The age discrimination in employment act of 1967 was an expansion
1. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 was an
expansion of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. The provisions
apply to federal, state, and local governments and organizations
with twenty or more employees. In addition, this law protects
job applicants and employees over forty years of age from
employment discrimination based on age in terms of hiring,
firing, promotion, layoffs, benefits, compensation, job
assignments and or training. The ADEA forbids retaliation
against those who file charges, testify, or participate in
investigations, proceedings, and litigation under the ADAE.
Visit these websites:
http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/age.cfm
http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/adea.cfm
Addressing the six questions below, write a five-to-six-page
paper with at least 5 sources from your course textbook. All
sources must be properly cited and referenced. Assignment must
be APA compliance.
1. Analyze the need for work– life balance in terms of the
forces promoting and the forces resisting these types of
programs.
2. It is mentioned in the reading that even when organizations
offer work– life balance plans, some workers, especially men,
often do not feel that they can use them. Why might men feel
this way more than women?
3. What might the presence or absence of flexible work
programs suggest to you about the corporate culture and values
of an organization?
4. Apply the concept of the business case for diversity to
offering more flexible work arrangements for caregivers.
5. In spite of people living longer and healthier lives,
stereotypes about older workers being hard to manage and slow
to adapt to new technologies still persist. How do the media
2. contribute to and reinforce these perceptions?
6. The organizations profiled in this article are quite different
and represent a range from small businesses to huge
corporations. What might they all have in common that has
enabled them to be innovative about their programs for older
workers?
GENERALIST PRACTICE IN SOCIAL WORK
Name: Gabrielle Lewis
Generalist practice in social work focuses on the interaction of
individuals and their environment. This approach requires that
social workers recognize the variety of systems that interact
with the individual and that interact with one another (Miller,
Tice, & Harnek Hall, 2008)
Introduction
2
Individuals in a society interact with each other for several
3. reasons. The role of generalists in social work is to track those
interactions and recognize the reason behind interaction and
how they proceed. Generalist practices in social work are
grounded on the values, knowledge, and skills associated with
one’s beliefs and the reason for interaction.
2
Social Work Problem
* According to a Survey
3
Social work problem that I have identified in last weeks was the
impact of COVID-19 crisis on mental health and the role of
social workers in helping people through telehealth.
The use of telehealth system helped social workers to access
needs of patients and provide them counselling for the trauma
from which they are suffering.
During the COVID-19 crisis, it was difficult for social workers
to provide physically interactive counseling; thus, through the
telehealth system, they adjusted their hours(Mi Jin Choi, 2015).
4. That social problem has been selected for the sake of enhancing
the knowledge of audience regarding an important issue and
help them to understand the role of social workers. Social
workers played a crucial role in managing situations and helps
people suffering in mental health traumas during COVID-19. By
helping children and parents, Social workers ensured that
everyone is safe and doing well at their ends.
3
Intervention of Generalists at MULTIPLE LEVELS
The image is illustrating the four levels of intervention of
generalists and also showing where they are involved. In further
details I will explain how generalists are involved at different
levels and plays crucial role in studying human interaction,
causes and effects. At every level illustrated above the role of
generalists and social workers differs.
4
MACRO SYSTEM
5
The role of generalists at macro level is to deals with
5. community and state level problems.
The responsibility of generalists is at the macro level is to find
the root cause of national problems and then extract the solution
from the problem.
Generalists are responsible for the creation of programs that
addresses real-life problems and focus on large social problems.
For example, commentaries on corruption, rape, racial
discrimination, adultery and numerous other social problems
that needs voice(Fricke, 2017).
At macro level, The role of generalists is to talk about social
problems that are affecting the nation as a whole. generalists at
macro-level think about problems at state level and then filter
solutions for these problems. COVID-19 was a state level
problem and social workers played a crucial role in addressing
the problem and to bring solution for people. in order to address
that problem generalists as social workers. Generalists from al l
fields played a crucial role in helping people during COVID-19
and motivate them to stay active and encouraged all the time.
5
Social Workers who worked at macro-level are often work
through non-profit organizations and followed by legal
authorities, government department or funds and motivated by
human right organizations.
Continued.…
6. At Macro-level the role of generalists social workers is
designed by the state actors. Based on their roles they followed
laws and government orders to accomplish some tasks. Such as
generalists working on some highlighted issues by the use of
sensitive information let say the mental health conditions of
people during COVID and how the government deals with this
situation is favored from the upper level.
6
The growth of social work industry
The division below is showing the role of social work at each
level.
https://www.degreequery.com/social-work-degrees/is-social-
work-a-growing-industry/
The image above is showing the division of all the dimensions
of generalists role in social work. Generalists at state level are
evolved at much extent but ranked as the second most used
social work practice. At this level workers are getting
instructions from state government and bring results that meets
with the expectations of the government.
7
EXO System
8
The exo-system is an important system in which generalist
social workers looks and analyze the interactions of one group
with the other group.
The exo-system analyzes internal structures of an organization
and reviews the strength of its overall role in managing the
7. workplace operations. For example, during COVID-19 crises the
role of generalists social workers in exo-system by analyzing
how individuals interact and these interactions affects their
mental health(Fricke, 2017).
Exo-system is when the interaction between two persons affect
the well-being of the third person. In the social problem to
which I am dealing, that third person are families of people who
are being impacted by the distorted healthcare of customers.
Social work generalists are publishing highly encouraging
statements for workers and organizations that will motivate
them to achieve more.
8
Cont.…
Exo-system is related to the individual’s work station and the
role of generalists social workers in motivating workers to
achieve higher at work is the highlighted one.
Mental health problems because of physical and emotional
trauma during COVID-19 provides a chance for social workers
to use their skills to help patients and motivate them to get out
of the problem.
8. At the exo-system level social workers will determine how
organizations and work contribute in mental health problems.
there were millions of people who lost their jobs during
COVID-19 that out them into depression and stress. In order to
deal with this stress and sufferings social workers provide
assistance to people. At this level the analysis of organization
where the individual interacts with other people is conducted
and then treatment will be planned and discussed by generalist.
9
Mezzo SYSTEM
At this level or in this system the individual's primary
belongings will be analyzed by generalist social workers to
understand the reason behind the mental health problems during
COVID-19(Fricke, 2017).
For example, if an individual have lost his/her loved one due to
COVID-19, this can affect their mental health and leave them in
fear and mistrust. At this level the role of generalists skimmed
and they focus on family and peer interaction of the individual
and make assumptions whether the cause is their mental health
or not.
10
DIMENSIONS
11
The above illustration states three dimensions of generalists'
9. social work and the purpose and role of generalists in each
dimension. Although the explanation of each dimension is
provided, the keyword illustration is presented to make the role
of generalists apparent. Whether as generalists or any other
position, the role of social workers in crisis is not ordinary
because they offer immediate non-profit help to people.
11
MICRO SYSTEM
12
Micro-system is one of the simplest stage of social workers in
which they participate with the individual and his/her direct
interaction with the environment.
At this level generalists will analyze how at the individual level
mental health problem affects during COVID and what are the
factors that contribute in it.
Here generalists should have micro-skills to intervene with
individuals and understand the cause of mental health problem.
During COVID-19 numerous people suffered with mental health
problems. If the problem will be studied by social workers they
will focus on all the four dimensions and come up with the
desired solution, root causes and effects of the problem. Mental
health problem is associated with COVID-19 and the correlation
should be understood by establishing understanding their
interaction at state, local, organizational and individual levels.
(Thomas, 2019).
12
10. All the dimensions of social work practice helps to explore the
issue by analyzing the reason behind the problem and the way
individuals interact with each other.
13
Cont..
All the dimensions of social work step- by-step analyzes the
performance of individuals and explores how the problem exists
and how it impacts the well-being of individuals. During
COVID-19 there is a huge increase in mental health problems
that raises because of serious outcomes of the disease. Four
dimensions of the social work used by generalists will analyze
individual interaction, at all the levels from state, local,
organizational and individual and implement knowledge on how
the problem could effect.
13
REFERENCES
Fricke, A. (2017). CHAPTER 4: GENERALIST PRACTICE.
https://ferrisintroductiontosocialwork.pressbooks.com/chapter/c
hapter-4-generalist-
practice/#:~:text=The%20focus%20of%20macro%20level,and%
2For%20national%20social%20problems.
Mi Jin Choi, P. U. (2015). Early Career Patterns for Social
Work Graduates. Journal of Social Work Education, 51, 475-
493.
Miller, S., Tice, C, & Harnek Hall, D. (2008). The generalist
model: Where do the micro and macro converge? Advances in
Social Work, 9(2), 79-90.
Thomas, S. (2019). Generalist Social Work Practice.
https://www.stthomas.edu/socialwork/undergraduate/about/pract
ice/.
11. 14
Running head: Correlation of the Code of Ethics1
Correlation of the Code of Ethics8
Correlation of the Code of Ethics
Gabrielle Lewis
North Central University
The correlation between COVID-19 and mental health is one of
the many social problems faced in today's world. This paper
focuses on the impact of mental health with COVID-19 and how
social workers are playing their role in helping people.
According to the preamble of NASW codes of ethics, social
workers' primary purpose is to help the public in all possible
12. ways regardless of their self-interests. Social workers are
pursuing the interests of individuals and working for their well -
being. In the first week, I have explained that social workers
helped the public through telehealth during a pandemic which
motivates them to face the problem with courage and firmness.
While everyone is suffering from acute effects of the virus, one
of the strongest professions is social work. This profession is
rooted in numerous ethical and legal limitations that affect their
ethical decision-making.
1st Code of Ethics: Conflict of Interests
The first code of ethics is "conflict of interests" from NASW
that can become an ethical challenge while addressing the social
work problem. While dealing with the public through telehealth,
conflict of interests could occur because social workers will be
dealing with a huge number of people. To console the public
and help them overcome trauma, the first thing that a social
worker will do is make them comfortable with him/her.
Treatment could be effective when the patient is comfortable
with the social worker and accepting their counselling and
absorbing all the words. But this code of ethics says; "Social
workers should not engage in dual or multiple relationships with
clients or former clients in which there is a risk of exploitation
or potential harm to the client. In instances when dual or
multiple relationships are unavoidable, social workers should
take steps to protect clients and are responsible for setting
clear, appropriate, and culturally sensitive boundaries" (Code of
Ethics, 2020). Social workers cannot build any relation with
clients, but the question raised is that if there won't be any
relationship with the client and the social worker, how can we
expect that the treatment would be effective or bring
satisfactory results.
In last week's assignment, I have discussed ways in which social
workers can help people during COVID. Such as, "during and
after the pandemic, social workers' change to telehealth can be a
better solution for both social workers as well as the patients.
Social workers can hit a button to share the screen and use
13. Zoom to help children with homework for parents who may not
understand the criteria. This increases engagement and
frequency when clients are being seen" now considering this.
How can we imagine that we can teach their children or help
them without establishing or developing any relationship with
the client? In order to help them understand the criteria and
come upon the solution, there should be semi-formal interaction
between the client and the social worker (Reamer, 1998).
My ethical values contrast with this code of ethics in ways that
I believe that maintaining the trustful relation with clients
should be a priority. As a professional counsellor and patient's
health and well-being, their loyalty is also important for
counselors that can be enhanced by establishing a steady
relationship. As a professional social worker, I will pursue an
authentic social worker's goals and meet those expectations.
While offering health opportunities to people through
telehealth, the state's ethical and professional standards must be
followed. If I focus on NASW's ethical standards will contrast
with my personal, professional, ethical beliefs as a social
worker (Reamer F. G., 2003). because commitment and having
any sort of physical, emotional and sexual relation with the
client is prohibited under NASW. Although I am not advocating
to develop any sort of such relation but at least understanding
and readily communicating to share information should be
ensured.
2nd Code of Ethics: Impairment of Colleagues
The second code of ethics of NASW is the "impairment of
colleagues", and according to this code of ethics, the
impairment should be discussed with clients in order to avoid
complications in treatment. For example, while offering
treatment through telehealth, patients suffering from stress
because of COVID-19 might have some rooted cause because of
some family issues. Thus, to design the treatment plan, social
workers should consult patients to make the plan more
effective. During the pandemic, there were numerous reasons
14. social workers can help people and solve their problems. But in
the previous week, the major focus was on how mental health
was affected during a pandemic and how medical social workers
coped with the situation through a telehealth system. But there
could be a limitation in this code of ethics because, through the
telehealth system, social workers will be unaware of whether
the client is providing accurate information.
This code of ethics will be a challenge for social workers
because it will affect the quality of the treatment or help
provided to clients. There is no doubt that the client's
impairment will interfere in the counselling or the type of help
social workers provide. Based on my professional beliefs, I
would say that clients' impairment should be the part of
counselling so social workers can offer them right and effective
treatment and help them deal with the scenario. By staying
within described limits and keeping legal, professional and
ethical standards in place, social workers can integrate these
practices.
Recommendations
1. The recommendation for social workers is to follow ethical
codes and maintain client's loyalty. They can develop
an informal relationship that will not violate the NASW code of
ethics of social work. For example, there should be no physical,
sexual, or emotional relationship. Based on the purpose of
social work, well-being for individuals can only be brought
when they are satisfied and trustworthy. According to the State
Board of Social Work, those who provide planning, counselling,
consultation, and assessment are termed as certified social
workers. Thus, certified social workers must align their
practices and the code of ethics (Caruso, 2020).
2. In the case of impaired client's counselling, social workers
can conduct an informed consent in which they can ask open-
ended questions from people and motivate them to share if they
have any impairment and any other way social workers can
help. This will help social workers follow the code of conduct
and resolve client's impairment simultaneously (Zur, 2016).
15. Social workers' ethics codes support these recommendations
because they are made between personal preferences and the
stated ethical and professional limits. Implementation of these
recommendations will bring effective results.
References
Caruso, K. A. (2020). State Board of Social Work Examiners.
https://www.njconsumeraffairs.gov/sw.
Code of Ethics . (2020).
https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-
Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English.
Reamer, F. (1998). Ethical Standards in Social Work: A Critical
Review of the NASW Code of Ethics. NASW PRESS, 1-8.
Reamer, F. G. (2003). Boundary Issues in Social Work:
Managing Dual Relationship. EBESCO, 121-129.
Zur, O. (2016). Codes of Ethics on Therapists' Impairment,
Burnout and Self Care. https://www.zurinstitute.com/ethics-of-
burnout/.
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
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Code=wrsp20
16. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social
Thought
ISSN: 1542-6432 (Print) 1542-6440 (Online) Journal homepage:
https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wrsp20
The ecosystems perspective in social work:
Implications for culturally competent practice with
American Muslims
Sawssan R. Ahmed, Mona M. Amer & Amal Killawi
To cite this article: Sawssan R. Ahmed, Mona M. Amer & Amal
Killawi (2017) The ecosystems
perspective in social work: Implications for culturally
competent practice with American
Muslims, Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work:
Social Thought, 36:1-2, 48-72, DOI:
10.1080/15426432.2017.1311245
To link to this article:
https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2017.1311245
Published online: 25 Apr 2017.
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18. University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
ABSTRACT
The ecosystems framework is relevant to social work because it
helps to envision a better fit between clients and their environ-
ments by improving the quality of transactions across different
ecological systems. This approach can be useful to
understanding
the experiences of Muslims living in America, and is consistent
with Islam’s emphasis on person-in-context. This article
analyzes
American Muslims’ experiences at different ecological levels;
namely, family and peers, organizations that individuals are in
regular contact with (school, college, workplace, Islamic
center),
and pervasive sociopolitical influences at the macrolevel. For
each of these ecosystems, the article outlines challenges the
person may have in adapting, strategies that enhance the quality
of the environment and person-environment fit, and practical
recommendations for social work practice. The aim of this
review
is to provide social workers with a rich understanding of the
various systemic factors that can influence the well-being of
their American Muslim clients so that they can support their
growth and empowerment.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 24 July 2016
Accepted 6 March 2017
KEYWORDS
American Muslims;
discrimination; ecosystems;
Islam; person-in-environment
The person-in-environment perspective is a central and guiding
19. framework
for social work practice. It is based on the belief that an
individual can only
be understood in the context of his/her environment (e.g.
physical, familial,
spiritual, social, political, societal, etc.), and thus practitioners
must consider
both the person and the various aspects of that person’s
environment in their
assessment, planning, and intervention processes. This dual
focus on the
person and environment has been a distinguishing feature of
social work,
setting it apart from many other disciplines (Kondrat, 2008).
Although the person-in-environment perspective has guided
social work
for almost a century (Mattaini & Meyer, 2002), there has been a
historical
tension between micro/clinical practice with individuals and
macro/commu-
nity practice with the environment (Austin, Coombs, & Barr,
2005). Social
workers did not always attend to both areas, often paying more
attention to
individual interventions, modeling their practice after
psychiatrists and
CONTACT Sawssan R. Ahmed, PhD [email protected]
Department of Psychology, California State
University, 800 N State College Blvd, Fullerton, CA
92831USA.
JOURNAL OF RELIGION & SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL
WORK: SOCIAL THOUGHT
2017, VOL. 36, NOS. 1–2, 48–72
21. rately, social workers “pay attention to the multiple interacting
elements that are
always present”(Mattaini & Meyer, 2002, p. 33).
Germain (1978) conceptualized a metaphor for the ecological
approach,
organizing various client systems in a hierarchal fashion, like a
set of Chinese
boxes with smaller boxes fitting into increasingly larger ones.
For example, a
person may exist in a family system, which exists in a religious
community,
which then exists in a region. Kondrat (2002) offered a
modified metaphor
for the ecological model, suggesting instead that people were
more like
dancers in a ballet or players in a football game, engaging in a
constructive
and recursive process in which they shape their environment,
and the
environment in turn shapes their behavior.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model of human
development has also
been useful to social work, in that it clarifies the various social
systems in which a
person lives as a series of concentric circles: the microsystem,
mesosystem,
exosystem, and macrosystem. The microsystem consists of
family, peers, neigh-
bors, classmates, and other individuals and institutions that the
person regularly
interacts with. The mesosystem represents the relationships
between compo-
nents in the microsystem, such as the transactions between a
child’s parents and
22. his/her school, which in turn influences the child. There are
distal factors in
settings that do not directly touch the person but link to settings
that do
influence the person, and this is considered the exosystem. For
example, dis-
crimination faced by a mother at her workplace may increase
her levels of
distress, which in turn influences her childcare practices in the
home setting,
thus impacting the child. Finally, the macrosystem includes the
pervasive cul-
tural influences on the person including socioeconomic,
political, and religious
factors.
With an ecosystem approach, social work’s purpose is to ensure
a better fit
between clients and their environments, aiming for improved
quality of these
JOURNAL OF RELIGION & SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL
WORK: SOCIAL THOUGHT 49
transactions so “that growth and adaptive potential are released
and environ-
ments are more responsive to people’s needs and goals”
(Gitterman & Germain,
1981, p. 44). Interventions can occur in any of the multiple
elements of a client’s
case, even in the transactions directly, which provides social
workers with end-
less possibilities for action (Mattaini & Meyer, 2002). Thus, the
ecological
23. approach allows social workers to move between various client
systems, treating
problems at the individual, family, small group, organizational,
and community
levels (Pardeck, 2015). Although some have criticized the
ecological model as
being too abstract to be helpful to practitioners and lacking
rigor and clarity
(Brower, 1988; Wakefield, 1996a, 1996b), it remains the most
popular and
widely used framework in social work.
The ecosystems approach may be particularly relevant to
working with
American Muslim clients, not only because it provides a rich
understanding
of the person’s experience but also because it is aligned with
how Islam views
the person-in-context. The Islamic perspective considers a
person’s context
and environment to play a vital role in shaping individual
behaviors and
experiences. For example, there are hadiths (religious sayings
of Prophet
Muhammad) that speak to the contextual influences on
individuals. As
narrated in one hadith:
The good companion and the bad companion can be compared to
a perfume seller
and a blacksmith. When you visit the perfume seller he may
give you a gift or you
may purchase some musk from him and at the very least you
leave with a sweet
trace of his scent upon you. When you visit the blacksmith his
flying sparks may
24. burn your clothes and you will leave smelling of the smoke
from his furnace.
(Sahih Bukhari, Chapter 34, Hadith #314)
This hadith highlights how peer relations can have a positive or
negative
influence depending on whether they are health promoting or
not. Another
hadith highlights the systemic influence on individuals: “The
Muslim ummah
[global Muslim community] is like one body. If the eye is in
pain the whole
body is in pain, and if the head is in pain then the whole body is
in pain”
(Sahih Muslim, Chapter 32, Hadith #6261).
Thus, Islam views the individual as embedded within a larger
ecosystem in
which different parts of the system interact with and impact one
another.
Therefore, improving an individual’s environment will have a
positive impact
on that individual. This is why the Islamic way of life
incorporates detailed
guidelines for all aspects of living including family, social,
political, economic,
and religious systems. For example, alcohol is prohibited to
avoid harming
families and communities, recommended marital and family
interactions are
meant to prevent discord, economic well-being is maintained
through prohibit-
ing unjust usury and business transactions, and just governance
is outlined to
ensure effective policies. The regulation of these different
settings aims to
25. encourage healthy environments to produce healthy individuals.
50 S. R. AHMED ET AL.
In this narrative review, a conceptual framework that focuses on
promot-
ing wellness among American Muslim clients across different
ecological
levels is offered. American Muslims are a diverse and growing
community
in the United States, estimated to become the second largest
religious group
by 2050 (Pew Research Center, 2016a). Estimates on the
number of Muslims
in the United States vary greatly with ranges between 3.3 and 7
million (Pew
Research Center, 2016b; Smith, 2002). Ethnically, estimates
indicate that
most Muslims in the United States are African American (35%),
Arab
American (25%–30%), or South Asian American (20%–25%)
(Gallup
Center for Muslim Studies, 2009). More than half of Muslims in
the
United States are immigrants (Pew Research Center, 2007), and
although
most American Muslims identify as Sunni (65%), a significant
minority
(11%) identify with the Shiite sect of Islam (Pew Research
Center, 2011).
Despite the diversity among Muslims, common experiences
including the
shared stress associated with rise in anti-Muslim sentiment
26. post-9/11 and an
increase in anti-Muslim rhetoric, make it increasingly important
to pay attention
to the well-being and mental health of American Muslim
communities (Clay,
2011; Padela & Heisler, 2010). Due to the diverse settings in
which social workers
function, it is likely that social workers will interact with
American Muslims in
some capacity. In fact, there are more social workers in the
United States than
there are psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurses
combined, and social
workers provide the largest group of mental health services in
the United States
(Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
[SAMHSA], 2013).
Thus, social workers can play a key role in supporting American
Muslims.
In this review, the authors have divided the ecological levels
into family
and peers who are closest to the individual; organizations that
American
Muslims may interact with frequently (including school,
college, workplace,
Islamic centers); and macrolevel factors such as the
sociopolitical context.
The macrolevel factors may be more distal yet profoundly
impact Muslims
living in America. Using the existing literature as a backdrop,
the authors
explore the person-in-environment fit at each level. First, a
review is pro-
vided of the factors that increase stress and distress at that
ecological
27. level. Second, factors that enhance adaptation and quality of the
environment
are discussed. Finally, recommendations for social work
practice are pre-
sented, aiming to improve the quality of interactions between
individuals and
their environment in each of these settings. The ultimate aim of
this narrative
is to guide culturally competent social work practice with
American Muslims
by integrating relevant literature on members of this faith
community with a
conceptual framework that demonstrates how the ecosystems
perspective
coincides with their Islamic worldview.
JOURNAL OF RELIGION & SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL
WORK: SOCIAL THOUGHT 51
Families and peers
As the groups of people that American Muslims have the most
contact with,
families and peers play a significant role in shaping the lives of
American
Muslims. The concept of person-in-environment fit is important
in two ways
when discussing families and peers. First, families may face
tensions when
interacting with surrounding ecological systems, and these
challenges in
adaptation can negatively influence the individual who is
embedded in the
family unit. Second, the individual may need to adapt to
28. differences in
worldviews and cultural norms within family and friendship
groups, which
may have the potential to be stressful.
Family
For American Muslims, the definition of “family” may extend
beyond the
Western concept of the nuclear family to include extended
family members
who actively influence family decisions and dynamics (Carolan,
Bagherinia,
Juhari, Himelright, & Mouton-Sanders, 2000; Smith, 2007).
There is great
heterogeneity in Muslim family structures based on
ethnic/national back-
ground and nativity status. Among immigrants, the gender
division of house-
hold labor may be more traditional with men having higher
authority
(Ayyub, 2000; Carolan et al., 2000). In immigrant families,
parents, particu-
larly mothers, play a key role in socializing children into
cultural and
religious traditions by encouraging an Islamic lifestyle (Ross-
Sheriff,
Tirmazi, & Walsh, 2007). For many Muslim families regardless
of immigra-
tion status, Islam is interwoven across multiple aspects of daily
family life
(Carolan et al., 2000; Smith, 2007).
Many American Muslim families face pressures when adapting
to the
surrounding ecological contexts, and such tensions in turn can
29. place strain
on individual family members. For example, practicing religion,
particularly
rituals such as prayer and dietary restrictions, can be
challenging especially to
those newly arrived to the United States (Carolan et al., 2000).
The pressures
associated with adaptation, also known as acculturation
stressors, that immi-
grant Muslim families face can precipitate psychological
distress especially if
families arrive with lower levels of education, English fluency,
familiarity
with Western culture, and social support systems (Ross-Sheriff
& Husain,
2004). Refugee families have typically faced prior exposure to
violence and
other traumatic transactions in their homelands. This may
contribute to
individual psychological disorders, as well as disruptions to
family roles
and family relationships (Alemi, James, Cruz, Zepeda, &
Racadio, 2014;
Snyder, May, Zulcic, & Gabbard, 2005; Weine et al., 2004).
Conflictual transactional processes within the family system can
also pre-
cipitate stress and distress for individual family members. For
example,
intergenerational differences between parents and children may
be
52 S. R. AHMED ET AL.
30. exacerbated by intercultural and acculturation differences.
Parents may feel
anxious to protect their children and ensure that the children
maintain
family honor by adhering to community norms and
religiocultural codes of
behavior (Ross-Sheriff et al., 2007; Smith, 2007). Yet the
school environment
and other ecosystems may act as competing socializing agents,
leading
children to struggle with negotiating between the demands of
their family
culture with other norms (Ross-Sheriff & Husain, 2004).
Parental restrictions
may frustrate children and precipitate family conflicts,
particularly for girls
who grow annoyed at the double standards that accord boys
greater freedoms
(Kanji & Cameron, 2010; Smith, 2007).
Conflicts can also occur within the marital dyad, including
severe disrup-
tions such as domestic violence and divorce. Sociocultural
factors associated
with higher risk for domestic violence in American Muslim
families include
acceptance of male dominance, lower education, and female
employment
(Adam & Schewe, 2007). Some men may interpret Islamic texts
to give them
license to hit their wives, and cultural and social norms
emphasizing family
honor and pressure to maintain traditional family structures may
lead
women to remain in abusive relationships (Ayyub, 2000). With
regards to
31. divorce, it is permissible but highly eschewed in Islam (Smith,
2007).
Surrounding microsystems such as family, friends, and religious
leaders
may intervene to resolve the marital conflicts in order to
prevent divorce
(Alshugairi, 2010). Stigma, shame, and blame often follow
women who are
divorced (Ayyub, 2000), which can exacerbate the stress of the
divorce itself.
There are many factors that can improve the quality of the
family envir-
onment thereby fostering growth of its individual members.
Religious faith
and ethnic/national identity can be sources for resilience within
American
Muslim families. Moreover, family well-being can be
strengthened through
healthy linkages with external systems such as social and
community con-
nections and accessing institutional resources such as social
services (Beitin
& Allen, 2005; Carter, 2010; Kanji & Cameron, 2010). Given
the salience of
religion to many American Muslim families, it’s not surprising
that religios-
ity, in particular, has been found to be a significant source of
strength. For
example, shared religious practices among couples was found to
enhance
marital and family bonds, regulate rights and responsibilities of
the partners,
and buffer against potential domestic abuse (Alghafli, Hatch, &
Marks, 2014).
Religion may also serve as a link to other forms of external
32. supports such as
faith communities and religious leaders (Marks, 2005).
Social work practice
Social workers interact with Muslim families in multiple
settings such as commu-
nity mental health centers, schools, and social service agencies.
Previous authors
have argued that to work effectively across these settings, it is
important to respect
religious and cultural values and avoid imposing European
American world views
JOURNAL OF RELIGION & SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL
WORK: SOCIAL THOUGHT 53
(Carter, 2010; Ross-Sheriff & Husain, 2004). It is important for
social workers to be
aware of the gender roles and divisions of household labor
chosen by the family
(Beitin & Allen, 2005). The high respect bestowed upon
parents, extended family
members, and other authorities in the family hierarchy should
be considered when
assessing and offering services to American Muslim families.
For example,
extended family members may be involved in the services if
desired (Carolan
et al., 2000).
Because American Muslim families may come from
collectivistic cultures,
more individualistic-focused services may create tension
between the client
33. and the service setting (Carter, 2010; Kiely-Froude & Abdul-
Karim, 2009).
Instead, social workers can work to promote healthier
interactions among
family members. For example, assessing acculturation can help
social work-
ers better understand family dynamics (Beitin & Allen, 2005)
including
intercultural gaps between parents and children. Social workers
can then
strengthen parent–child relations by exploring interventions that
balance the
cultural expectations of both parents and children. Positive and
open com-
munication channels between parents and children can help with
these
dynamics (Ross-Sheriff et al., 2007).
When working with women who face domestic violence, social
workers may
consider how spirituality and the Islamic faith can be integrated
in the services, if
relevant (Kiely-Froude & Abdul-Karim, 2009). Research has
found religion to be
an important resource for coping and healing among American
Muslim women
who experienced domestic violence (Ayyub, 2000; Hassouneh-
Phillips, 2003).
Moreover, surrounding support systems will likely have eroded
over time; these
women may have become isolated as a result of their husbands’
controlling
behaviors, and the community may have criticized or shunned
these women for
leaving their marriages (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2001; Kiely-
Froude & Abdul-Karim,
34. 2009). Thus, it would be essential to support these women in
establishing new
support systems, perhaps through exploring new mosques or
community net-
works (Kiely-Froude & Abdul-Karim, 2009). These women may
also need various
medical, mental health, legal, and social services (Abu-Ras,
2007), which social
workers can facilitate access to. If available in their locale,
social workers can
connect Muslim clients with Muslim-specific services. Social
workers can also
engage in community education efforts to increase awareness
about domestic
violence and promote healthy family relationships.
In cases of divorce, social workers can support Muslim families
better adapt to
the surrounding systems. They may help families, particularly
immigrants, under-
stand the ideologies and practices of U.S. laws. The division of
financial assets and
child custody arrangements may have regulations under Islamic
family law or
cultural traditions that do not align with U.S. legal standards.
Social workers can
help clients navigate the court systems, connect them with legal
advocates and
interpreters, and educate judges about their religious and
cultural backgrounds.
Women from immigrant backgrounds who can legally remain in
the United States
54 S. R. AHMED ET AL.
35. can be supported in developing skills for managing independent
living by con-
necting them with support groups and employment programs.
American Muslims
may have the perception that social workers break up families.
In cases of neglect
or abuse in particular, it is imperative that social workers
explain their role and
provide reassurance that the goal is to establish healthy
relationships and help
families adapt to their situation (Graham, Bradshaw, & Trew,
2009).
Peers
Similar to families, peer groups are one of the most important
sources of
support for American Muslims. Almost all of the literature
related to Muslim
peer relationships focuses on children and emerging adults. For
Muslim
youth who were born and raised in the United States and those
of
European or African American heritages, friendship-making
may be less
complicated compared to those who immigrated to the United
States at a
young age. For example, some children express concern that the
quality and
sincerity of friendships in North America are less than what
would be found
in their home country (Kanji & Cameron, 2010).
American Muslim youth who adhere to traditional cultural and
religious
36. values may find it challenging to adapt to and “fit in” with peer
groups
that don’t share the same belief systems (Ross-Sheriff &
Husain, 2004;
Zine, 2001). Parents may also play a role in isolating their
children by
encouraging their children to engage only with others from the
same
ethnic, national, and/or religious backgrounds (Ross-Sheriff &
Husain,
2004). Poor quality of the peer group setting, or poor cultural
concordance
between the child and his/her peers, can facilitate engagement
in risk-
taking behaviors (Kanji & Cameron, 2010). For example, peer
pressure
(from both Muslim and non-Muslim peers) may result in Muslim
youth
experimenting with tobacco, drug and alcohol use, and
premarital sex, all
of which run counter to religious dictates (Ahmed & Ezzeddine,
2009).
Moreover, in the absence of religiously and culturally
sanctioned leisure
and recreational activities, youth may turn to activities that
conflict with
religiocultural norms in order to feel accepted by surrounding
social net-
works (Ahmed & Ezzeddine, 2009).
One of the greater challenges for Muslim youth relates to
interactions with
the opposite sex (Ahmed & Ezzeddine, 2009; Zine, 2001).
Religious and
cultural proscriptions against premarital romantic and sexual
relationships,
37. as well as physical contact, may place young Muslims at odds
with American
cultural norms, which can be stressful (Ahmed & Ezzeddine,
2009; Smith,
2007).
On the other hand, when American Muslim youth are embedded
in healthy
peer groups, this can positively influence their identity
development, self-
concept, and self-esteem (Ahmed & Ezzeddine, 2009). To cope
with the
JOURNAL OF RELIGION & SPIRITUALITY IN SOCIAL
WORK: SOCIAL THOUGHT 55
challenges of finding healthy peer groups, Muslims at many
schools and colleges
have founded associations for Muslim students with networks of
peers who
share social and religious supports (Ahmed & Ezzeddine, 2009;
Zine, 2001).
Moreover, Islamic organizations and community centers have
tried to address
the challenges of ensuring Islamically sanctioned interactions
between the sexes
by designing structured activities at which boys and girls, and
young men and
young women, can meet and interact in a protective
environment. Matchmaking
services have also gained attention by these organizations
(Smith, 2007).
Social work practice
38. Muslim youth can benefit from strength-based and youth-
generated pro-
grams and interventions that incorporate mentoring and provide
a safe space
to socialize with their peers and engage in meaningful activities
(Ahmed,
Patel, & Hashem, 2015). Social workers can connect Muslim
youth with
supportive networks that share their cultural and religious
values or design
such programs if it they are not available. Social workers can
also provide
educational programs and interventions to parents and religious
and com-
munity leaders about youth development, challenges, and needs,
thereby
fostering improved parenting.
Organizational settings
American Muslims may be in regular contact with on a daily or
at least
weekly basis, with their school, college, workplace, and
mosque. Although
social workers may not typically be employed at colleges,
workplaces, and
mosques, these settings are presented because they may have
significant
influences on individuals seen in social work practice in other
settings.
Moreover, if a member of a client’s family faces tensions in
those environ-
ments (e.g., a parent faces employment discrimination), the
impacts may
indirectly influence the client, as described above with
Bronfenbrenner’s
39. concept of the exosystem. Finally, social work strategies that
can enhance
the person-in-environment fit at schools may be transferred to
future aca-
demic and professional settings if the child has gained new
skills.
Schools
American Muslim children may experience numerous challenges
in their transac-
tions with public schools. They are faced with the tough tasks
of negotiating their
Islamic beliefs with the secular curricula and maintaining their
religious and
cultural identities within the European American cultural
environment (Ahmad
& Szpara, 2003; Khalifa & Gooden, 2010; Zine, 2001).
Adapting to the school
context can be more difficult when the academic system ignores
Muslim students
(Khalifa & Gooden, 2010) or there are biased, incomplete, and
stereotypical
56 S. R. AHMED ET AL.
depictions of Islam and Muslim historical events in curricula
and textbooks
(Douglass & Dunn, 2003; Sabry & Bruna, 2007). There may be
biases and
insufficient knowledge about Islam among teachers (Ezzani &
Brooks, 2015;
Mastrilli & Sardo-Brown, 2002; Sabry & Bruna, 2007); …
40. COMMENTARY
Ten Emerging “Communities” for Social Work
Education and Practice
Jerry Don Marx
Recent research (Fisher & Corciullo,2011; Rothman, 2012) has
documentedthe decline of community organization
content in social work education curriculums.
There are several factors that contribute to this
trend. Among them is the fact that most social
work faculty members have little experience in
community organization and do not feel prepared
to teach such content. In addition, and perhaps
more important, most students are unaware of or
uninterested in community organization. In any
case, they do not see it as a primary career path and
are choosing not to concentrate their study in this
area. Faculty members may contribute to this stu-
dent disinterest, but in any case, where there is lit-
tle demand (that is, students), there will be little
supply (that is, content). Social work has survived
as a profession in part because of its broad applica-
bility in an ever-changing world. If community
organization is to survive as a social work interven-
tion method, then a broader conceptualization of
community organization is needed. With the pre-
mise that “communities” should be broadly defined
as groups of people who form a distinct social unit
based on location, interests, or identification, this
article delineates 10 emerging communities for social
work education and practice and, in so doing, offers
a means for reconceptualizing and reinvigorating
41. community organization in professional social work.
1. The Online Community: Social work educa-
tion programs need to revise their community
organization curriculum content to emphasize the
knowledge, values, and skills required for effective
organizing in online communities. Online advo-
cacy groups such as MoveOn.org and DoSometh-
ing.org are well known to young people. The
effectiveness of using Facebook and other new
technologies such as Twitter to organize social
action activities has been demonstrated by the Arab
Spring and Occupy Wall Street movements. Given
this track record and social media’s appeal to young
people, classroom readings and assignments need
to emphasize their potential use by social workers
in community organizing.
2. Green Communities: Global warming and
the aim of preserving a healthy environment are
primary topics of interest of students today. Sur-
prising research is showing that the “greenest”
communities are densely populated urban areas
where dwellings are relatively small, recreation
areas are shared by many, and people use bicycles,
subways, trains, elevators, or their legs for transpor-
tation. New York City is a prime example. Social
work education needs to better define and illustrate
the potential role of social workers in organizing
their communities to promote greener and there-
fore healthier environments. These roles include
work with neighborhood organizations, city plan-
ning boards, citizen advisory committees, and land
preservation trusts.
43. porary shelters, and local volunteer recruitment.
Social work students, like all of us, are no doubt
concerned for the victims of these disasters but,
unless informed otherwise, may not discern a role
for macro social workers in such events.
5. Hispanic Communities: Another major
demographic trend is the growing Hispanic popu-
lation in the United States. The U.S. Census
Bureau projects that by 2060, one in every three
U.S. citizens will be Hispanic (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2012). Consequently, more and more
social work students will find employment in
Spanish-speaking communities. The need for
developing and coordinating services that are sensi -
tive to the culture of these communities is one that
can be met by social workers in the role of com-
munity organizer. Because of these trends, faculty
advisors in social work education programs must
point out to current social work students the utility
of taking Spanish courses as double majors or
minors.
6. International Communities:
Solution
s to
global poverty, disease, and infant mortality will
require social work knowledge, values, and skills in
communities internationally. At the macro level,
social workers will have special opportunities run-
44. ning international nonprofit organizations (that is,
nongovernmental organizations) and organizing
community services across poverty-stricken regions.
I know, in part, because social work students and
colleagues of mine have taken part in the organiz-
ing of community efforts to build schools in the
Dominican Republic.
7. Innovative Communities: It seems that every-
one has heard of Silicon Valley, but do we have
social versions of Silicon Valley? To some extent,
the answer is “yes,” and macro social workers
should be more involved. Social innovation often
takes place internationally and has taken several
forms. “Social businesses” are those that primarily
exist to address social problems and have been used
to launch the “microcredit” movement around the
world. A second entrepreneurial model is Vision-
Spring, a nonprofit organization that works to
reduce poverty around the world through the sale
of affordable eyeglasses in remote communities. Its
distribution vehicle is the “microfranchise,” a busi -
ness toolkit that supplies local entrepreneurs with
the needed information to start a small business
45. selling eyeglasses in poor communities. These are
just two examples of social innovation. Macro
social workers, including those who hold second
degrees in business or public administration, can be
innovators and entrepreneurs in their communi-
ties, but social work education will need to do
more to incorporate this material.
8. Electoral Communities: In the period 2011–
2012, there were 164 social workers holding public
office at the local, state, and national levels. All but
13 of these officials held an MSW or a DSW. The
current 113th Congress has nine social workers
among its members. In fact, Senator Barbara
Mikulski from Maryland is a social worker who
this year became the first woman to chair the
Appropriations Committee (NASW, 2013). The
knowledge, values, and skills involved in commu-
nity organization provide a solid foundation to
social workers for running campaigns for elected
office. Most incoming social work students do not
understand this possibility at first. They have to be
educated to the fact. The experience of Barack
Obama offers a great case example.
46. 9. Cinematic Communities: Film and other
visual arts happen to be some of the most effective
public education and advocacy tools available
today. Witness the success of documentaries such
as Roger and Me (1978) about the community
impact of General Motors factory shutdowns and
Wal-Mart: The High Costs of a Low Price (2005)
about the negative effects of big-box discounters
on main-street communities. And now, anyone
who owns a smartphone is a potential filmmaker.
Given its new “Virtual Film Festival” for student
filmmakers, the Council on Social Work Educa-
tion evidently sees the student appeal and advocacy
potential here.
10. Business Communities: In the Alinsky
(1971) model of organizing, business is frequently
cast as the bad guy, a target to be attacked and
embarrassed. In some cases, social justice requires
this strategy. There are more consensual models of
Marx/Ten Emerging “Communities” for Social Work Education
and Practice 85
47. community organizing, however, that involve
business leaders in a collaborative fashion. United
Way is the most well-known model, with its
long history of serving as a community organiz-
ing mechanism, bringing business and nonprofit
groups together to solve community problems.
There are hundreds of local United Way agencies
across the United States that hire macro social
workers, and with the forming of United Way
Worldwide in 2009, there are now over 1,800
United Way organizations around the world
(United Way, 2013).
In summary, there are many new communities
offering exciting educational and practice opportu-
nities for community organization. Social work
must take note.
REFERENCES
Alinsky, S. D. (1971). Rules for radicals: A pragmatic primer
for
realistic radicals. New York: Random House.
Fisher, R., & Corciullo, D. (2011). Rebuilding community
48. organizing education in social work. Journal of Commu-
nity Practice, 19, 355–368.
National Association of Social Workers. (2013). Social work-
ers in state and local office. Retrieved from www.naswdc.
org/pace/state.asp
Rothman, J. (2012). Education for macro intervention: A survey
of problems and prospects. Lynwood, IL: Association for
Community Organization and Social Administration.
United Way. (2013). History. Retrieved from www.unitedway.
org/pages/history
U.S. Census Bureau. (2012). U.S. Census Bureau projections
show a slower growing, older, more diverse nation a half cen-
tury from now. Retrieved from www.census.gov/
newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-243.
html
Jerry Don Marx, PhD, is associate professor, Department of
Social Work, University of New Hampshire, 55 College Road,
Pettee Hall, Room 317, Durham, NH 03824; e-mail: Jerry.
[email protected]
49. Original manuscript received February 6, 2013
Accepted February 27, 2013
Advance Access Publication December 30, 2013
86 Social Work Volume 59, Number 1 January 2014
www.naswdc.org/pace/state.asp
www.naswdc.org/pace/state.asp
www.unitedway.org/pages/history
www.unitedway.org/pages/history
www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-
243.html
www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-
243.html
www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-
243.html
www.census.gov/newsroom/rel eases/archives/population/cb12-
243.html
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Community practice and the Afrocentric paradigm
Colita Nichols Fairfax
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53. segregation, Black social leaders, also referred to as social
reformers, were
creating institutions and systems that not only attended to
human needs but
also affirmed culture, family, and traditions. As the Afrocentric
perspective
reinterpreted African philosophy, socioeconomic/political
realities, and cul-
ture in the latter 20th century, social workers should apply this
point of view
within a community practice context to attend to systemic and
environmen-
tal issues impacting the African American community. This
article explores
the intersection of community practice and the Afrocentric
paradigm that
social workers can apply in the 21st century.
KEYWORDS
Afrocentric paradigm;
community; community-
defined practice; social work
Introduction
54. Community practice is indispensable to transforming the
environmental landscape where impo-
verished Black people reside, attend school, worship, and
engage recreation, while simultaneously
negotiating crime, environmental hazards, food deserts, decrepit
economic outlets, and health and
mental health challenges as well as tyrannically dominating
systems of public welfare, child
support enforcement, corrections, and law enforcement. Without
appropriate economic engines,
alienated schools, and environmental hazards within the
vicissitudes of life, community practice is
essential and culturally congruent in applied science when
working in the African American
community. Societal marginalization of these resources,
predicated upon systemic values of
African dehumanization and sensibilities, have rendered
segments of the neighborhoods unpala-
table for human living and thriving. In fact, the field of social
work has weakly addressed issues of
culture and race and the dehumanization of African philosophy
and culture, as thought leaders in
community social work posit grassroots work as perfunctory
social action and legislative advocacy
as sufficient to transformative change. A three-pronged model
55. of community intervention of
locality development, social action, and social planning/policy
(Rothman, 1996) is widely promul-
gated as a viable and appropriate response. Another example of
conventional community practice
is in “four major processes that focus on the democratic
revitalization of communities and
societies reflect the scope of contemporary practice are
development, organizing, planning and
progressive change efforts” (Weil, 1994, pp. xxx–xxxi; Weil,
Reisch, & Ohmer, 2013, p. 11). This
conceptual framework of the profession’s response assumes that
all people have equal access to
American social systems and quality-of-life standards: “The
absence of culturally-specific para-
digms challenges the community practitioners’ ability to
develop the most appropriate community
organizing strategies and interventions for the target milieu”
(Laing, 2009, p. 21). This article
explores community practice with an Afrocentric paradigm with
contemporary implications for
culturally congruent community practice. This knowledge is
paramount to social workers engaging
in human transformation and change:
57. intellectual critique, which is also related
to African philosophy. African-centered research is rooted
within philosophies, cultures, and principles
that analyze and apply theories to praxis, unique locally and
globally. Given that academic knowledge
production has been formulated within European cultural and
philosophical foundation, out of which all
academic disciplines are formulated, this knowledge production
is predicated upon intellectual traditions
emanating from the Greco-Roman period. African centeredness
represents the intellectual and philoso-
phical foundations of scientific and moral criteria for
authenticating human reality (Nobles, 1986), from
ancient Egypt, Mali, Songhay, Ghana, Nigeria, and Angola.
Africentric has been used by psychologists to
explain the theoretical, cognitive, and behavioral processes with
African-centered therapies and treatment
(Kambon, 1992). The term Afrocentricity has garnished more
attention, and, to connect with the reader,
this term will be used. “The Afrocentric paradigm is a social
science paradigm premised on the philoso-
phical concepts of traditional [precolonial] Africa” (Thabede,
2008, p. 235). Afrocentricity is a theory
concerned with African epistemological relevance to achieve
intellectual agency (Asante, 1999) and social
58. change and for inquiries in historical, political, cultural, and
developmental proportions: “African culture is
at the center of discovery” (Asante, 1987; 1999). As America’s
demographic population increases with
African diasporic, African American, Asian ethnicities,
Hispanic, Moslem and Arab cultures, social work
should stand on the precipice of change by embracing
paradigms and practice models that are culturally
centered, culturally relevant, and culturally endorsed for
community application: “African-centered social
work challenges the all-embracing universal nature of the
ethnocentric social science paradigms which have
hitherto formed the basis of existing social work theory and
practice” (Graham, 1999, p. 265).
The African worldview is used to center Afrocentricity. The
African worldview is based in
conceptual pillars applied to beliefs, perceptions, intuitions, and
the nature of reality (Parham,
2002, xv) and has informed the theory and application of
Afrocentricity to the study of African
diasporic phenomena. The principles and values that underpin
this worldview are the intercon-
nectedness of all things, the spiritual nature of human beings,
the collective/individual identity and
59. the collective/inclusive nature of family structure, the oneness
of mind, body, and spirit, and the
value of interpersonal relationships (Graham, 1999, p. 258), for
which we seek behavioral outputs.
As the long struggle for civil and human rights unfolded in the
20th century, Black Power
movement scholars articulated alternative ways of knowing and
questioning phenomena about
the global African experience. Not just a field of Black history,
Afrocentricity grew as a unique
paradigm applicable in the various disciplines, with the common
goal of knowledge production
and improving quality of life. Since theory drives social work
practice, social workers should
master theories and philosophical frameworks that reflect the
humanity and reality of the popula-
tion served. Applying the Afrocentric paradigm is an important
step in community practice,
“requiring community practitioners to acknowledge the role that
identities and group member-
ships play in shaping people’s lives and experiences” (Reisch,
Ife, & Weil, 2013, p. 99).
Afrocentricity may be applied to all practice levels because of
the obscene manner in which
American social institutions assault African Americans:
60. In human services, hegemony is best expressed through two
models: (1) the theories and models for explaining
and solving social problems arise from a Eurocentric conception
of human behavior and social problems, and
(2) the cultural values of people of color, generally and African
Americans, specifically, have not been used
sufficiently as a theoretical base to establish new human service
practice paradigms and methods. (Schiele, 2000,
pp. 5–6)
The legacy of empirically applied theories in social work has
marginalized the relevance of other
cultural theories, though there are aspects of epistemology.
Pellabon explains:
74 C. N. FAIRFAX
Because the social work profession is grounded in empi rically-
based theories and accepted perspectives, other
ways of knowing augment knowledge developed through the
scientific method. In place of empiricism,
Afrocentricity’s epistemology consists of truth based on
61. authority, cultural tradition, and mysticism.
(Pellabon, 2007, p. 177)
This article explores the use of African principles in Afrocentric
community practice, where
African American and other African diasporic populations
reside. “The need for African-centered
cultural programs in the African American community continues
to be a necessity” (Fairfax, 2011,
p. 122).
Defining community
The physical and conceptual definitions of community is a
tantamount principle of what an African
American is. Social workers must understand that when
interfacing with African American commu-
nity, “community is [a] necessary condition for the realization
of human social goals” (Agulanna, 2010,
p. 283). Not just an environmental or neighborhood
geographical location, it is an intimate part of who
a person is, how that person perceives him- or herself, and the
concomitant aspects of life—educational
experiences, economic prosperity or degradation, spirituality,
safety, relationships, etc. Community has
62. been defined as a network of connections, “informally inscribed
in such institutions as churches, social
clubs, member organizations, and associations, …with
neighborhoods as places where some set of
social (as in kin, friend, and acquaintance networks), functional
(as in the production, consumption,
and transfer of goods and services), cultural (as in religion,
tradition, or ethnic identity), or circum-
stantial (as in economic status or lifestyle) connections exist”
(Chaskin, 2013, p. 107). When applying
African principles, a community represents simultaneously a
place (geography and ideological), a
history (set of shared experiences and conditions), and a people
(sense of being and belonging) of a
connected people with a shared common worldview,
experiences, values, and beliefs (Goodard,
Haggins, Nobles, Rhett-Mariscal, & Williams-Flournoy, 2014,
p. 16; Nobles, 1986). Social workers
must consider this concept of community within practice, as it
presents much more meaning about
how people function, flourish, and build future generations.
More importantly, when applying these
principles, social workers should attend to transforming the
landscape and sensibilities of the popula-
tion who (1) stayed for generations, because of ancestral
63. settlement after enslavement, (2) migrated
there due to economic and family choices, and (3) aligned
themselves with the neighborhood due to
political choices. Terms such as the home place, family home,
or “my block” speak more to spaces
where people first understood their humanity and their cultural
reality and are visceral indicators of
the landscape of belonging and being. “Africans argue that it is
in community that the life of the
individual gets its meaning and significance” (Agulanna, 2010,
p. 297). Survey data show that this
conceptualization of community influences community
involvement with personal benefits that are
“comprised of 1) support of historically Black institutions, 2)
support of non-historically Black
institutions serving the community, 3) mentorship to other
adults of African-descent, 4) mentorship
of youth of African descent, 5) provision of financial support,
6) provision of emotional support, 7)
engagement in self-care and 8) provision of safety to the Black
community” (Grayman-Simpson,
2012, p. 28). This level of involvement speaks to the relevance
and viability of cultural development to
actualize progress and resources.
64. Often community development refers to political activism,
resource and capacity development,
and economic development to rebuild communities. Yet
community is the vessel not only of
economic development, but also of social development, which is
complimented, reinforced, and
sustained by African values (Agulanna, 2010), and social
workers should attend to transforming the
landscape where social and cultural development are variables
in practice. Attending to the land-
scape means that social workers should acknowledge not only
the dearth of economic development
in certain communities, but also the absence of cultural
development and the presence of practiced
African behaviors. Every cultural group has parameters by
which normal, abnormal, and deviant
behavior is defined, predicated upon illness, treatment/healing,
and health (Waldron, 2010). In social
JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT 75
work assessments, only behaviors that are viewed as abnormal
65. and deviant are expressed and
explored, yet theoretical data of normal and African-informed
behaviors are not infused in social
work curriculums, published documents, forums, and
conferences. Given that community is neces-
sary in the human by-product of personality, behaviors, social
structures, and productivity, under-
standing normal African American behaviors, informed by
worldview, is important.
“The study of clients’ cultural orientations provides workers
with knowledge so that they can
make accommodations accordingly” (Li, n.d.). Community
organizing, development, and mobiliza-
tion through an Afrocentric paradigm requires a benchmark of
culturally oriented behaviors that
defines a human person. Cultural customs of a belief in God
reflected in high moral character traits,
the sanctity of family and children and other social
relationships (kinship bonds), a sense of
excellence in education, civics, business, and domestic affairs
(rearing of children, organization of
the home), importance of history, and race pride (Goodard et
al., 2014; Nobles, 1986) are exempli-
fied in family and organized communities. Cultural values of
66. the respect of elders, self-mastery of
cognitive processes and skilled behavior, patience, collective
responsibility, restraint and resilience,
devotion, cognitive flexibility (akin to code switching),
persistence, reciprocity, productivity, defi-
ance, and integrity of behavior (Goodard et al., 2014; Nobles,
1986) are also components of cultural
orientation and normalcy. Last, spirituality/(religion),
humanism, communalism, orality, verbal
expressiveness and emotional vitality, personal uniqueness, and
musicality/rhythm are aspects of
cultural orientation and behaviors that are normal aspects of
African American community life
(Goodard et al., 2014; Nobles, 1986). The presence of these
behavioral traits is tantamount to
recognizing African cultural orientation in communities, where
interventions and treatment pro-
grams are enabled for transformative change. In fact, the
absence of this orientation should be
equally addressed, as political activism, economic development,
and resource capacity development.
Without appropriate cultural orientation, the other conventional
aspects of community development
are truncated and meaningless. Furthermore, community
development policies in states have
67. truncated community leadership involvement with shaping
meaningful and philosophically influ-
enced practices.
Perfidious community development policy
Although social reformers always created social institutions that
addressed educational, religious,
and cultural uplift practices, the predominance of community
implementation has been funneled
through programs funded by the Economic Opportunity Act of
1964 (EOA). Yet community policy
has engaged in duplicity with leaders, funding of certain
programs and interventions, and maximum
feasible participation. The perfidy of policy engagement is
bewildering, as none of the programs
designed and implemented address identity and behavioral
depths of African human beingness
(Fairfax, 2011). Social programs originally articulated in the
EOA included VISTA (Volunteers In
Service To America), Job Corps, the Neighborhood Youth
Corps, Head Start, adult basic education,
family planning, community health centers, Congregate Meal
Preparation, economic development,
fostering grandparents, legal services, neighborhood centers,
68. summer youth programs, and senior
centers (Fairfax, 2015). Additionally, the EOA established more
than 1,000 community action
agencies (CAAs) and community action programs. Some CAAs
were nonprofit groups, some
became city agencies, and some became community-controlled
groups. The EOA required that the
poor have “maximum feasible participation” in poverty program
planning. CAAs sought participa-
tion by the poor by opening storefront and neighborhood
centers, yet a new generation of federally
recruited community activists joined the ranks of federal
poverty program administration, and states
had the freedom to operate these programs (Bailey & Duquette,
2014). It was originally thought that
Black people “have been called upon to speak in their own
behalf, to assess their needs, and to join in
the design and implementation of programs to meet those
needs” (Rubin, 1969, p. 29).
But the Green Amendment of 1967 stipulated that local elected
officials had the authority to designate
official CAAs for their areas. The Quie Amendment that same
year stipulated that one-third of CAA
69. 76 C. N. FAIRFAX
boards be composed of elected officials, and another third be
composed of private sector representatives,
limiting representation of the African American community to
one-third (http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/
media/objects/751/769950/Documents_Library/eoa1964.htm).
Rubin explains that the manner in which
the indigent would participate was never clarified in the policy
(1969, p. 19): “welfare agencies and
politicians made massive efforts to retain their doctrine, dogma,
and power” (p. 29). Leadership developed
from the Civil Rights movement, particularly its youth
organization, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee (SNCC), were excluded. State leadership did not
turn to the traditional machinery of
organized participation (Boone, 1972, p. 449). More
administrative and programmatic changes came
under the Nixon-Ford administrations, as the Housing and
Community Development Acct in 1974
created Community Development Block Grants, authorizing
low-income housing (project areas), veteran
home loans, rural housing, mobile home construction, and other
70. public housing needs (Boone, 1972).
Even with community proposal funding, African American
community decision making and participa-
tion were diminished. Succeeding federal administrations
focused on housing rehabilitation, home
insulation, and Community Block Grants with Housing and
Urban Development, as states engaged in
duplicity by disinvesting in Black neighborhoods and
appointing business leaders to community boards.
During the 1990s and into the 21st century, community
organizing efforts were led by faith-based groups
(Brueggemann, 2013, p. 41) under President George W. Bush.
We have seen the same policy pattern as
community development under President Barack Obama, where
it is paired with housing, relying on
social organizations to deliver third party services, wi th little to
no feasible maximum participation from
the community. The perfidy of community policy prevails,
trumped by amendments and administrative
bias. Programs fragile in social capital and unskilled in
mobilization, religious, and financial resources are
fraught with rigid oversight and a disregard for cultural
relevance and human development. We find that
communities have not been engaged to inform program practices
that are culturally specific and
71. influenced by the Afrocentric paradigm.
Methodological steps for infusing the Afrocentric paradigm in
community-defined
practice
Theory is elusive and esoteric if it is rendered inapplicable. In
order to engage communities through
an Afrocentric paradigm is to ensure that those working in the
community have a framework in
which to apply it. These mezzo-steps are necessary to take to
infuse in “community-defined practice
(CDP) that is practice located in community-based
organizations and initiatives whose implicit
intent and explicit consequence is to restore and reinforce
African American meaning of being a
whole person (Goddard, et al, 2014, p. 17). CDP advances
problem solving by creating and designing
activities that develop the African cultural person. There are
methodological steps that social workers
should take to apply the Afrocentric paradigm in praxis:
(1) Social workers may start the process of infusing the
Afrocentric paradigm in community
practice by including cultural brokers in the helping process.
72. Cultural brokers (Siegel,
Jackson, Montana, & Hernandez, 2011) are persons who are
working in the community
but may not embody the theoretical knowledge of Afrocentricity
and other African-
influenced theories of social change. Persons such as ward and
block captains, youth leaders
in creative productions, athletics, and safety, business owners,
educational specialists within
school boards/systems, para-professional health and childcare
workers, service workers with
local public health/social services and housing, religious and
spiritual leaders, local leaders
associated with city government, and city departments are
appropriate cultural brokers to be
trained in the theoretical knowledge.
(2) Social workers should create experiential scenarios for
cultural brokers to test their knowl-
edge of the Afrocentric paradigm. Suitable scenarios include
having cultural brokers journal
data of community resource persons, observe and document
cultural-oriented behaviors,
and discuss these behaviors with identifiable local leaders who
are not aware of cultural-
73. JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT 77
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/751/769950/Docume
nts_Library/eoa1964.htm
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/751/769950/Docume
nts_Library/eoa1964.htm
oriented behaviors. These activities are helpful in applying the
Afrocentric paradigm in the
natural environment.
(3) Social workers should include engagement with apps such as
Nextdoor and AlertID with poor
communities, for modeling Afrocentric theory by posting
observations of cultural-oriented
behaviors. They showcase healthy extended families activities,
youth who have achieved the
art of code switching at work and at school, availability of
cultural brokers in the community,
and reciprocal arrangements of employment and resources that
can provide brokers with
community examples to demonstrate the applicability of
74. Afrocentricity.
(4) Social workers should meet with economic leaders of local
credit unions and other business
cooperatives to explore possibilities of funding pilot projec ts
such as Afrocentric rites-of-passage
programs, adult cultural development programs, and healthy
relationship groups for young
parents working to exit public welfare and child support
enforcement, to examine the efficacy of
programs that “reflect and reinforce the restoration of an
African American general design for
living and patterns for interpreting reality (worldview) as
grounded in African American
behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, habits, beliefs, customs,
language, rituals, ceremonies, meta-
phors and practices” (Goddard et al., 2014, p. 15). Moreover,
these entities may be willing to
fund aesthetic and creative production programs so that the
impoverished may be exposed to
theater that reflects African American humanism.
(5) Social workers studying African and African American
culture recognize the role of father,
grandfather, uncle, and godfather as compulsory in community
75. and family interventions.
Applying the African worldview to this fact means to create
private mentoring relationships
between men who are father, grandfather, uncle, and godfather
willing to develop family
skills, and other men who become cultural brokers to younger
men and boys who are bereft
of these models in their lives. Private mentoring ushers in the
male development process
without embarrassment and public scrutiny.
(6) Service workers who do not have social work degrees but
are employed in helping activities
should be solicited to become a cultural broker, because they
are often direct line profes-
sionals and para-professionals in the African American
community. This provider commu-
nity is often ignored because they do not belong to a
professional organization. Yet their
application of the Afrocentric paradigm is vitally important, as
they are on the frontline of
crisis, respite, and hospice action. Workers in day care,
homeless shelters, halfway facilities,
correctional outlets, residential homes, after-school programs,
juvenile detention facilities,
76. and medical clinics are where the applicability of the
Afrocentric paradigm can be
influential.
(7) Social workers should consider introducing the Afrocentric
paradigm to colleagues who engage
the community in their residences, such as family
interventionalists, crisis workers, home health
care workers, mental health workers, child welfare program
specialists, and guardians ad litem.
Empowering these workers with this knowledge and application
only strengthens CDP and
advances culturally relevant work for group change. Case
management is a utility that organizes
resources and tasks, yet it is not an empowering, change-
altering manner that is empowering,
inspiring, fulfilling and engaging to those who receive on-the-
job training.
(8) Social workers should introduce to public housing directors
interventions of home organization
and domestic skills for adults in need of learning how
traditional African American homes are
fashioned. Not only proposing life skills and/or fiduciary
budgets, but morning and evening
77. rituals and affirmations of parents and children, reflective time
considering history as found on
history calendars, playing cultural and spiritual music, and
monitoring language are some
aspects of home organization and domestic skills reflective of
African cultural orientation.
These are some methodological community-defined practices
that may be utilized to begin the
process of transformative change, with the acknowledgment that
these practices need to be con-
sistently implemented for years.
78 C. N. FAIRFAX
Conclusion
Rates of residential racial segregation impacting economic and
social well-being, unemployment, home
ownership, and other quality-of-life issues remain consistently
worse for African Americans. Yet,
application of the Afrocentric paradigm addresses human
development, and group advancement, as
78. it is infused with African principles of cognitive and behavioral
directives that are vital portions of
African humanity. Additionally, the Afrocentric paradigm
acknowledges that community is a system
that informs the person, who then informs the community.
Without this interchange, community
intervention is fragile and substandard. Furthermore, the need to
engage CDP corrals social workers to
apply the Afrocentric paradigm in ways that address African
human behaviors and community
behaviors, so that other local entities are inculcated, informed,
and developed in a local network of
change. Training persons as cultural brokers is an important
aspect in mezzo-community work, as it
requires developing a local network of …
