and behavioral disorder counselors.2
health clinics, hospitals, social
service agencies, and nursing homes. In 2011, there were
276,510 child, family, and school
social workers; 133,890 health care social workers, and 115,390
mental health and substance
abuse social workers.3
program assistance, offender
rehabilitation, and personal and family therapy. In 2011, there
were 359,860 social and
human service assistants; 88,520 probation officers and
correctional treatment specialists;
and 33,990 marriage and family therapists.4
predicts that jobs in community and
social service occupations will grow by 24 percent, representing
roughly 582,300 jobs. They
project that overall employment will increase by 14 percent
during that time.5
counseling and health care social
work is expected to increase by 37 percent and 34 percent,

respectively—more than double
the expected rate of national job growth.6
expected to be 25 percent, or 161,200
jobs, between 2010 and 2020. The overall growth rate for
educational, guidance, school, and
DPE Fact Sheet Social Service Workers: An
Occupational Overview Page 2 of 6
vocational counselors is predicted to be 19 percent, or 53,400
jobs. For social and human
service assistants, job growth is expected to be 28 percent, or
106,000 jobs.7
Education and Salaries
Social service workers are generally well educated, but
modestly compensated
professionals. In most states, social service workers, like
counselors, social workers, and
therapists, must earn additional licenses through examinations
and field experience.
social services numbered 25,414 in
the 2009 to 2010 school year, an increase of 5,229 from the
1999 to 2000 school year.
Master’s and doctoral degrees awarded in public administration
and social services numbered
36,567 for the same year, an increase of over 10,000 from 1999
to 2000.8

professionals. Only those who have
earned Bachelor’s, Master’s, or doctoral degrees in social work,
and completed a minimum
number of hours in supervised fieldwork, are considered
professional social workers. A
Master’s degree is required to provide therapy or conduct more
advanced clinical work, and a
doctorate in social work is useful for research and teaching
positions.9
that typically requires a
Master’s degree in counseling, extensive practical training and
experience, passage of a
licensing exam, and continuing education.10
to hold college degrees,
although employers are increasingly seeking individuals with
advanced education or relevant
work experience.11
below those of similarly educated
professionals. For instance, in 2011 the median annual salary
for registered nurses was
$65,950, and the median annual salary for physician assistants
was $88,660.12 In 2011,
professionals in community and social service occupations
earned a median income of
$39,880.13
rehabilitation counselors to

$54,130 for educational, guidance, school, and vocational
counselors. The top-paying
employers of counselors were business, professional, labor,
political, and similar
organizations, the federal government, and elementary and
secondary schools.14
ian annual earnings for social workers
ranged from $42,650 for mental
health and substance abuse social workers to $54,220 for social
workers in federal, state, and
local government, advocacy organizations, and community
groups. Government, school, and
hospital positions are typically the best-paying jobs for all types
of social workers, while
individual and family services are the lowest-paying.15
salary in 2011 of $28,740.
Government positions typically had the highest salaries, with a
median salary of $43,970 for
federal government employees, while those working in
residential mental health and
substance abuse facilities received the lowest median annual
salaries, averaging $25,730.16
Union Benefits
members. In 2011, 19.7 percent

of social workers, 21.7 percent of counselors, and 24.2 percent
of other community and
social service specialists were union members.17
percent more than those without
union representation. For counselors, this earnings differential
was as high as 59.8 percent.
The 2011 median weekly earnings of other community and
social service specialists
averaged a whopping 71.5 percent higher for those represented
by a union than for those who
were not.18
her wages, unions are important in
acting on social service workers’
behalf in cases where understaffing or insufficient safety and
security precautions lead to an
unsafe work environment.
work nationally on social workers’
behalf. AFT advocates strengthening occupational safety and
health protections to ensure
social workers and other employees have safe working
environments. For social workers in
the public sector, AFT works to reverse privatizing and
contracting out public services, and
to increase federal funding for public services.19
-worker
legislation. From Wisconsin to Ohio
to Florida, unions have been fighting budget cuts, privatization
schemes, and anti-collective
bargaining measures.

programs. AFT, the AFL-CIO, and
many other unions support the American Jobs Act of 2011 (S.
1660), a $447 billion funding
bill proposed by President Obama that would repair schools,
roads, bridges, and other public
works, as well as preserve the jobs of over 300,000 public
workers.20
Women, Minorities, and Social Service
81.6 percent of social workers,
69.9 percent of counselors, and 82.4 percent of social and
human service assistants.21
Women account for nearly 47 percent of the overall labor
force.22
and social service occupations,
women still earn 17.3 percent less in median weekly earnings
than men. The wage gap
varies across social service occupations. In 2011 male
counselors’ median weekly earnings
were 8.1 percent more than female counselors, and male social
workers earned 13 percent
more than female social workers.23
percent of counselors, 22.8 percent of
social workers, and 18 percent of social and human service
assistants were Black or African-
American. The same year, 11.2 percent of counselors, 11.2
percent of social workers, and
13.5 percent of social and human service assistants were

Hispanic. 24
the professional workforce and
Hispanic professionals only 7.4 percent. Hispanic workers were
15 percent of the labor force
in 2011and Black workers comprised 10.8 percent of the labor
force.25
Challenges for Professionals in the Social Service Occupations
Social service workers face numerous challenges related to their
chosen occupations.
High student loan debt coupled with the relatively low salaries
of social service workers creates a
long-term burden on many professionals. Additionally, social
service workers frequently
perform their tasks in high-stress environments and often
struggle with workplace safety issues.
The recent recession has made working conditions for social
service workers more precarious, as
state and local government budget cuts threaten job security.
costs of their higher education
and low salaries. Bachelor’s level social workers have an
average student loan debt of
$18,609; Master’s level social workers have an average loan
debt of $26,777, and doctoral

level social workers have an average loan debt of $32,841.26
lly draining. The
high-pressure nature of the
work, relatively low wages, and understaffing can lead to high
turnover.27
emotionally unstable people,
they risk higher incidents of workplace violence. Dwindling
services and reduced benefits,
and working conditions such as understaffing, working alone,
and working late hours,
exacerbate this risk. 28
-four percent of social workers reported facing personal
safety issues on the job; yet of
those, only 70 percent reported that these safety issues were
adequately addressed by their
employer.29
that the most common work-
related stressors for social workers were: inadequate time to
complete their jobs (31 percent);
heavy workloads (25 percent); salary not comparable to peers in
other jobs (19 percent);
overall inadequate compensation (16 percent); and challenging
clients (16 percent).30
social workers in the NASW
survey indicated that they
planned to leave social work but continue to work. These social
workers were
disproportionally younger professionals with Bachelor’s degrees
in their first four years of

practice. They cited personal safety issues, low pay,
understaffing, and lack of support at
their workplace as challenges to doing their job properly.31
through a persistent economic
downturn coupled with shrinking tax revenues. Since the
official end of the recession in
summer 2009, 600,000 state and local jobs have been
eliminated. Many of the state and local
cuts have targeted social service agencies and community
programs.32
July 1, 2012), 30 states
have projected shortfalls totaling
$54 billion. As of the fourth quarter of 2011, state revenues
remained seven percent below
pre-recession levels, and are not growing fast enough to recover
fully in the near future.33
et cuts enacted in at least 46 states and the District of
Columbia since 2008 have
occurred in all major areas of state services, including health
care (31 states), services to the
elderly and disabled (29 states and D.C.), K-12 education (34
states and the D.C.), higher
education (43 states), and other areas. At the same time, the
need for these services did not
decline and, in fact, rose as the number of families facing
economic difficulties increased.34

1 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Occupational Employment Statistics, “Occupational
Employment and Wages: Community and Social Service
Occupations,” May 2011.
http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes210000.htm.
2 “Social Workers,” Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012-
2013 ed. http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-
Social-Service/Social-workers.htm#tab-6; U.S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational
Employment Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages:
Community and Social Service Occupations,” May
2011.
4 Ibid.
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012-2013 ed, “Overview
of the 2010–20 Projections,”
http://www.bls.gov/ooh/About/Projections-Overview.htm.
6 “Social Workers”; “Mental Health Counselors,” Occupational
Outlook Handbook, 2012-2013 ed.
7“Social Workers”; “Educational, Guidance, School, and
Vocational Counselors”; “Social and Human Service
Assistants,” Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012-2013 ed.
8 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics, Tables A38-1 and A-39-1, 2011.
http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/current_tables.asp.
9 “Social Work Profession,” Factsheet, NASW, 2012.
http://www.naswdc.org/pressroom/features/general/profession.a
sp.
10 Ibid.

11 “Social and Human Service Assistants,” Occupational
12 http://www.bls.gov/oes/home.htm
http://www.bls.gov/oes/home.htm.
Employment and Wages: Registered Nurses,” May 2011;
“Occupational Employment and Wages: Physician
Assistants,’ May 2011.
Occupational Employment Statistics, “May 2011 National
Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates United States,”
March 2012.
http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#21-0000.
16U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Employment and Wages: Social and Human Service Assistants,”
May 2011.
http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes211093.htm.
17 Barry T. Birch and David A. Macpherson, Union
Membership and Earnings: Compilations from the Current
Population Survey, 2012 ed., (Arlington, VA: Bloomberg BNA,
2012), table 8a.
18 Ibid.
19 “AFT Public Employees,” American Federation of Teachers,
2012. http://www.aft.org/yourwork/pubemps/.
20 “President Obama’s American Jobs Act: Putting Jobs Front
and Center,” AFSCME, October 2011.
http://www.afscme.org/issues/federal-budget-
taxes/resources/document/AFSCME_Fact_Sheet_American_Jobs
_Act.pdf.

Current Population Survey, Annual Average 2011, Table
11. http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.htm.
22 Ibid.
39. http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat39.htm.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 “Public Comments of the National Association of Social
Workers to the Department of Education,” NASW,
November 9, 2006.
http://www.socialworkers.org/advocacy/letters/2006/110806.asp
.
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008–09 Edition, April
2007.
28 Perette Arrington, Stress at work: How do social workers
cope? NASW Membership Workforce Study, 2008.
http://workforce.socialworkers.org/whatsnew/stress.pdf.
29Tracy Whitaker, Toby Weismiller, and Elizabeth Clark,
Assuring the Sufficiency of a Frontline Workforce: A
National Study of Licensed Social Workers, National
Association of Social Workers, March 2006.
http://workforce.socialworkers.org/studies/nasw_06_execsumma
ry.pdf.
31 Tracy Whitaker, Toby Weismiller, and Elizabeth Clark,

33 Elizabeth McNichol, Phil Oliff and Nicholas Johnson,
“States Continue to Feel Recession’s Impact,” Center on
Budget and Policy Priorities, May 24, 2012.
http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=711.
34 Nicholas Johnson, Phil Oliff, and Erica Williams, “At Least
46 States Have Imposed Cuts That Hurt Vulnerable
Residents and the Economy, Center on Budget and Policy
Priorities, February 9, 2011.
http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1211.
The Department for Professional Employees, AFL-CIO (DPE)
comprises 21 AFL-CIO
unions representing over four million people working in
professional and technical
occupations. DPE-affiliated unions represent: teachers, college
professors, and school
administrators; library workers; nurses, doctors, and other
health care professionals;
engineers, scientists, and IT workers; journalists and writers,
broadcast technicians and
communications specialists; performing and visual artists;
professional athletes;
professional firefighters; psychologists, social workers, and
many others. DPE was
chartered by the AFL-CIO in 1977 in recognition of the rapidly
growing professional and
technical occupations.

DPE Research Intern Charlie Fanning contributed to the update
of this fact sheet.
Source: DPE Research Department
815 16th Street, N.W., 7th Floor
Washington, DC 20006
Contact: Jennifer Dorning June 2012
(202) 638-0320 extension 114
[email protected]
Fact Sheet 2013
SOCIAL SERVICE WORKERS:
AN OCCUPATIONAL OVERVIEW
Social service workers serve on the front lines of our
communities, providing public
programs and much needed social assistance. They work in a
variety of settings, including
mental health clinics, schools, community centers, hospitals, in
private practice, and in domestic
settings.
This factsheet will outline general employment facts about
social service workers
including projected occupational growth, typical education
requirements, and salaries in social
service occupations, the benefits of a union for social service
workers, diversity in social service

work, and occupational challenges facing social service
professionals.
Basic Employment Data
workers in the U.S., however
this number is down from 2010 when there were 1,901,180
workers in the field. This is a
broad occupational category, which includes health educators,
mental health counselors and
marriage and family therapists, probation officers and
correctional treatment specialists,
rehabilitation counselors, school and career counselors, social
and human service assistants,
social workers, and substance abuse and behavioral disorder
counselors.1
and families. Counselors work
in schools, community centers, government agencies, and
private practices, among other
settings. In 2012, there were 237,480 educational, vocational,
and school counselors; 104,070
rehabilitation counselors; 115,080 mental health counselors; and
80,130 substance abuse and
behavioral disorder counselors.2
may work in private practice, behavioral
health clinics, hospitals, social
service agencies, or nursing homes. In 2012, there were 273,920
child, family, and school
social workers; 140,000 health care social workers, and 109,920
mental health and substance
abuse social workers.3

program assistance, offender
rehabilitation, and in personal and family therapy. In 2012,
there were 351,400 social and
human service assistants; 86,780 probation officers and
correctional treatment specialists;
and 34,270 marriage and family therapists.4
percent growth rate for this field
from 2010-2020, early indications suggest that this is likely an
overestimate.5 This is likely
because projections cannot anticipate severe economic events
such as a recession or
sequestration. While such events affect job growth in all
sectors, social services are often
amongst the first to see their budgets cut, even as demand
increases.6
DPE Fact Sheet Social Service Workers:
An Occupational Overview Page 2
employment in mental health counseling
and health care social work would increase by 37 percent and 34
percent, respectively, or
approximately four percent a year. However, job growth in a
number of social service fields
has stagnated, been slower than expected or, in some cases,
declined.7

Education & Salaries
Social service workers are generally well educated, but
modestly compensated professionals. In
most states, social service workers like counselors, social
workers, and therapists must earn
additional licenses through examinations and field experience.
Bachelor’s degree recipients in public administration and
social services numbered 26,774 in
the 2010-2011 school year, an increase of 7,327 from 2000-
2001. Master’s and doctoral
graduates in public administration and social services numbered
39,488 for 2010-2011, an
increase of over 12,000 from a decade earlier.8
education to work in the field.
Professional social workers must have a post-secondary degree
in social work and complete
supervised fieldwork before entering the workforce. More
advanced clinical work, therapy,
research, or teaching, all require a Master’s or doctoral degree.9
that typically requires a Master’s
degree in counseling, extensive practical training and
experience, and passage of a licensing
exam, along with continuing education requirements once in the
field.10
always require post-secondary
degrees, although increasingly, employers are seeking
individuals with advanced education
or relevant work experience.11

below those of similarly educated
professionals. For instance, in 2012, the median annual salary
for registered nurses was
$65,470 and the median annual salary for physician assistants
was $90,930, while
professionals in community and social service occupations
earned a median income of
$40,400.12
edian earnings ranged from $33,880 for
rehabilitation counselors to
$53,610 for educational, guidance, school, and vocational
counselors. The top-paying
employers of counselors were business, professional, labor,
political, and similar
organizations, the federal government, and elementary and
secondary schools.13
ranged from $39,980 for mental
health and substance abuse social workers to $54,560 for social
workers in federal, state, and
local government, advocacy organizations, and community
groups. Government, school, and
hospital positions are typically the best-paying jobs for all types
of social workers, while
individual and family services often have lower wages.14
ervice assistants reported a median annual
salary in 2012 of $28,850.
Government positions typically had the highest salaries, with a
mean income of $43,670 for
federal government employees, while those working in
residential mental health and
substance abuse facilities received the lowest median annual

salaries, averaging $25,950.15
Union Benefits
nion
membership. In 2012, 20.3 percent of
social workers, 20.2 percent of counselors, and 21.8 percent of
other community and social
service specialists were
union members.16
workers represented by
unions reported median
weekly earnings that were
30 percent higher than
those reported by non-
union social workers. For
counselors, this earnings
differential was as high as
50.1 percent. The 2012
median weekly earnings of
other community and
social service specialists
averaged 58 percent
higher for those
represented by a union
than for those who were not.17
cases where understaffing or

insufficient safety and security precautions lead to an unsafe
work environment.
work nationally on social workers’
behalf. AFT advocates strengthening Occupational Safety and
Health (OSHA) protections to
ensure social workers and other public employees have safe
working environments, reversing
privatizing and contracting out public services, and increasing
federal funding for public
services.18
-worker
legislation. From Wisconsin to Ohio
to Florida, unions continue to fight budget cuts, privatization
schemes, and anti-collective
bargaining measures.
programs. AFT, the AFL-CIO, and
many other unions support the American Jobs Act, a $447
billion bill proposed by President
Obama that would repair schools, road, bridges, and other
public works, as well as preserve
the jobs of over 300,000 public workers.19
Women, Minorities, and Social Service Work
accounting for 80.6 percent of social
workers, 69.3 percent of counselors, and 77.1 percent of social
and human service
assistants.20 Women account for nearly 47 percent of the

overall labor force.21
$-
$200
$400
$600
$800
$1,000
$1,200
$1,400
Counselors Social Workers Other community
and social service
specialists
Median Weekly Earnings, 2012
source: Barry T. Birch and David A. Macpherson, Union
Membership
and Earnings: Compilations from the Current Population
Survey, 2013ed
Union Non-union
earnings that were 8.1 percent
more than women in the same field, and male social workers
earned 13 percent more than

female social workers. By 2012, the gap in median earnings had
all but disappeared. Median
weekly earnings for men in social work were 1.3 percent higher
than for women, while in
counseling women’s wages outpaced men’s by 2.6 percent.22
However, the cause of this
change is difficult to determine, and aggregate numbers do not
suggest parity within a given
organization.
of counselors, 23 percent of
social workers, and 24.4 percent of social and human service
assistants were Black or
African-American. The same year, 10.7 percent of counselors,
12.6 percent of social
workers, and 15.5 percent of social and human service assistants
were Hispanic or Latino. 23
the professional workforce and
Hispanic professionals only 8.2 percent. Hispanic workers
represented 15.4 percent of the
total labor force in 2012, and Black workers represented 11.1
percent.24
Challenges for Professionals in the Social Service Occupations
Social service workers face numerous challenges related to their
chosen occupations.
High student debt coupled with the relatively low salaries of
social service workers creates a
long-term burden on many professionals. Additionally, social
service workers frequently must
perform their tasks in high-stress environments and often

struggle with workplace safety issues.
The recent recession and continuing sequestration make
working conditions for social service
workers even more precarious as federal, state, and local
government budget cuts threaten job
security as public need for social services continues to rise.
-secondary education paired with the
relatively low salaries for social
work in general, means many of these professionals have large
education debts. In 2011, the
National Association of Social Workers (NASW) reported the
average debt for people with
Bachelor’s degrees was $18,609. Unsurprisingly, the burden
was even larger for advanced
degrees, with Master’s graduates reporting an average of
$26,777 in education debt and those
with a doctorate of social work averaging $32,841.25
ing. The
high-pressure nature of the
work, and relatively low wages combined with understaffing
can lead to high turnover
among social service professionals.26
emotionally unstable people,
they risk higher incidents of workplace violence. Dwindling
services and reduced benefits,
and working conditions such as understaffing, working alone,
and working late hours,
exacerbate this risk. 27
of social
workers reported personal safety
issues; while in only 70 percent of these cases did the

individual feel their employers
adequately addressed the issue.28
-related
stressors for social workers were:
inadequate time to complete their jobs (31 percent); heavy
workloads (25 percent); salary not
comparable to peers in other jobs (19 percent); overall
inadequate compensation (16 percent);
and challenging clients (16 percent).29
survey indicated that they
planned to leave social work but continue to work. These social
workers were
disproportionally younger professionals with Bachelor’s degrees
in their first four years of
practice. They cited personal safety issues, low pay,
understaffing, and lack of support at
their workplace as challenges to doing their job properly.30
Administration for Children and Families reports that
some jurisdictions face turnover of
frontline workers, i.e. those providing direct support services,
as high as 90 percent a year.
This high rate means those jurisdictions suffer a consistent loss
of institutional knowledge,
possibly at the expense of high quality service.31

through a persistent economic
downturn coupled with shrinking tax revenues. Since the
official end of the recession in
summer 2009, state and local governments have cut over
600,000 jobs. Many of these cuts
target social service agencies and community programs.32
Columbia since 2008 have
occurred in all major areas of state services, including health
care (31 states), services to the
elderly and disabled (29 states and D.C.), K-12 education (34
states and the D.C.), higher
education (43 states), and other areas. At the same time, the
need for these services did not
decline and, in fact, rose as the number of families facing
economic difficulties increased.33
recession are dramatic federal
cuts. As sequestration continues, both providers and recipients
of social service work will
likely face major losses. Mandatory budget cuts will result in
both reduced service across the
board, particularly for mental and rehabilitation services.
Further, cuts to OSHA will mean
fewer health and safety inspections and possibly increased
workplace safety hazards.34

http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes210000.htm
2 “Social Workers,” Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012-
2013 ed. http://www.bls.gov/ooh/Community-and-
Social-Service/Social-workers.htm#tab-6; U.S. Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational
Employment Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages:
Community and Social Service Occupations,” May
2012.
4 Ibid.
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012-2013 ed, “Overview
of the 2010–20 Projections,”
http://www.bls.gov/ooh/About/Projections-Overview.htm
6 “An examination of California’s safety-net programs and
related economic benefits for communities.” County
Welfare Directors Association of California and California State
Association of Counties. April, 2009. Available at:
http://www.cwda.org/uploads/CSAC-CWDA-Joint-
Repor0409.pdf
7 “Social Workers”; “Mental Health Counselors,” Occupational
8 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics, Tables A38-1 and A-39-1, 2011.
http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/current_tables.asp
9 “Social Work Profession,” Factsheet, NASW, 2012.
http://www.naswdc.org/pressroom/features/general/profession.a
sp

10 Ibid.
11 “Social and Human Service Assistants,” Occupational
Employment and Wages: Registered Nurses,” May 2012;
“Occupational Employment and Wages: Physician
Assistants,’ May 2012.; http://www.bls.gov/oes/home.htm
Occupational Employment Statistics, “May 2012 National
Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates United States,”
March 2012.
http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#21-0000
15U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Employment and Wages: Social and Human Service Assistants,”
May 2012.
http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes211093.htm
16 Barry T. Birch and David A. Macpherson, Union
Membership and Earnings: Compilations from the Current
Population Survey, 2013ed., (Arlington, VA: Bloomberg BNA,
2013), table 8a.
17 Ibid.
18 “AFT Public Employees”, American Federation of Teachers,
2012. http://www.aft.org/yourwork/pubemps/
http://www.afscme.org/issues/federal-budget-
taxes/resources/document/AFSCME_Fact_Sheet_American_Jobs

_Act.pdf
11. http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.htm
21 Ibid.
39. http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat39.htm
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 “Letter to James Hyler, U.S. Department of Education.”
National Association of Social Workers. NASW,
Washington, D.C. September 12, 2012. Available at
http://www.naswdc.org/advocacy/letters/2011/110912%20Letter
%20to%20James%20Hyler.pdf
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008–09 Edition, April
2007
http://workforce.socialworkers.org/whatsnew/stress.pdf
28Tracy Whitaker, Toby Weismiller, and Elizabeth Clark,
http://workforce.socialworkers.org/studies/nasw_06_execsumma
ry.pdf
30 Tracy Whitaker, Toby Weismiller, and Elizabeth Clark,
31 “Worker Turnover.” Administration for Children and
Families. Accessed June, 24, 2012. Available at:
https://www.childwelfare.gov/management/workforce/retention/

turnover.cfm
33 Nicholas Johnson, Phil Oliff and Erica Williams, “At Least
46 States Have Imposed Cuts That Hurt Vulnerable
Residents and the Economy, Center on Budget and Policy
Priorities, February 9, 2011.
http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1211
34 Brad Plummer. “Read: The White House explains how the
sequester cuts would work.” The Washington Post.
Washington, DC. February 8, 2013. Available at:
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/02/08
/read-the-white-house-explains-how-the-sequester-
cuts-would-work/
For more information on professional and technical workers,
check DPE’s website:
www.dpeaflcio.org.
The Department for Professional Employees, AFL-CIO (DPE)
comprises 20 AFL-CIO
unions representing over four million people working in
professional and technical
occupations. DPE-affiliated unions represent: teachers, college
professors, and school

administrators; library workers; nurses, doctors, and other
health care professionals;
engineers, scientists, and IT workers; journalists and writers,
broadcast technicians and
communications specialists; performing and visual artists;
professional athletes;
professional firefighters; psychologists, social workers, and
many others. DPE was
chartered by the AFL-CIO in 1977 in recognition of the rapidly
growing professional and
technical occupations.
Source: DPE Research Department
815 16th Street, N.W., 7th Floor
Washington, DC 20006
Contact: Jennifer Dorning July 2013
(202) 638-0320 extension 114
[email protected]
THE HUMAN SERVICES WORKER
A GENERIC JOB DESCRIPTION
A joint publication of NOHSE & CSHSE
The field of Human Services is a broadly defined one, uniquely
approaching the objective of
meeting human needs through an interdisciplinary knowledge

base, focusing on prevention as well as
remediation of problems and maintaining a commitment to
improving the overall quality of life of service
populations. The Human Services profession is one which
promotes improved service delivery systems by
addressing not only the quality of direct services, but by also
seeking to improve accessibility, accountability,
and coordination among professionals and agencies in service
delivery.
NATURE OF THE WORK
“Human services worker” is a generic
term for people who hold professional and
paraprofessional jobs in such diverse settings as
group homes and halfway houses; correctional,
and community mental health and development
disability centers; family, child, and youth service
agencies, and programs concerned with drug
abuse, alcoholism, family violence, and aging.
Depending on the employment setting and the
kinds of clients served there, job titles and duties

vary a great deal.
The primary purpose of the human
service worker is to assist individuals and
communities to function as effectively as possible
in the major domains of living.
A strong desire to help others is an
important consideration for a job as a human
services worker. Individuals who show patience,
understanding, and caring in their dealings with
others are highly valued by employers. Other
important personal traits include effective
interpersonal communication skills, a strong sense
of responsibility, and the ability to manage time
effectively.
EXAMPLES OF OCCUPATIONAL TITLES OF HUMAN
SERVICE WORKERS
Case Worker
Family Support Worker
Youth Worker

Residential Counselor
Eligibility Counselor
Alcohol Counselor
Adult Day Care Worker
Drug Abuse Counselor
Life Skills Instructor
Client Advocate
Probation Officer
Parole Officer
Child Advocate
Gerontology Worker
Juvenile Court Liaison
Group Home Worker
Crisis Intervention Counselor
Mental Health Worker
Community Organizer
Intake Interviewer
Community Outreach Worker

Community Action Worker
Halfway House Counselor
Case Manager
Rehabilitation Case Worker
Residential Manager
Group Facilitator
Activities Therapist
Care Coordinator
Assessment Worker
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HUMAN SERVICES
Making a Difference in People’s Lives
The following six statements describe the major generic
knowledge, skills and attitudes that appear
to be required in all human service work. The training and
preparation of the individual worker within this
framework will change as a function of the work setting, the
specific client population served, and the level
of organization work.
1. Understanding the nature of human
systems: individual, group, organization,
community and society, and their major
interactions. All workers will have
preparation which helps them to
understand human development, group
dynamics, organizational structure, how
communities are organized, how policy is
set, and how social systems interact in

producing human problems.
2. Understanding the conditions which promote
or limit optimal functioning and classes of
deviations from desired functioning in the
major human systems. Workers will have
understanding of the major models of
causation that are concerned with both
the promotion of healthy functioning and
with treatment-rehabilitation. This
includes medically oriented, socially
oriented, psychologically-behavioral
oriented, and educationally oriented
models.
3. Skill in identifying and selecting
inter ventions which promote gr owth and goal
attainment. The worker will be able to
conduct a competent assessment and
problem analysis and to help clients select

those strategies, services or interventions
that are appropriate to helping them attain
a desired outcome. Interventions may
include assistance, referral, advocacy, or
direct counseling.
4. Skill in planning , implementing and
evaluating inter ventions. The worker will
be able to design a plan of action for an
identified problem and implement the
plan in a systematic way. This requires an
understanding of problems analysis,
decision-analysis, and design of work
plans. This generic skill can be used with
all social systems and adapted for use with
individual clients or organizations. Skill in
evaluating the interventions is essential.
5. Consistent behavior in selecting
inter ventions which are congruent with the

values of one’s self, clients, the employing
or ganization and the Human Ser vice
profession. This cluster requires awareness
of one’s own value orientation, an
understanding of organizational values as
expressed in the mandate or goal
statement of the organization, human
service ethics and an appreciation of the
client’s values, life-style and goals.
6. Process skills which are required to plan
and implement ser vices. This cluster is
based on the assumption that the worker
uses themselves as the main tool for
responding to service needs. The worker
must be skillful in verbal and oral
communication, interpersonal
relationships and other related personal
skills, such as self-discipline and time

management. It requires that the worker
be interested in and motivated to conduct
the role that they have agreed to fulfill and
to apply themselves to all aspects of the
work that the role requires.
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GENERIC HUMAN SERVICE WORKER COMPETENCIES
WHERE HUMAN SERVICE WORKERS WORK
Working conditions vary. Human services
workers in social service community-based
agencies generally spend time in the office and in

the field. Most work a 40-hour week. Some
evening and weekend work may be necessary,
depending on the work setting and target
population.
Human services workers in residential settings
generally work in shifts. Because program
residents need supervision in the evening and at
night, 7 days a week, evening and weekend hours
are required.
Despite differences in what they are called
and what they do, human services workers
generally perform under the direction of, or in
collaboration with, other professional staff. Those
employed in mental health settings, for example,
may be assigned to work with a treatment team
made up of social workers, psychologists, and
other human services professionals. The amount
of responsibility these workers assume and the

degree of supervision they receive varies a great
deal. Some workers are on their own most of the
time and have little direct supervision; others
work under close direction.
Human services workers in community,
residential care, or institutional settings provide
direct services such as leading a group, organizing
an activity, or offering individual counseling. They
may handle some administrative support tasks,
too. Specific job duties reflect organizational
policy and staffing patterns, as well as the worker’s
educational preparation and experience. The
higher the degree the more likely a worker is to be
a manager or supervisor.
Because so many human services jobs involve
direct contact with people who are impaired and
therefore vulnerable to exploitation, employers try
to be selective in hiring. Applicants are screened

for appropriate personal qualifications. Relevant
academic preparation is generally required, and
volunteer or work experience is preferred.
JOB OUTLOOK
Employment of human services workers
is expected to grow much faster than the average
for all occupations through the year 2010.
Opportunities for qualified applicants are
expected to be excellent, not only because of
projected rapid growth in the occupation, but
because of substantial replacement and turnover
needs.
Employment prospects should be
favorable in facilities and programs that serve the
elderly, mentally impaired, or developmentally
disabled. Adult day care, a relatively new concept,
is expected to expand significantly due to very
rapid growth in the number of people of

advanced age, together with growing awareness
of the value of day programs for adults in need
of care and supervision.
While projected growth in the elderly
population is the dominant factor in the
anticipated expansion of adult day care, public
response to the needs of people who are
handicapped or mentally ill underlies anticipated
employment growth in group homes and
residential care facilities. As more and more
developmentally disabled individuals reach the age
of 21 and thereby lose their eligibility for
programs and services offered by the public
schools, the need for community-based
alternatives can be expected to grow. Pressures to
respond to the needs of the chronically mentally
ill can also be expected to persist. For many years,
as deinstitutionalization has proceeded, chronic

mental patients have been left to their own
devices. If the movement to help the homeless
and chronically mentally ill gains momentum,
more community-based programs and group
residences will be established, and demand for
human services workers will increase accordingly.
Community based non-profit agencies will remain
a major employer of human services workers, and
replacement needs alone will generate many job
openings in the public and private sector.
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The Human Services Professional
The human services professional is an individual who is driven
to succeed in helping
people and organizations perform at an optimal level. The
human services professional
must have an array of knowledge and a skillset that helps them
understand people, both as
individuals and within groups. This requires knowledge of a
variety of factors in human
behavior. The human services worker must be familiar with
human development, how
culture and society impact behavior and the influence of
economic structures on human
behavior. The human services worker can fill a variety of roles
all of which are designed to
create optimal patterns for the people and organizations that the
human services worker
serves.
The Human services professional must be able to show
competency in the following areas:
Knowledge of human systems and organizations, knowledge of
the conditions that are

conducive to the highest functioning in human systems, Being
able to identify what types
of interventions will help to bring about the highest functioning
in a given human system,
the ability to have a strategy to implement and analyze the
effectiveness of interventions,
consistency in the application of appropriate interventions,
having excellent process skills
to both plan and implement services.
By harnessing these competencies along with personal abilities
in the form of
communication and planning skills, the human services
professional helps their clients to
reach their goals and be happier, healthier individuals and more
effective organizations.
The human services professional can perform this task in a
variety of setting from direct
service, to planning and implementation of public policy or in a
clinical setting.
How Human Service Professionals are a Service to Society
Human service professionals assist individuals, families and
members of groups and
communities in renew their capacity to function as individuals
and in society. The human

services professional also helps individuals and organizations to
reach peak efficiency by
implementing interventions and services that help to ensure
peak performance. Human
service begins with an understanding of how interactions
between individuals and groups
or organizations impact the individual and help or harm their
functioning and abilities to
attain goals. Working with individuals or groups, human service
professional’s work with
individuals to understand and optimize their capabilities, ability
to cope and problem
solving skills to maximize their effectiveness. By helping the
individual or organization
implement structural changes through interventions and services
the human services
professional creates an environment where optimal results are
most likely to occur.
Human Services Impact on Society
The impact a human services professional has on society is very
significant. The impacts of
the human services professional are felt throughout society

from, to elder care, education,
public policy planning health care and criminal justice. The
human services professional
performs a variety of critical services that makes the individuals
and organizations they
impact operate at a more efficient, healthier and safer level. The
entire community benefits
from the tremendous impact of the human services professional.
Occupational Outlook Handbook > Community
and Social Service >
Social and Human Service Assistants
Job OutlookAbout this section
Social and Human Service Assistants
Percent change in employment, projected 2018-28
Social and human service assistants
13%
Counselors, social workers, and other community and social
service specialists
12%

Total, all occupations
5%
Note: All Occupations includes all occupations in the U.S.
Economy.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment
Projections program
Employment of social and human service assistants is projected
to grow 13 percent from 2018 to
2028, much faster than the average for all occupations. A
growing elderly population and rising
demand for social services are expected to drive demand for
these workers.
An increase in the number of older adults is expected to result
in growing demand for social services
such as delivery of meals and adult daycare. Because social and
human service assistants often
arrange for these services, there will need to be more of them to
meet this increased demand.
In addition, growth is expected as more people seek treatment
for their addictions and more drug
offenders are sent to treatment programs rather than to jail. As a
result, demand should increase for

social and human service assistants who work in treatment
programs or work with people with
addictions.
Job Prospects
Job prospects are expected to be good, but should be best for
those with a related social or human
service postsecondary degree.
Employment projections data for social and human service
assistants, 2018-28
Occupational Title
SOC
Code
Employment,
2018
Projected
Employment,
2028
Change, 2018-28
Employment by

Industry Percent Numeric
https://www.bls.gov/ooh/home.htm
https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-
service/home.htm
https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-
service/home.htm
https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/social-
and-human-service-
assistants.htm#TB_inline?height=325&width=325&inlineId=abo
ut-job-outlook
Employment projections data for social and human service
assistants, 2018-28
Occupational Title
SOC
Code
Employment,
2018
Projected
Employment,
2028
Change, 2018-28
Employment by

Industry Percent Numeric
SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment
Projections program
Social and human
service assistants
21-
1093
413,700 466,000 13 52,200 Get data
https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=21
-1093&ioType=o
WAL_HUMN4920_05_A_EN-CC.mp4
Happy Doing Good? How Workers'
Career Orientations and Job
Satisfaction Relate in Grassroots
Human Services
Anna Haley-Lock
A B S T R A C T . Job satisfaction has long been a focus of
human
services managers and researchers. Yet recent trends in what
workers
want from their jobs and careers may challenge the current

understand-
ing of this important phenomenon. There is limited
understanding, in
particular, of human services workers' potentially diverse
orientations
toward their work and how those preferences relate to job
satisfaction.
These factors are considered using unique data from a
population of
domestic violence agencies. Results show that newer human
services
employees report valuing opportunities for entrepreneurialism
at
work more than their veteran coworkers, while senior staff state
stron-
ger preferences for jobs that facilitate work-life balance. Across
all
employees, a preference for work seen as advancing a social
cause is
positively linked to job satisfaction, while a desire for job
autonomy is
negatively related to satisfaction. Finally, the work-life balance
prefer-
ences only of newer staff are positively related to their
satisfaction.
Anna Haley-Lock, PhD, is Assistant Professor at School of
Social Work,
University of Washington.
The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for
their valuable
comments on the manuscript. This research was supported by
funds from the
Aspen Institute Nonprofit Sector Research Fund (grant #2001-
NSRF-12).

Address correspondence to: Anna Haley-Lock, PhD, Assistant
Professor,
School of Social Work, 4101 15th Ave. NE, Seattle, WA,
98105-6299 (E-mail:
annahl @ u.washington.edu).
Journal of Community Practice, Vol. 16(2) 2008
Available online at http://com.haworthpress.com
© 2008 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1080/10705420801997963 143
144 JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PRACTICE
The article concludes with a discussion of strategies for
managing
employees' multidimensional preferences for work.
KEYWORDS. Human services employment, career orientation,
job
satisfaction
INTRODUCTION
Job satisfaction has long been a focus of researchers and
managers in the
human services and beyond. This is due to evidence linking job
satisfaction to a
range of workforce phenomena, including lower employee
absenteeism, bum-
out and tumover, as well as enhanced organizational
commitment and perfor-
mance. Many studies have linked employee job satisfaction, for

example, to
lower absenteeism, bumout, and tumover and to workers'
enhanced organiza-
tional commitment and performance (Freund, 2(X)5; Yoon &
Thye, 2(X)2). In
considering the consequences and predictors of job satisfaction
in community-
based human services agencies, scholarship has also spanned a
range of occu-
pations and fields, including staff in child welfare (Jayaratne &
Chess, 1984),
mental health services (Spector & Michaels, 1986), and other
human services
areas (Blankertz & Robinson, 1996; Manlove & Guzell, 1997).
While this prior work has generated important insights about
how
organizational, job, and worker characteristics correlate with
workers' job
satisfaction, it has given limited attention to the potential role
of individuals'
personal preferences for or orientations to the work they do.
Studies that
have investigated the relationships between job satisfaction and
employee
job commitment, organizational commitment, and career
orientation have
often framed individuals' affinities toward their employment
unidimension-
ally. Yet several scholars have asserted that human services
workforces are
changing in ways that suggest shifting and increasingly complex
orientations
to work (Gibelman, 1999; Light, 2003; Specht & Courtney,
1994). These
observations highlight the importance of identifying a broad

array of values
that current human services employees hold about their work
and clarifying
potential divergences between newer and more senior staff.
Finding varia-
tion among individuals in their orientations to work would
suggest a rela-
tionship between worker preferences and job satisfaction that is
considerably
more complex than captured by research to date.
To address these gaps, this article is organized around two main
ques-
tions: How do newer human services workers differ, if at all,
from their
Anna Haley-Lock 145
more experienced colleagues in their orientations to work? And
how do
these orientations—conceptualized here using Schein's
(1993,1996) notion
of career anchors—serve to facilitate or hinder their job
satisfaction? These
questions are answered using employee data drawn from a
population of
nonprofit domestic violence programs located in a midwestem
metropolitan
area. The article reviews literature on job satisfaction and
career orienta-
tions and pays specific attention to how these concepts may
uniquely relate
to grassroots human services environments. It presents the
current study's

methodological approach for investigating career orientation
and job satis-
faction, along with results from two sets of analyses. The article
concludes
by discussing the implications of the findings for human
services managers.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Job Satisfaction
Three central accounts for workers' satisfaction with their jobs
have
emerged in the literature: characteristics of organizations, jobs,
and individ-
uals (Glisson & Durick, 1988; Judge & Church, 2000). In
human services
agencies, significant explanatory roles have been found for
many features
of workplaces and jobs, including pay (Malherbe & Hendriks,
2004), super-
vision quality and collégial support (Marriott, Sexton, & Staley,
1994),
caseload size (Cole, Panchanadeswaran, & Daining, 2004), task
attributes
(Abu-Bader, 2000; Glisson & Durick, 1988), and whether or not
a supervi-
sory or administrative position is held (Poulin, 1995).
Of these three accounts of job satisfaction, research on the
function of indi-
vidual attributes represents what has been termed a
dispositional perspective
(George & Jones, 1997; Staw, Bell, & Clausen, 1986). As
theorized by this
approach, a combination of individual needs, values, and

disposition— t̂ hat is,
personality traits—serve as key shapers of workers' experiences
with
employment in ways that are both relatively stable across time
and indepen-
dent of environmental infiuences. With respect to work values
specifically,
George and Jones (1997, p. 397) assert that they are "central
aspects of the
experience of work because they determine the meaning that
work, jobs, and
organizational experiences have for people. People try to make
sense of their
work experiences by judging how these experiences stack up
against their
work values." To the extent that encounters with work accord
with individu-
als' values related to work, employees are expected to feel more
satisfied, as
well as enjoy other positive attitudes about employment.
The Multidimensional Conceptualization of Work Values
Past scholarship on the employment-related values or
orientations of
human services staff has enhanced our understanding of the
relationships
between these characteristics and such workforce outcomes as
satisfac-
tion, bumout, intent to stay, and tumover (see Mor Barak,
Nissly, &
Levin, 2001 for a review). Most of this research conceptualizes

and mea-
sures work values unidimensionally, however, rather than
exploring mul-
tiple potentially distinct attitudes that human services
employees may
bring to their jobs. A survey of the existing literature reveals
such
approximate concepts as professional values (Vandenberghe,
1999),
professional commitment (Lee & Ashforth, 1993), career
orientation
(Ewalt, 1991), personal values (Blankertz & Robinson, 1996),
and value
conflict (Jayaratne & Chess, 1984). Blankertz and Robinson's
(1996)
attention to personal values incorporates multiple facets but
focuses on
workers' opinions about a specific service modality
(psychosocial
rehabilitation). Ewalt's (1991, p. 216) career orientation
variable is more
generalizable across employment settings but is framed
narrowly as a
"commitment to development of a career path rather than to any
specific
job or organization." Should individuals possess many and
divergent ori-
entations to work, the relationship between those attitudes and
their satis-
faction is likely to be complex and, to date, insufficiently
understood or
managed.
The literature on career anchors offers one way of
conceptualizing
multiple facets of individuals' affinities toward work (DeLong,

1982;
Schein, 1996; Bonner, 1998). Defined as the set of diverse
preferences
individuals have for the nature of the work they do, career
anchors are
asserted to exist prior to entry into full-time employment and
then evolve
with time and experience. This feature of career anchors—a
theorized tra-
jectory of change—distinguishes the career anchor approach
from much
dispositional research that treats work values as highly
temporally stable
within individuals. Scholars have identified an array of anchors
reflecting
workers' different preferences and have found variation in the
types and
intensity of anchors held by individuals working not only within
the same
organization but also within the same occupation (DeLong,
1982; Schein,
1996; Bonner, 1998).
Career Anchors and Employment Trends
Evidence on trends regarding what workers want from
employment
and what employment provides suggests that considering the
role of
Anna Haley-Lock 147
individuals' work values may be important for optimizing their
attitudes

about their jobs and organizations. Arthur and Rousseau (1994)
suggest
that careers are increasingly being constructed through a series
of stops
across multiple organizations and fields rather than in long-term
associa-
tions with a single employer. The authors distinguish these two
paths as
the new boundaryless career and historic organizational career.
Pursuing
boundaryless employment trajectories creates the need for
workers to stay
current in their field's knowledge and skills, as it implies
frequent job and
organization changes as well as a more competitive marketplace
for labor
(Bonner, 1998).
At the same time, several scholars have observed that American
work-
ers are increasingly seeking to fulfill "expressive values" at
work through
tasks—and whole jobs—that allow them to exercise a wider
range of their
talents and interests (Yankelovich, 1994, p. 20; Tilly, 1996a).
Scholarship
in work-life conflict and balance, finally, continues to reveal
many workers'
need to balance paid work with caregiving and community
obligations
(Edwards & Rothbard, 2005; Voydanoff, 2004).
Research on human services employment specifically has sought
to
illuminate some of the effects of chronic resource limitations
and mis-

sion orientation on the nature and experience of work in these
settings
(Light, 2003; Loseke, 1992). In spite of comparatively modest
pay and
demanding working conditions, human services organizations
are often
able to attract good employee candidates due to the
"compensating dif-
ferentials" that work in these settings can provide (England,
Budig, &
Folbre, 2002, p. 458); that is, opportunities to have a social
impact
through one's job and to enjoy relatively flexible and informal
work-
place conditions meet the goals and needs of many members of
the con-
temporary workforce.
As several scholars have recently noted, however, the human
services
workforce is not uniformly motivated by the desire to fulfill a
"calling"
through employment (Gibelman, 1999; Jacobson, 2(X)1; Specht
& Courtney,
1994). There are signs that, even in grassroots agencies, newer
staff may
be increasingly professional in orientation. Both Gibelman
(1999) and
Specht and Courtney (1994) have observed a movement in the
field
toward private practice, a relatively entrepreneurial shift. At the
same
time, traditional human services agencies are increasingly
hiring non-
human-services trained leadership, while the for-profit sector's
presence

in human services provision continues to grow. Both trends are
leading to
a growing exposure of staff in grassroots agencies to more
bureaucratized
and businesslike modes of operation (Gibelman, 1999).
To examine the potential multiple dimensions of career
orientation
held by human services staff and their relationships to job
satisfaction,
five of Schein's (1996) anchors were considered in this study.
These
five—dedication to a cause, lifestyle, autonomy, managerial
competence,
and entrepreneurial creativity—were selected for their close
theoretical
correspondence to recent trends in employment generally and
within the
human services in particular. Schein's (1996) "dedication to a
cause" is
perhaps the most clearly relevant of the anchor concepts for
human
services workers. Schein suggests that individuals strongly
motivated by
this anchor seek and are fulfilled by employment that allows
them to have
an impact on larger social issues. He notes, however, the
importance of
distinguishing between potential orientations to service, on the
one hand,
and occupations that are associated with service delivery,
sometimes

termed callings, on the other: "Not everyone in a service-
oriented occupa-
tion is motivated by the desire to serve. Some doctors, lawyers,
ministers,
and social workers may be anchored in . . . autonomy . . . ; some
may want
to become general managers" (Schein, 1996, p. 45).
Reflecting a growing body of research in the work-life balance
field,
individuals who strongly value lifestyle prefer employment that
facili-
tates their ability to balance employment and nonwork
responsibilities.
Individuals anchored substantially in "autonomy" seek freedom
to
complete tasks when and how they choose (Schein, 1993).
Autonomy
concepts are an established focus of organizational scholarship
on task
characteristics and job enrichment (embodied in the work of
Hackman
& Oldham, 1975, 1976). What distinguishes Schein's autonomy
concept
is its focus on preferences that the individual worker brings to
the
employment situation rather than on any particular qualities of
the work
itself.
Schein's (1996) managerial competence and entrepreneurial
creativity
anchors are less intuitive as facilitators of job satisfaction in
grassroots
human services settings, many of which continue to be
relatively small,

flat in structure, and resource-limited (Hyde, 1992; Loseke,
1992; Smith
& Lipsky, 1993). Individuals who are significantly anchored in
manage-
rial competence strongly value hierarchical advancement
opportunities
and are particularly motivated by positions from which they can
lead
others (Bonner, 1998). Schein (1996) portrays management-
focused indi-
viduals as preferring to pursue increasingly high-level positions
with
escalating impact on organizational success. Finally, those
motivated by
entrepreneurial creativity seek to create new programs or
significantly
reshape existing ones according to their own vision. The
process of forming
Anna Haley-Lock 149
new ideas and putting them initially into practice rather than
maintaining
them over time is a strong drive for such workers.
RESEARCH METHODS
Hypotheses
Informed by the literature reviewed here, two sets of hypotheses
were
developed for this study. The first anticipates differences
between more
newly arrived and senior employees in their ratings of the five

career
anchors. The second set makes predictions about the
relationships
between the five career anchors and job satisfaction.
Scholarship on the shifting work orientations of incoming
human
services workers suggests potential divergence in the career
orientations
of newer and more veteran staff. New arrivals to these agencies
were
accordingly predicted to value entrepreneurial creativity and
managerial
competence incrementally more than their established
colleagues (Gibelman,
1999). Similarly, work that human service facilitates work-life
balance
and provides other kinds of flexibility through task autonomy
were
expected to be more strongly valued by newer workers given
research on
workforce trends toward work-life balance. Finally, "dedication
to a
cause" was anticipated to be equally embraced by the two
groups because
the mission orientation of domestic violence and other
grassroots human
services programs continues to be a primary attraction to
employment in
such settings (Light, 2003).
The diverse career orientations of human services staff were, in
tum,
theorized to have either facilitative or limiting relationships to
their job
satisfaction in these settings. Given research on the

compensating differ-
entials presented by human services work—that is, such
nonmonetary
benefits as being able to contribute to a social cause and having
access to
scheduling flexibility and task autonomy—workers' valuing of
the career
anchors of dedication to a cause, lifestyle, and autonomy were
expected to
be positively related to their job satisfaction. In contrast, given
the docu-
mented collective organizational cultures and limited
hierarchies common
to many domestic violence programs, individuals' affinities
toward the
anchors of managerial competence and entrepreneurialism were
predicted
to be negatively related to satisfaction. These agency attributes
were
anticipated to constrain workers' access to opportunities for
both manage-
ment experience and independent entrepreneurial innovation.
Research Participants and Instruments
The study targeted the entire population of 25 nonprofit human
services organizations in the Chicago area that were focused on
delivering
domestic violence intervention programming. The lack of
variation in the
organizational type (small, grassroots agency in a single field of
practice)

and geographic location (one metropolitan area) provides
helpful controls
for a range of unmeasured factors extemal to the organizations,
such
as differences in local labor markets and agency norms that
pose chal-
lenges to many organizational studies. But as a result of these
intentional
controls, any observed contrasts between newer and more senior
employ-
ees, as well as the relationships found between employee career
anchors
and job satisfaction, may not fully apply to other workers and
settings.
At each agency, data were obtained on individual demographic
and job
characteristics, career orientations, and social networks using a
self-
administered survey distributed to all employees and on
organizational
demographics, human resource practices, and employee
performance
from a structured interview with a head administrator. Twenty-
two of the
25 organizations permitted data collection from employees. One
site,
which was used to pilot the instruments, is excluded from the
analyses
presented here.
Data collection was completed between December 2000 and
June 2001.
Surveys were distributed to 701 employees across 21 agencies
who were
assured that their study participation would be confidential. Up

to three
reminder letters were mailed to nonrespondents at two-week
intervals. The
final employee response rate was 68%. Data from eight
participating
executive directors were excluded from the analyses presented
here given
the structurally unique nature of their positions that was
expected to distin-
guish both their career orientations and job satisfaction.
Measures
The dependent variable in the present study is employee job
satisfac-
tion. The explanatory variables include five career anchors
capturing
some of the individuals' preferences for the work they do—
dedication
to a cause, lifestyle, autonomy, managerial competence, and
entrepre-
neurial creativity. The relationships between the independent
and
dependent variables were examined with Ordinary Least Squares
(OLS)
regression analyses. In addition, 10 control variables were
added given
their anticipated relationships to both workers' career anchors
and job
satisfaction.
Anna Haley-Lock 151
Research on predictors of job satisfaction has employed

different
conceptualizations of this variable. Some studies have treated
the phe-
nomenon of satisfaction as broad and unidimensional, while
others have
focused more narrowly on satisfaction with intrinsic,
organizational,
and extrinsic aspects of employment (Koeske, Kirk, Koeske, &
Rauktis,
1994). The present analyses use a framing of satisfaction that
corre-
sponds with the first concept and with Koeske et al.'s (1994)
notion of
organizational satisfaction. It is comprised of three items, each
measured
with a 5-point Likert scale, that asked respondents to rate their
satisfac-
tion with their job, their organization, and their colleagues (see
Appendix
A for item wordings). The items together yield a Cronbach's
alpha of
0.77. The variable has been calculated by saving the scores
from a
Principal Components Analysis, which rendered it appropriate
for linear
regression.
The study examined the relationship between job satisfaction
and
five career anchors. Respondents were asked questions drawn
from
Schein (1996) and Bonner (1998) that had them rate on a 7-
point scale
the importance to them of job qualities aligning with dedication
to a
cause, lifestyle, autonomy, managerial competence, and

entrepreneurial
creativity (three to four questions were asked per anchor). As
with job
satisfaction, these variables were calculated by saving the factor
scores
from a Principal Components Analysis to make them suitable
for linear
regression. An oblimin nonorthogonal factor rotation procedure
with
Kaiser normalization was used given the likelihood that the
anchors
would be correlated (Costello & Osborne, 2005; West, 1991).
Cron-
bach's alphas range from 0.59 to 0.85, with items loading highly
upon
their respective factors. Item wordings and results of reliability
tests are
provided in Appendix A.
Ten variables are included in the regression analyses to control
for the
likely effects of respondents' demographic traits on the
relationships
between their career anchor ratings and job satisfaction. Age is
controlled
for given Schein's (1993) assertion that individuals' anchors
evolve with
age, and evidence that age and job satisfaction are associated
(Lambert,
Cluse-Tolar, Pasupuleti, Hall, & Jenkins, 2005). Workers'
college educa-
tion is controlled for the same reasons (Abu-Bader, 2000). Sex
(coded 1 if
male) and race (coded 1 if non-White) are controlled for given
evidence
that women and persons of color may be more satisfied than

their male or
white counterparts with identical employment conditions
(Hodson, 1989;
Miller, 1980). A binary variable for those living with children
(coded 1 if
yes) is included for the same reason. Full-time work experience
is
included to account for potential influences of career length on
work pref-
erences and satisfaction, paralleling prior findings for age
(Lambert et al.,
2005; Schein, 1993). To avoid problems of multicoUinearity
from age and
full-time work experience, a substitute variable was created for
experi-
ence that represents the proportion of years a respondent has
worked full-
time since tuming 18 years of age (Bridges & Villemez, 1991).
Critics of research that focuses on individual-level explanations
for
job attitudes like satisfaction note that such "dispositional"
work fails to
account for situationai factors that may overwhelm or even
drive the
effects of individual attributes (Davis-Blake & Pfeffer, 1989).
Accord-
ingly, this study addresses some situationai conditions by
incorporating
into analyses several variables related to respondents' jobs. A
dichoto-

mous variable for administrative position status (coded as 1 if a
respon-
dent held the title of executive director, director, or assistant or
associate
director) is included based on previous research indicating that
workers
holding supervisory or other administrative positions were
generally
more satisfied (Poulin, 1995). Holding a full-time position was
controlled for given evidence that part-time and full-time job
quality
varies in ways that may shape worker satisfaction (Author,
under review;
Tilly, 1996a & b). Hourly wage is included based on its
established rela-
tionship to workers' job satisfaction (Glisson & Durick, 1988;
Malherbe
& Hendriks, 2004).
RESULTS
Table 1 summarizes the basic characteristics of the participating
orga-
nizations. Staff sizes ranged from 5 to 98 with a mean of 51
employees.
Total expenses for 2001 reported in agencies' 1RS Form 990
were
between $197,311 and $3,080,446 with a median of $1.3
million. The
presence of some midlevel coordinator positions as well as
multiple
agency sites in this grassroots population suggests opportunities
for
worker mobility, though only about one-third of respondents
reported
holding one or more previous jobs within the same organization

(Table 1). Forty-four percent of employees had been in their
current jobs
for less than 1 year; just under one-third were relatively new
(less than
1 year) to both their jobs and agencies.
Table 2 offers a correlation matrix for all explanatory variables.
Because of the fairly large and significant bivariate correlations
found
between the administration position and hourly wage variables,
as well as
Anna Haley-Lock 153
TABLE 1. Summary of agency and workforce descriptive data
Variables
Founding year
Annual expenses
Program sites
Paid staff size
Jobs at coordinator level
Staff with college degree
Staff with graduate degree
Staff with job tenure of more
than 1 year
Staff who have heid multipie
jobs in current agency
Staff with first jobs at agency,
heid less than 1 year

M
1982
$1,366,716
2.81
38.86
10.0%
71.13%
25.90%
66%
35%
30%
SD
5.60
$741,359
1.72
23.60
9.0%
Range
1973 to 1995
$197,311 to 3,080,446
1 to 6
5 to 98

0.0 to 40.0%
Note. Organizational n = 21; employee respondent n = 477. M =
mean; SD = standard
deviation.
between the career anchors of managerial competence and
entrepreneurial
creativity, multicoUinearity diagnostic data were examined for
all the
models. A review of results obtained for the two regression
models found
that the Variance Inflation Factor and Tolerance scores, two
standard
indicators of multicoUinearity were all within widely accepted
bounds
(the highest VIF level across the two models was 1.65 and the
lowest
tolerance was 0.606).
Table 3 reports the descriptive statistics for all the variables in
the
study as well as the results of comparisons of means between
two tenure
groups: those holding their first jobs at their agencies for less
than a year
and those employed at their agencies for 1 year or more (in
either their
first or subsequent positions). The newer staff are significantly
younger
(an average of 34 versus 41 years old for more senior staff) and
are less
likely to be in long-term relationships, to be living with
children, and to
hold administrative positions (Table 3). The wages of newly

arrived
workers are also statistically significantly lower than more
veteran col-
leagues, though practically speaking this difference was modest,
at an
average of $13.40 versus $14.89. Given Schein's (1993)
discussion ofthe
evolving nature of career anchors over experience and
education, it is
notable that the two groups did not diverge in their extent of
prior
full-time employment or college degree completion.
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As predicted, newly arrived workers value entrepreneurial
creativity
significantly more than their more senior counterparts (a mean
of 4.95
versus 4.68 on a 7-point scale), and both groups report
comparable
dedication to a cause. Contrary to expectation, however, newer
staff

report lower prioritization of lifestyle aspects of their work than
employ-
ees who have been at their agencies longer (5.11 versus 6.20;
Table 3).
Also unexpectedly, the two groups of workers exhibit no
significant
difference in their valuing of managerial competence or
autonomy. The
level of job satisfaction reported by newer and more veteran
employees,
finally, is not statistically significantly different.
Table 4 summarizes the results for two regression models
analyzing
the relationships between five employee career anchors and job
satisfac-
tion. Model 1 includes workers whose tenure at their current job
or
TABLE 4. Summary of OLS regression results for job
satisfaction
Variables
Controls
Age
Non-White
Male
College degree
Full-time work experience
In a relationship
Living with children
Administrative position
Fuii-time position
Houriy wage

Career anchors
Dedication to a cause
Lifestyie
Autonomy
Entrepreneurial creativity
Managerial competence
F
p-value
adjusted F^
Model 1 :
Respondents employed
1 + Years (n = 327)
B=
0.013
-0.054
0.293
0.095
-0.005
0.128
0.091
-0.175
-0.016
0.013
0.324
0.031
-0.128

-0.067
.040
S.E.
(0.004)
(0.121)
(0.255)
(0.125)
(0.202)
(0.114)
(0.112)
(0.177)
(0.020)
(0.013)
(0.053)
(0.056)
(0.056)
(0.059)
(0.059)
4.755
0.000
0.162
Model 2:
Respondents employed
< 1
B^
0.004
0.036

-0.178
0.049
-0.219
0.425
-0.133
0.260
-0.330
0.015
0.333
0.214
-0.275
-0.107
0.057
Year ( n = 139)
S.E.
(0.011)
(0.227)
(0.486)
(0.270)
(0.403)
(0.214)
(0.229)
(0.401)
(0.220)
(0.019)

(0.113)
(0.123)
(0.120)
(0.122)
(0.124)
1.902
0.031
0.104
Notes: ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.10; ^Coefficients are
unstandardized.
Anna Haley-Lock 157
agency was 1 year or more, while Model 2 was completed with
workers
in their jobs and agencies for less than 1 year. As expected,
workers
who are more "dedicated to a cause" exhibit higher levels of job
satis-
faction (Table 4). The lifestyle hypothesis received only partial
support,
however: only among newcomers is this anchor significantly
and posi-
tively associated with satisfaction. This second finding is
striking given
the newer group's significantly lower mean on lifestyle
orientation as
well as their lower rates for being in long-term relationships
and living
with children (Table 3). Also unexpected was the significant
negative
relationship found between the autonomy anchor and

satisfaction in
both of the models. Finally, neither management competence
nor entre-
preneurial creativity is statistically related to job satisfaction
for either
worker group.
The cross-sectional nature of these data limit the interpretations
about
causal order that can be made of these analyses; that is, it is
impossible
to confirm whether the findings from Model 2 reveal that a new
type of
workforce is coming to grassroots agencies or instead that the
new
arrivals are simply in the first phase of a longer-term human
services
career.
Coefficients for control variables are largely nonsignificant
across the
two models, rendering factors such as college education,
administrator
status, and wage level—all previously found to be related to job
satisfac-
tion—apparently peripheral to workers' happiness in these
settings. For
the more veteran group, age is positively associated with their
satisfac-
tion. For newer arrivals, being in a relationship is positively
linked to
satisfaction, a notable effect given these employees'
significantly lower
rate of being in long-term relationships.
Both regression models exhibit limited power to account for

workers'
job satisfaction, with adjusted r-squared values of 0.162 and
0.104 in
Models 1 and 2, respectively (Table 4). Thus, while the analyses
shed
new light on how distinct dimensions of career orientation
relate to job
satisfaction, there remain contributors to this phenomenon that
are not
captured here.
DISCUSSION
The study reported here is intended to inform both theory and
practice
related to grassroots agency workforces in several respects. It
offers new
empirical evidence for differences in the career orientations of
recently
arrived versus more veteran employees, as have been asserted
by other
scholars (e.g., Gibelman, 1999; Light, 2003; Specht &
Courtney, 1994).
It also provides a detailed statistical examination of how five
facets of
workers' career orientation relate, in varying ways, to their job
satisfaction.
With respect to differences between "old" and "new" employees,
newer employees' significantly greater valuing of
entrepreneurial creativity

accords with recent claims that the human services workforce is
becoming
more professionally oriented or business-oriented (Gibelman,
1999;
Specht & Courtney, 1994). The significantly lower value that
newer
workers place on lifestyle balance is striking in light of
evidence for
workers' growing desire for jobs that facilitate work-life
balance (e.g.,
Barnett, Gareis, & Carr, 2005; Barnett & Hall, 2001; Tilly,
1996a). This
finding is consistent, however, with the higher rates reported by
more
veteran workers' of living with children and being in a
relationship. More
established employees appear to need and, in tum, want
employment that
accommodates work-life balance. The comparability between
the two
groups in their affinity toward autonomy, dedication to a cause,
and man-
agement—as well as their similar levels of job satisfaction—
suggests
appreciable similarities among this workforce in employment
values and
experiences.
The analyses of relationships between the five career anchor
types and
job satisfaction yielded both expected and surprising findings.
As pre-
dicted, dedication to a cause is significantly and positively
correlated with
job satisfaction among both newly arrived and more senior
employees.

The lifestyle anchor is significantly positively related to
satisfaction
among newcomers, as anticipated. Lifestyle orientation is
unexpectedly
nonsignificant for veteran employees, however. This result is
more note-
worthy given the significantly greater value that veteran staff
place on
having employment that facilitates work-life balance and their
signifi-
cantly higher rates of living with children and being in
committed
relationships (reflecting both desires and needs for work-life
complemen-
tarity; see Table 3). The regression analyses reveal, then, that
though
newly arrived staff may on average desire and need "lifestyle"
accommo-
dation less than their senior peers, work-life balance
considerations are
nonetheless important for their job satisfaction. For managers,
these
results suggest that staff job satisfaction may best be enhanced
by attending
to both employees' needs and wants rather than focusing on only
one of
these areas.
The negative coefficient for autonomy among both groups was
also
unanticipated. The more strongly workers value job task-related
autonomy.
Anna Haley-Lock 159

the less satisfied they report being in these settings. This
finding may
indicate that the domestic violence programs studied in fact
provide rela-
tively limited freedom around how and when work is done.
Alternately,
what autonomy is available might be incompatible with the
preferences of
workers valuing autonomy as this study measured it. It remains
unclear
whether these results are the product of workplaces that impose
many
restrictions on the completion of job tasks or instead some other
mismatch
between what workers seek and what they find with respect to
autonomy.
Additional research is needed to clarify this issue.
The unexpected lack of significant relationships between the
managerial
and entrepreneurial anchors and job satisfaction among either
worker
group is also noteworthy, particularly since newer workers
value entre-
preneurial aspects of work. Whether managerial and
entrepreneurial
inclinations are ultimately fulfilled in these grassroots
employment settings
or go unmet is unclear from these results. Neither career anchor
appears
to be relevant to job satisfaction, however.
CONCLUSION
Findings from this study bear several implications for

grassroots
management practice. Whether they imply a cohort or career
phase effect,
these results suggest that administrators who manage
exclusively to work-
ers' mission dedication and who take limited or no account of
their other
job-related values are likely not optimizing their workers' job
satisfac-
tion. Administrators would do well to appeal to workers' desires
for life-
style balance by cultivating aspects of job and workplace design
that
facilitate lifestyle-based satisfaction. Based on the present
results, such an
approach should pay off especially well among newer hires,
while being
nonetheless relevant to the larger proportion of senior
employees who
have work-life balance demands. Grassroots leaders would also
be wise
to address the issue of autonomy: first, by clarifying the nature
of the
autonomy some of their workers seek, and second, by
identifying ways of
fulfilling this preference while maintaining compliance with
their organi-
zations' internal and extemal operating requirements. Additional
research
is needed to understand whether and how workers' career
orientations
change over time. To the extent that workers hold a range of
anchors and
that those anchors evolve, managers wishing to increase
workforce satis-
faction may require more effective tools to track and address

employees'
fluctuating preferences.
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