Unit1-introductiontoresearchmethodology - Copy.pptx

INTRODUCTION TO
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Dr.G Praveen Kumar - Research Methodology 1
Dr. G.Praveen Kumar
Faculty – Department of Mechanical
Engineering
G Pullaiah Engineering College, Kurnool

UNIT-1
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. MEANING OF RESEARCH
2. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
4. RESEARCH MOTIVATIONS
5. TYPES OF RESEARCH
6. RESEARCH APPROACHES
7. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
8. RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY
9. RESEARCH PROCESS
10. RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
11. CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH
12. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH
• Research in general refers to….
o A search for knowledge.
o A scientific and systematic search for relevant information on a specific topic.
o Research is an art of scientific investigation.
o Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.
o “Redman and Mory” define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
o Research is a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.
o A voyage of discovery.
o “Clifford Woody” defines research as “a comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit
the formulating hypothesis”.
o D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson, defines research is “the manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”
o Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order
to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or
interested.

• The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific
procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
• Research objectives falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

• Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
• Research demands accurate observation and description.
• Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing data for a new
purpose.
• Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
• Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation, search the related
literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered.
• Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate the data collected
and conclusions reached.
• Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
• Research requires courage.
• Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

• The possible motives for doing research are:
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems.
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
• Desire to be of service to society
• Desire to get respectability.
• Other motivating factors are: directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal
relationships, social thinking and awakening.
1.6 RESEARCH MOTIVATIONS

Types of
Research
Descriptive Vs
Analytical
Research
Applied Vs.
Fundamental
Research
Quantitative
Vs. Qualitative
Research
Conceptual Vs.
Empirical
Research
Other Types of
Research
One time
Research
Longitudinal
Research
Historical
Research
Diagnostic
Research
Experimental
Research
Exploratory
Research
1.7 Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:

1. Descriptive Vs Analytical research.
Descriptive research:
• Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists
at present.
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
• Researchers discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.
• The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods.
Analytical research:
• The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.

Fundamental research:
• Is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
• Fundamental research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base
of applications
• Examples of fundamental research:
• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics.
• Research carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior
Applied research:
• Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.
• The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem.
• Example for Applied research.
• Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or
business problem.
• Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular
institution or the copy research or the marketing research or evaluation research.
.
2. Fundamental vs Applied

Quantitative research:
• is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data
that can be transformed into usable statistics.
• It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from
a larger sample population.
• Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.
• Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
• Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys,
mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies,
website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.
Qualitative research:
• is concerned with qualitative phenomenon.
• Phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
• Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.
• It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.
• It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research.
• Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the
problem.
• Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques.
• Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and
participation/observations.
• The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative.

• Conceptual research:
• is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
• It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical research:
• relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory.
• It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
• We can also call it as experimental type of research.
• In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively
to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
• In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis
or guess as to the probable results.
• He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.
• He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or
the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
• Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be
the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical:.

• One-time Research: Research confined to a single time period.
• Longitudinal Research: Research carried on over several time periods.
• Diagnostic Research: It is also called clinical research which aims at identifying
the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occur and the possible solutions
for it.
• Exploratory Research: It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about
which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with
the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the
problem. Hence it is also known as formulative research.
• Experimental Research: It is designed to assess the effect of one particular
variable on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled.
• Historical Research: It is the study of past records and other information sources,
with a view to find the origin and development of a phenomenon and to discover
the trends in the past, in order to understand the present and to anticipate the
future.
5. Some other types of research.

1.8 RESEARCH APPROACHES
There are two basic approaches to research
• Quantitative approach
• Qualitative approach
Research
Approaches
Quantitative
Approach
Inferential
approach
Experimental
approach
Simulation
approach
Qualitative
Approach

1. Quantitative approach
• Quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
• This approach can be further sub-classified into
1) Inferential approach
2) Experimental approach
3) Simulation approach
• The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population.
• This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed)
to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
• Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in
this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated.
• This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled
conditions.
• Simulation approach useful in building models for understanding future conditions.

2. Qualitative approach
• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment
of attitudes, opinions and behavior.
• Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.
• Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative
form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis.
• Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques
and depth interviews are used.

 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization It provides the
basis for nearly all govt. policies in our economic system.
 It has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry
 It is important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.
1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

Research Methods
 Research methods may be understand as all
those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research.
 Thus, it refers to the methods the researchers
use in performing research operations.
 All those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his
research problem are termed as research
methods.

The difference between methods and
techniques of data collection

• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how
research is done scientifically.
• In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them.
• Evaluation of research methods is called as research methodology.
Research Methodology

Difference Between Research Methods and
Methodology
Research Method Research Methodology
The scope is lesser than research
methodology The scope is very wider than research methods
It is part of research methodology It has many dimension
Research method seeks to answer: what did
the researcher use to complete his research.
Research methodology seeks to answer: how did the
researcher complete his study.
Research methods are the techniques and tools
by which you research a subject or a topic.
Methodology explains and justifies the techniques and
tools by which you may proceed with your research.
Research methods involve the tasks of conducting
experiments, tests, surveys, and the like utilizing
the knowledge and skills learned through
research methodology.
Research methodology involves the learning of various
techniques to conduct research and acquiring knowledge
to perform tests, experiments, surveys, and critical
analysis.
The research method aims at finding solutions to
research problems.
Research methodology ensures the employment of the
correct procedures to solve the problems.
Research methods are the end of any scientific or
non-scientific research.
Research methodology paves the way to choose
appropriate research methods and thus is the beginning
of any research.

Sum up
• When we talk of research methodology we not only talk about
research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we
use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using
a particular method and why we are not using others so that research
results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself
or by others

1.9 RESEARCH PROCESS
• Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
• The chart shown in Figure well illustrates a research process.
• The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number
of closely related activities, as shown through I to VII.
• However, the following order concerning various steps provides a
useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:

(1) Formulating the research problem
(2) Extensive literature survey
(3) Developing the hypothesis
(4) Preparing the research design
(5) Determining sample design
(6) Collecting the data
(7) Execution of the project
(8) Analysis of data
(9) Hypothesis testing
(10) Generalizations and interpretation
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of
selecting and properly defining a research problem. A researcher
must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes
susceptible to research.
• Statement of the problem in a general way
• Understanding the nature of the problem
• Surveying the available literature
• Developing the ideas through discussions
• Rephrasing the research problem
Formulating the research problem

Extensive literature survey
• Researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with
the problem.
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

Development of working hypotheses
• Its assumption is made to draw out & test its logical or empirical
consequences.
• Affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in analysis of data &
indirectly quality of data.
• Should be very specific & limited to piece of research because it has to be
tested.
• Its role is to guide researcher & keep him
on the right track.
• It also indicates type of data required &
methods of data analysis to be used.

Preparing the Research Design
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
The design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.
Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at
and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.
Research purposes grouped into 4,
(i) Exploration
(ii) Description
(iii) Diagnosis
(iv) Experimentation

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGN
• Research design in case of exploratory research studies
• Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies
• Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies
There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance
of collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more
appropriate for his research project.

Determining sample design:
• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry.
• A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
• (i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or
non-probability sampling.
• (ii) Simple random sampling:
• This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in
case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected.

• (iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is
to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so
on.
• (iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does
not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is
applied so as to obtain a representative sample.
• (v) Quota sampling:
In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is
often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the
interviewer’s judgment.
• (vii) Multi-stage sampling:
This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.
• (viii) Sequential sampling:
This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample
is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on
the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.

Collecting the data
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some
quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis
• By observation
• Through personal interview
• Through telephone interviews:
• Through telephone interviews:
• Through schedules

7. Execution of the project:
8. Analysis of data:
Requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
• Categories
• Coding
• Editing
• Tabulation
• Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical
formulae.

9. Hypothesis-testing:
• Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose.
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or
in rejecting it.

10. Generalisations and interpretation

Preparation of the report or the thesis
(i)
(ii)
(iii
)
• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by
him.
• Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
• The layout of the report should be as follows:
the preliminary pages
the main text
the end matter.
• In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword.
• Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and
list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of
the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical
language.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in
logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable
sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should
again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely.

• At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data.
• Bibliography,i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc.
• Index should also be given specially in a published research
• Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple
language avoiding expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and
the like.
• Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used
• Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various
constraints experienced in conducting research operations.

Research and Scientific Method
• For a clear perception of
the term research, one
should know the meaning
of scientific
two terms,
method. The
research and
are
scientific method,
closely related.

• Research can be termed as
“an inquiry into the nature
of, the reasons for, and the
of any
set of
consequences
particular
circumstances, whether
these circumstances are
experimentally controlled
or recorded just as they
occur.”

• Further, research implies
the researcher is
interested in more than
particular
interested
results; he is
in
repeatability
results and
extension to
the
of the
in their
more
complicated and general
situations.

• On the other hand, the
philosophy common to
all research methods and
techniques,
they may
although
vary
considerably from one
science to another, is
usually given the name of
scientific method.

• Scientific method is the
pursuit of truth as determined
by logical considerations. The
ideal of science is to achieve a
systematic interrelation of
facts. Scientific method
attempts to achieve “this ideal
by experimentation,
observation, logical arguments
from accepted postulates and
a combination of these three
in varying proportions.”

• In scientific method, logic aids
in formulating propositions
explicitly and accurately so
that their possible alternatives
become clear. Further, logic
develops the consequences of
such alternatives, and when
these are compared with
observable phenomena, it
becomes possible for the
researcher or the scientist to
state which alternative is most
in harmony with the observed
facts.

• The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates
which can be stated as under:
– It relies on empirical evidence.
– It utilizes relevant concepts.
– It is committed to only
objective considerations.
– It presupposes ethical
neutrality, i.e., it aims at
nothing but making only
adequate and correct
about population
statements
objects.

• The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates
which can be stated as under:
• – It results into probabilistic predictions;
– 6. Its methodology is made
known to all concerned for
critical scrutiny are for use in
testing the conclusions
through replication;
– It aims at formulating most
general axioms or what can be
termed as scientific theories.

“the scientific
encourages a
• Thus,
method
rigorous,
mode
impersonal
of procedure
dictated by the demands
of logic and objective
procedure.”

• Accordingly, scientific method
implies an objective, logical and
systematic method, i.e., a
method free from personal bias
or prejudice, a method to
ascertain demonstrable qualities
of a phenomenon capable of
being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided
by the rules of logical reasoning,
a method wherein the
investigation proceeds in an
orderly manner and a method
that implies internal consistency.

• Purpose clearly defined.
• Research process detailed.
• Research design thoroughly planned.
• High ethical standards applied.
• Limitations frankly revealed.
• Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
• Findings presented unambiguously.
• Conclusions justified.
• Researcher’s experience reflected.
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well
defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out
creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great
value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to
the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one
or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

A research problem is an issue or concern that an investigator
presents and justifies in a research study. A problem that
someone would like to research
What is a Research Problem?
1. Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research
2. Insufficient Interaction
3. Lack of confidence
4. Lack of code of conduct
5. Publishing may be expensive
6. Lack of availability of sponsor
7. Improper library management
1.8 Problem Encountered By Researchers in India
Researchers in india, particularly those engaged in empirical
research, are facing several problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:

• In this context, Karl Pearson
writes, “The scientific method is
one and same in the branches
(of science) and that method is
the method of all logically
trained minds … the unity of all
sciences consists alone in its
methods, not its material; the
man who classifies facts of any
kind whatever, who sees their
mutual relation and describes
their sequences, is applying the
Scientific Method and is a man
of science.”

Dr. G Praveen Kumar
• Science is concerned with creating knowledge
about naturally occurring phenomena and objects.
• Design is concerned with creating knowledge
about phenomena and objects of the artificial
• Thus, science is based on studies of the observed
things or phenomena, while design is based on
artificial concepts characterized in terms of
functions, goals and adaptation.
• The design method starts with knowledge of the
state of the art. That includes scientific knowledge,
but it also includes devices, components,
materials, manufacturing methods, and market
and economic conditions.

Dr. G Praveen Kumar
Design method
Vs
Scientific method

1.10 PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
• Not similar to science
• Uncontrollable variables
• Human tendencies
• Time and money
• Lack of computerization
• Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research
• Insufficient interaction between university research departments and
business establishments
• Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give information
• Lack of code of conduct
• Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance
• Poor library management and functioning
• Difficulty of timely availability of published data.
• Ignorance
• Research for the sake of research-limited practical utility though they may
use high sounding business jargon.

a) What is a Research problem?
• The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined.
• Research Problem refers to some difficulty/need which a researcher experiences in the
context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.
b) How do we know we have a research problem?
• Customer complaints
• Conversation with company employees
• Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions in the firm
• Deviation from the business plan
• Success of the firm’s competitor’s
• Relevant reading of published material (trends, regulations)
• Company records and reports.
c) Definition of the problem involves two activities:
• Identification / Selection of the Problem
• Formulation of the Problem

d) Identification/selection of the research problem.
• This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of one out of them, after evaluating the
alternatives against certain selection criteria.
e) Sources of problems.
• Reading
• Academic Experience
• Daily Experience
• Exposure to Field Situations
• Consultations
• Brainstorming
• Research
• Intuition
f) Criteria of Selection
• The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation
of those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:
• Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest, Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.
• External Criteria or Factors – Research-ability of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel.

g) Definition/formulation of the research problem.
• Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions and objectives.
• Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic/idea into a
scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the research problem
is.
• Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, precise and succinct statement of the question or
issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.
• There are two ways of stating a problem:
• Posting question / questions
• Making declarative statement / statements
h) Process involved in defining the problem
• Statement of the problem in a general way.
• Understanding the nature of problem.
• Surveying the available literature.
• Developing ideas through discussions.
• Rephrasing the research problem.
i) Criteria of a good research problem
• Clear and Unambiguous
• Empirical
• Verifiable
• Interesting
• Novel and Original
• Availability of Guidance

j) Defining problem, results in clear cut research objectives.
k) Establishment of research objectives
• Research Objectives are the specific components of the research problem, which you’ll be working to
answer or complete, in order to answer the overall research problem. - Churchill, 2001
• The objectives refer to the questions to be answered through the study. They indicate what we are
trying to get from the study or the expected results / outcome of the study.
• Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist in answering the research
problem.
• The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or questions.
• Generally, they are written as statements, using the word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to
determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )

1.11 LITERATURE
REVIEW
• Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published
and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest
to the researcher.
• The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that need
further investigation.
• It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of
investigation.
• It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study
and how they have done so.
a) Purpose of review
• To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.
• To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to
formulate researchable hypothesis.
• To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts
and techniques of analysis.
• To identify data sources used by other researchers.
• To learn how others structured their reports.

b) How to conduct the literature survey?
• Identify the relevant sources.
• Extract and Record relevant information.
• Write-up the Literature Review.
c) Sources of literature
• Books and Journals
• Electronic Databases
o Bibliographic Databases
o Abstract Databases
o Full-Text Databases
• Govt. and Industry Reports
• Internet
• Research Dissertations / Thesis
d) Recording the literature
• The most suitable method of recording notes is the card system.
• The recording system involves use of two sets of cards:
1) Source cards (3”x 5”) – used for noting bibliographic information.
2) Note cards (5”x 8”) – used for actual note taking.

1. Source cards
• Source Cards serve two purposes:
• Provide documentary information for foot notes.
• It is used for compiling bibliography to be given at the end of the report.
• Source Cards can be coded by a simple system in order to relate them to the corresponding note cards.
• Marking a combination of letters and a number on the right hand top corner that begins with ‘C’. For
example; C1, C2 etc.
OR
• Marking the letter ‘B’ or ‘J’ or ‘R’ (B=Books, J=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand top corner.
• The recording of bibliographic information should be made in proper bibliographic format.
• The format for citing a book is: Author’s name, (year), Title of the book, Place of publication,
Publisher’s name.
• For Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management, New Delhi, McGraw-Hill International.
•
• The format for citing a journal article is: Author’s name, (year), Title of the article, Journal name,
Volume (number), pages.
• For Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behavior, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-
56.

2. Note cards
• Detailed Information extracted from a printed source is recorded on the note cards.
• It is desirable to note a single fact or idea on each card, on one side only.
• How to write the review?
• There are several ways of presenting the ideas of others within the body of the paper.
• For Example; If you are referring the major influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of
Industrial Buying Behavior, it can be written as, Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that,
there are a number of influencing factors ……..
• According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial buying behavior, there are a number of
influencing factors……..
• In some models of industrial buying behavior, there are a number of influencing factors
(Sheth, 1973).
• In some models of industrial buying behavior, there are a number of influencing factors1.
• Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behavior, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-
56.

e) How to write the review?
• There are several ways of presenting the ideas of others within the body of the paper.
• For Example; If you are referring the major influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of
Industrial Buying Behavior, it can be written as,
• Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a number of influencing factors ……..
• According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial buying behavior, there are a number of
influencing factors……..
• In some models of industrial buying behavior, there are a number of influencing factors
(Sheth, 1973).
• In some models of industrial buying behavior, there are a number of influencing factors1.
• Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behavior, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-
56.
f) Points to be kept in mind while reviewing literature.
• Read relevant literature.
• Refer original works.
• Read with comprehension.
• Read in time.
• Index the literature.

1.12
HYPOTHESIS
a. Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables.
• Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more
variables expressed in the form of a testable statement.
• Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in
the theoretical framework formulated for the research study.
b. Variables
• Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.
• A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.
o For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height,
Weight etc.
• Note: The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the
same time for different objects or persons.
• A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas; an attribute is a
specific value on a variable (qualitative).
o For example;
o The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male and Female.
o The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral,
Disagree, and Strongly Disagree.

c. Types of variables
• Explanatory Vs Extraneous Variable
• The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables and all other variables
that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent variable are
extraneous.
• Dependant Vs Independent Variable
• The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called
dependant variable.
• The variable whose change results in the change in another variable is called an
independent variable.
• OR
• An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a
positive or negative way.

d. Hypothesis
• Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependant variable.
o Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one
dependant variable.
• Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem.
• Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms
what you expect to happen in the study.
• Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.
• It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.
e. Problem (vs) Hypothesis
• Hypothesis is an assumption, which can be tested and can be proved to be right
or wrong.
• A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can be
scientifically investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis.

f. Characteristics of Hypothesis
• Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.
• Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.
• Consistency - It should be consistent with the objectives of research.
• Testability - It should be capable of being tested.
• Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships between variables.
• Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.
• Objectivity - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral
preaching.
• Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established
or known facts or existing theory.
• Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods should be available for testing the
proposed hypothesis.

g. Sources of Hypothesis
• Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin
and objectives in seeking a solution.
• Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.
• Review of similar studies.
• Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.
• Logical deduction from the existing theory.
• Continuity of research.
• Intuition and personal experience.

h. Types of Hypothesis
Descriptive Hypothesis
• These are assumptions that describe the characteristics (such as size, form
or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person,
organization, situation or event.
• Examples: “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized
planning”.
Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]
• These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two
variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal
relationship.
• Examples: “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.
Casual Hypothesis
• Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable
causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called
the independent variable and the latter is the dependant variable.

Null Hypothesis
• When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a
‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference
exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no
relationship exists between the variables being compared. It is usually
represented as HO or H0.
• Example: H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and
expenditure on recreation.
Alternate Hypothesis
• It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s prediction that, there
exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null
hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.
• Example: HA: There is a definite relationship between family’s income
and expenditure on recreation.

i. Functions or role of hypothesis
• It gives a definite point to the investigation and provides direction to the
study.
• It determines the data needs.
• It specifies the sources of data.
• It suggests which type of research is likely to be more appropriate.
• It determines the most appropriate technique of analysis.
• It contributes to the development of theory.

1.13 CRITERIA OF GOOD
RESEARCH
• The scientific research must satisfy the following criteria:
• The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
• The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
• The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
• The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

1.14 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY
RESEARCHERS
• The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research.
• Insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and
business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other
side.
• The need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a
business unit will not be misused.
• Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information.
• There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.
• Researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance.
• Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the
time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,
rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
• There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and
new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.
• There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country.
• The problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data
collection and related things.

• Systematic
• Logical
• Empirical
• Replicable
• Creative
• Use of multiple methods
1.5 QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• What is scientific procedure in research?
• Steps of the Scientific Method
• The six steps of the scientific method include: 1) asking a question
about something you observe, 2) doing background research to learn
what is already known about the topic, 3) constructing a hypothesis,
4) experimenting to test the hypothesis, 5) analyzing the data from
the experiment and drawing conclusions, and 6) ...

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