5. IMMUNOLOGY:-
It the branch of bio medical science that
covers the study of all the cells of immune
system. It deals with the physiological
function of both health and disease.
The immunity is derived from Latin word
(IMMUNITAS) which means exemption
from performing public service and charge.
7. Clinical Immunology:-
It deals with the study of disease caused by disorder
of immune system i.e. malignant growth and
allograft (transplant rejection).
Classical Immunology:-
It lies in the field of epidemiology and medicine
Deals with the relation of body system pathogens
and immunity.
Diagnostic Immunology:-
It deals with specificity of the bond between antigen
and antibody and their interaction.
8. Cancer Immunology:-
It deals with interaction between the
cancerous cells and the immune system
including tumors that may be benign or
malignant.
Reproductive Immunology:-
It deals with the study of reproductive
process including fetus acceptance, fertility
problems and premature deliveries.
9. IMMUNITY:-
State of having efficient biological
defenses to avoid the infection or
disease & other unwanted biological
invasions. Basically it the capability of
the body to resist the harmful
microbes from entering.
10. Types of Immunity
Natural Immunity:-
It is innate (in born) naturally present in a
person at the time of birth.
It is further divided into two types:-
Active:-
It is induced when a person exposed to a live
pathogen then its body induces a primary
immune response which is stored in a
immunological memory
11. Passive:-
It is induced in new born babies when they
drink the mothers milk because mothers
milk naturally contains antibodies or
antibodies may transfer through placenta
to the fetus. It is short lived immunity
2)Artificial/Acquired Immunity:-
It is induce by a vaccine containing
antigen or antibody. It is not naturally
present in the body.
12. It is further divided as follow
Passive Immunity:-
It is induce by injecting or taking antibodies
as drugs in case of any infectious bacterial
disease.
Active Immunity:-
It is induce by vaccination that contain
antigen having weak or almost dead
viruses.
13.
14. When microbe or any other
organism enter or try to enter in
our body then our body show
certain types of defenses as follow
1)First line of defense.
2)Second line of defense.
15. First line of defense:-
1)The aim of the first line of defense is to
stop microbe to entering in the body
2)The skin and the mucous membrane act
as a physical to stop their entering.
3)If there is wounded or cut then the clot
of blood prevent the entry of microbes..
16. First line of defense:-
4)The surface body of The skin , digestive
system and nose covered by the microbes
known as GERNAL BODY FLORA. They protect
us from invading of harmful microbes.
5)The respiratory track and the nose is lined
with the sticky fluid called as MUCUS. Along
with mucus CILIA is also present both of these
trap the dust particles and they move out by
sneeze or cough reflex
17. Second Line Of Defense:-
1)If the microbes some how manage to gain entry in
body then the second line of defense will be activate.
2)It is non specific as it can encounter any type of
microbe.
3)When microbe gain entry then our immune system
send PHAGOCYTES that engulf these microbes and
digest them by digestive enzymes.
4)This process of engulfing microbes or other solid
particles is called PHAGOCYTOSIS.
18.
19. Granulocytes Substance
Secrete
Actions
Neutrophil
Defensins
Cathelicdins
Phagocytes(engulf and destroy bacteria)
Antimicrobial/Anti inflammatory
Antimicrobial action
Eosinophil
Heparin
Kills parasitic worms, also destroy
antibody/antigens complex
Prevention of intramuscular clotting
Basinophil Releases heparin (anti-coagulant) and
histamine, which prevents inflammation.
Agranulocytes
Lymphocyte Involved in the immune response.
Includes B cells and T cells.
Monocyte Phagocytosis
Monocytes are the chief phagocytes. They
circulate in the blood for 1–2 days before
entering body tissues to become
macrophages.
20.
21.
22. Antibodies/ Immunoglobulin's:-
A protein that is produce by B
lymphocytes in response to the
presence of an antigen is called
ANTIBODY.
Antibody is gamma globulin in nature so
its is also called immnoglobulin(Ig).
Immunoglobulin's forms 20% of plasma
protein.
23.
24. Structure Of Antibody:-
In its structure there is two types of region as
follow
1)Constant Region.
2)Variable Region.
1)Constant Region:-
It is so called because in this region number of
amino acid are similar in number and sequence in
all antibodies of each type.Thus the identification
and function of different types of antibodies
depend upon this region. It causes the complement
fixation so also called as complement binding
region.
25. 2)Variable Region:-
This region is smaller as compared to constant
region and the no of amino acid and their
sequence is also different in each antibody so
its called as Variable Region. This recognize
the antigen and binds itself with antigen. So
this region is also called as antigen-binding
region.
26. Antibodies Functions
IgA (Ig alpha) Vital role in defense mechanism in
external secretion like tears.
IgD (Ig delta) Involved in recognition of the antigen by
B lymphocytes.
IgE (Ig
epsilon)
Involved in allergic reactions.
IgG
(Ig gamma)
Responsible for complement fixation.
IgM (Ig mu) It is a part of membrane receptor and
also involve in complement fixation.
27. Mechanism of Action of Antibodies:-
There are two methods as follow:
1)Direct Method.
2)Complement System.
1)Direct Method:-
Agglutination:-
The foreign bodies like RBC’s or bacteria with
antigens on their surface are held together in a
clump by antibodies.
28. Precipitation:-
The soluble antigens like (Tetanus) toxins are
converted into insoluble forms and the
precipitated.
Neutralization:-
The antibodies covers the site of antigenic
products.
Lysis:-
It is done by the most potent antibodies.
These antibodies rupture the cell membrane
of the organisms and destroy them.
29. Complement System:-
The indirect action of the antibodies are
stronger than the direct action and play a
vital role in defense mechanism.
Complement system enhances the various
activities during the fight against organisms.
It is the system of plasma enzymes
represented by number
(C1,C2……C9).Including three subunits of
C1(C1q,C1r,C1s).
30. The complement consist of following pathway:-
Classical Pathway:-
In this pathway the C1 binds with the antibodies
and triggers a series of events in other enzymes
are activated in sequence. The enzymes and
byproducts are as result of these events:
1)Opsonization:-
Activation of the neutrophils and
macrophages to engulf the bacteria ,which
are bound with a protein in plasma called as
Opsonin.
31. 2)Lysis:-
Destruction of the bacteria by rupturing the cell
membrane .
3)Chemotaxsis:-
Attraction of the leukocytes to the site of antigen-antibody
reaction.
4)Agglutination:-
Clumping of the foreign bodies like RBC’s or
bacteria.
4)Neutralization:-
Covering of the toxic sites of the antigenic
products.
.
32. 6)Activation of Mast cells &
Basophils:-
Activation of mast cells and
histamine dilates the blood vessels
and increase their permeability. So,
plasma protein from blood enter in
the tissues and inactivate the
antigenic product.
33. Antigen:-
Those substance that induce specific
immune reactions in body Or a foreign
substance that induces the formation of
antibodies.
They are of two types:-
1)Auto antigens /Self antigens:-
2)Foreign/Non self antigens:-
34. Antigen:-
1)Auto antigens /Self antigens:-
They are present on the body own cells
i.e. A antigen or B antigen on RBC’s.
2)Foreign/ Non self antigens:-
They enter from outside into the body.
Example: Allergic substance like pollen
grains , toxins from microbial organisms
35. Antigen Presenting Cells(APC):-
They are special type of cells in the body
when induces the release of antigenic
material from invading organisms and latter
presents this material to the helper T cells.
36. Role of APC:-
The invading foreign organisms either engulfed
by macrophages through phagocytoses .Latter
the antigens from these organisms is digested
into small peptide products move towards the
surface of APC and bind with Human leukocyte
Antigen (HLA).
HLA is genetic matter present in the molecule
of class II major histocompatibility complex
(MHC)which is situated on the surface of APC..
37. Major Histocompatibility Complex:-
MHC is set of cell surface molecules encoded by a
large gene family which control a major part of
immune system in all vertebrates. It is basically the
collection of glycoprotein nearly present on all cells .
MHC molecules mediates the interaction of
leukocytes.
MHC determine of the organ transplant as well as
ones susceptibility to the auto immune disease via
cross reacting the immunization. In human MHC is
called Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)
MHC is divided into Class I, Class II & class III
38. Epitope:-
An epitope is also called as (Antigenic
Determinant).It is the part of antigen that is
recognized by the immune system specifically
by the antibodies ,B cells & T cells. It is the
specific of antigen that an antibody binds to.
Paratope:-
The part of an antibody that recognizes an
antigen the antigen binding site of an
antibody.
39. Cytokines:-
They are hormones like small proteins acting
as a intracellular messengers by binding to
the specific receptor of the target cell.
There major function is to activate and
regulate of general immune system of he
body.
Types:-
1)Interlukins.
2)Interferons.
3)Platelet activating factor.
4)Chemokines.
5)Defensins.
40. Cellular Immune Response /Cell
Mediated Response:-
Cellular immune response kills the cells of the
body that have been effected with virus or
cancerous. In this response Tc (cytoxic T cells)
play vial role .Tc contain a molecule called as
perforin.This molecule pokes hole in the
target cell and kills them.
This response occur in two phases as follow
41. Cellular Immune Response /Cell
Mediated Response:-
1)Activation Phase:-
Tc that have appropriate are activated
and triggered to divide repeatedly.
2)Effectors Phase:-
Activated Tc cells than attack and kill the
target cells.
42. Cellular Immune Response
Antigen/virus
attacks on body cell
Virus uses the host
cell bio machinery .
One of the
antigen binds to
the MHC class I.
Comes out on
the surface of
the cell .
Tc cell binds with the
MHC I having antigen
Tc cells divide and
from clones
Activated Tc cells
with the cells
effected by viruses.
Tc cells release perforin
which proliferate into
the effected cell.
Lysis of the effected
cell.
Effector
Phase
Activation
Phase
43. Humoral Immune Response:-
In this response the immune triggers specific B cells to
proliferate and to secrete large amount of specific
antibodies. These antibodies combat a particular virus or
microorganisms and kill them.
It consist of two phase:-
Activation Phase:-
In this phase macrophages engulf and digest the
invaders into small particles. Some of their particles is
displayed on the surface of macrophages. This display
provides of the immune system an opportunity to
recognize the invaders in future.
44. Th cells (helper T cells) binds to these
display pieces (antigens) ,become
activated and initiate the next phase of
this response.
Effector Phase:-
The activated Th cells triggers the specific
B cells and triggers the antibodies. These
antibodies then binds to the invaders and
fight the infection.
45. Humoral Immune Response
Macrophage/APC
engulf the virus or
any other microbe
by phagocytosis
The engulfed
antigen is packed
in a vesicle called
as Phagosome
The processed
antigen binds with
the class II MHC
molecule and move
to surface of cell
Th cell (T
helper) attach
with MHC II
MHC II release a
cytocirne interlukin
1 (IL -1) which
activates the Th
cell.
The activated Th
cell then release its
own cytocrine IL-2
IL-2 causes the
cell to Th cell to
proliferate.
Proliferation
results in the
formation of
activated Th cells
Activation
Phase
46. Effecter
Phase
B cells have an igm
receptor when the
microbe or virus attach
with it is engulfed and
capture by lysozyme
Antigen binds with
MHC class II molecule
and move to the
surface of the cell
Activated clone of Th
cells binds with MHC
II and causes the B
cell to proliferate.
B cell proliferate into
Plasma cells and the
Tm( memory T ) cells.
Plasma
cells
Memory
T cells
Produces
antibodies
that have
receptor
similar to the
parent B cells
Stores the
genetic
information
for future
attack
React with
virus or
antigen and
kill them
47. The Helper T cells (Th cells) play a
vital role in immune system. They do this
by forming a series of mediators called as
Lymphokines .Following are the
important lypokines secreted by Th
cells:-
Interleukin-2
Interleukin-3
Interleukin-4
Interleukin-5
Interleukin-6
48. Immune Deficiency Disease:-
It is the group of disease in which some
components of immune system is
missing or defective. Normally the
defense mechanism that defend our
body is fail to protect us and the
organism of even low virulence produces
severe effect.
The organism which take advantage of
defective immune system are called
Opportunists.
49. Acquired Immune deficiency Disease:
Its is occurs by some organism. Its most
common type is (AIDS)Acquire Immune
Deficiency Syndrome.
AIDS is basically the infectious disease that is
cause by Human Immune Deficiency Virus
(HIV).
A person is diagnosed with AIDS when the
CD4 (Cluster Of Differentiation 4 a
glycoprotein found on the surface of immune
cells) count is below 200 cells per milimeter
blood.
50. Infection occurs when a glycoprotein
from HIV binds to the surface receptor of
T lymphocytes ,monocytes,macrophages
and leading to the destruction of these
cells. It causes the decrease in the
progressiveness of immune function and
resulting in opportunist infection of
various types. The common opportunist
infection which kill the patient are
1)Pneumonia
2)Malignant skin cancer
51.
52. Symptoms:-
1)Fatigue.
2)Loss of Weight.
3)Night sweats.
4)Oral and Vaginal ulcers.
Mode of transmission:-
1)Contaminated blood transfusion.
2)Contaminated needles.
3)From mother to fetus during pregnancy and
breast feeding.
5)Unsafe vaginal sexual intercourse.
53.
54. Auto Immune Disease:-
A condition in which the immune system
mistakenly attacks body’s own cells & tissues.
Tolerance:-
Usually the antigen induces the immune
response in the body. The condition in the
immune system fails to give response to an
antigen is called Tolerance.
This is true with respect to the body’s own
antigen called as Self Antigen or Auto
antigens .
55. Normally the body has a tolerance against the
self antigen however in some occasions the
tolerance fails. Such a state is called is
autoimmunity and the T lymphocytes or the
production of the autoantiboies from
lymphocytes.Tc cells of the immune system
attacks the body’s normal cells whose surface
contain the self antigen.
Thus the autoimmune disease occurs when
body normal tolerance decrease and the
immune system fails to recognize the body’s
own tissues as “self”
57. 1)IDDM:-
It is very common in childhood and it is
due to Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA).
Common Causes:-
1)Development of islets cell
autoantibody against Beta cells in the
islets of langerhans in pancreas.
2)Development of autoantibody against
insulin.
3)Activation of T cells against Islets.
58. 2)Hashimotos Thyroditis:-
It is common in late middle-age women.
The auto antibodies impair the activity
of thyroid follicles leading to the
hypothyroidism.
3)Graves Disease:-
In some cases the auto antibodies
stimulate the (TSH) receptors leading to
the hypothyroidism.
59. Allergy:-
The term allergy means
Hypersensitivity.
Allergy is the abnormal immune
response to a chemical or physical
agent.
Allergens:-
Any physical or chemical agent that
produces the manifestation of allergy
is called Allergens.
60. 1)During the first exposure to an allergen, the
immune doesn't normally produce any
reaction in the body.
2)Sensitization to the allergens is required.
3)So the subsequent exposure to allergens is
required to cause a variety of inflammatory
responses. These inflammatory responses are
called Allergic Reactions or Immunological
Hypersensitivity Reactions.
61. Common Allergic conditions are:-
1)Food Allergy.
2)Bronchial Asthma.
Common Allergens:-
1)Contact (chemical substance)
2)Inhalation (pollen)
3)Ingestion (food)
4)Injection (drug)
