4.1Monday, October 12, 20151106 AM4.1 Three Elements Affe.docx

4.1
Monday, October 12, 2015
11:06 AM
4.1 Three Elements Affecting Motor Skill Performance
The discipline of motor learning helps us understand the critical
features necessary for a learner to develop skillful movement.
According to
Newell's theory of motor coordination, performance in motor sk
ills is the product of a continually evolving dynamical organizat
ion of the human
system (1986). When we perform any motor skill, be it as simpl
e as using a spoon to eat breakfast or as complex as dribbling a
soccer ball
against a set of defenders, we use a number of movement patter
ns that we first learn, then use, refine, and change based on all o
f the factors that can affect skill performance.
Newell identified these factors as constraints and grouped them
into task, environment, and individual (both functional and stru
ctural)demands (1984). It is important not to be misled about th
e term constraints. In this sense we are not referring to the tradi
tional understanding
of a restriction or a limitation. Rather a constraint is a particula
r characteristic that encourages certain movements at the same t
ime as it
discourages others. As an example, think of children as they ju
mp over obstacles. As they grow, the individual constraints, suc
h as increased
height and weight, will have an impact on the ease (or difficulty
) of the jumping task. From an environmental constraints perspe
ctive, dribbling ball with the feet indoors on a smooth surface is
different from dribbling outside on grass. The idea of environm
ental constraints also relates
to the equipment being used. A change in the size of a ball will

have an impact on a child's ability to catch it. In terms of task c
onstraints, think
about a throwing task. If we ask children to throw a ball at a wa
ll as hard as they can, we present a different form of constraint t
han if we ask them to throw accurately at a target.
It is important to understand that for any task, all of the constrai
nts interact with each other to impact performance. Constraints i
nfluence
performance changes as they cross the life span, and the task an
d environmental constraints can be manipulated by teachers to p
ositively
influence skill development in children (Renshaw et al., 2010).
Figure 4.1 provides a schema of how you can think about this in
teraction. The
figure refers to the individual as the learner, which is common i
n the physical education literature and will be the term we will
use throughout the text.
Figure 4.1: Schema of constraints theory
Skill outcomes are impacted by the interaction of the task, envir
onment, and learner.
Let's look more closely at this idea of interaction. If we ask a yo
ung child in the first grade (learner) to hit a ball (task) off a tee
and provide them with a lightweight, fat-
barreled bat (environment), we are setting them up for success.
However, if we change the task to hitting a ball to
a specific target, some children may struggle. Likewise, if we c
hange the environment to one where the ball is being tossed to t
he batter
instead of it being stationary, the percentage of successful child
ren will change once again. Of course, either of these scenarios
will produce
different outcomes as a result of appropriate practice, which rep
resents a change in the element of the learner.
The Individual, aka the Learner

When teaching children physical
education, it is important not to
overwhelm them. How does a game like T-
ball set children up for success?
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
For the learner, a number of factors come into consideration. Th
e first, of course, is whether the
learner has basic abilities necessary to perform the task. You wi
ll recall from Chapter 3 that an infant
does not develop a palmar grasp until about six months of age, a
nd the pincer grasp until about one
year of age. Consequently, the ability to control a spoon to the e
xtent that an infant can successfully
pick up cereal is not something astute parents would expect of t
heir youngsters until they are in their
second year. With respect to the advanced soccer-
dribbling task, even many adults do not have the
requisite ability to control a ball well enough to successfully na
vigate through a defense. Both this
case and that of eating with a spoon refer to the extent to which
the task is developmentally
appropriate. The National Association for Sport and Physical Ed
ucation (2009) defines developmentally
appropriate practices as "those that recognize children's develop
ment and changing movement
abilities, as well as their individual differences" (p. 3), In a dev
elopmentally appropriate physical
education program, teachers take account of and plan for all tho
se factors that can affect a child's
potential for success. These factors include their developmental
status, previous experience and skill
with the activity, and fitness level, as well as body size and age.
The second factor concerning the learner is their repertoire of si
milar experiences. For instance, those
who may have reasonable skill when punting an American footb
all may also have sufficient skill when

first attempting to punt an Australian football. While the balls d
iffer slightly in shape, size, and
pressure, the underlying mechanics of the punt are not too dissi
milar. Referring back to the infant
learning to use a spoon, the more experiences they have had gra
sping similar objects (e.g., teething
rings, rattles, or hairbrushes) may enhance their attainment of th
e fine control skills required for feeding themselves.
Motivation is the third feature that affects a learner's skill acqui
sition. We all enjoy participating in some skills more than other
s, and even in
our adult years our propensity or interest to learn certain skills
will differ. For example, learning to water-
ski involves a complex combination off
balance, timing, and strength that takes time to master. Similarl
y, learning to put the necessary spin on a bowling ball to becom
e an expert
bowler takes considerable time and dedication. The point here is
that the motivation for people to learn and master a skill varies.
Some people
might not try to become competent water skiers because they do
not think it is an important skill to learn. Others who have fami
ly or friends who water-
ski might want to learn so they can join in on the activity. With
reference to our bowling scenario, many people either do not pl
ay
often enough or are simply happy to bowl using their own style
rather than spending the time practicing the advanced skills req
uired to bowl with a spin.
The last factor that can affect skill acquisition is the individual'
s physique and body composition. Various body-
control skills, such as tumbling or
rolling, are easier to perform for those with shorter limbs, while
those with longer limbs might find hurdling easier. When plann
ing lessons, you
need to be aware of potential modifications of tasks that will all

ow all children to be successful.
Normal Motor Skill Development in Children
As children develop, they acquire certain physical skills; for ex
ample, babies
learn to crawl and pull themselves up to a standing position bef
ore they
can walk. How can parents and instructors help children discove
r skills at their own pace?
The Environment
Children don't develop motor skills in the same ways due to
different body types and coordination. Some children kick balls
well yet struggle at throwing and catching, and vice versa.
David P. Hall/Corbis
The environment relates to the context in which that task will ta
ke place. For
instance, the physical education gym or motor skills room may c
onsist of wood,
composite, tile, or carpet flooring. The outside playground may
be grassy, sandy,
muddy, smooth, or full of holes (or, in other areas, fire-
ant mounds!). The
temperature, lighting, and weather can also affect movement. O
n hot and humid
days, some children may struggle with their motivation to be act
ive, while for
others these conditions have no impact at all (Gagen & Getchell
, 2006).
The Task
Every movement task we set for children has a set of characteris
tics that
delineate the outcomes. These characteristics consist of the goal
s for the task, the
rules the child must stay within, and the equipment being used
while practicing.
As Gagen and Getchell (2006) note, these characteristics provid

e a framework or "range of task-
dependent, acceptable and possible movements" (p. 229). The
Cases From the Classroom: Sample Task Presentations box prov
ides two examples
of how these characteristics are represented in a teacher's task p
resentation.
Cases From the Classroom: Sample Task Presentations
Mr. Guzman is teaching his kindergarten class how to throw whi
le standing still. Before his class starts, he places Poly Spots alo
ng the wall
to help his students stay in one place and maintain space betwee
n one another. Once all his students arrive, he gives the followi
ng task presentation before they begin to practice.
Task 1: Throwing with force from a stationary position (kinderg
arten)
"I want you to take your yarn ball [equipment], and stand on on
e of the Poly Spots in front of the wall. From the Poly Spot [rul
e], we are
going to throw overhand as hard as possible [goal]. See if you c
an even make a hole in the wall! Keep throwing until you hear t
he signal to stop [rule]."
Mr. Guzman's next class consists of fourth graders who are wor
king on their volleying skills. He asks his students to quickly fi
nd a partner
and provides them with the following task presentation to start t
he lesson.
Task 2: Continuous one-
bounce volleying against a wall with a partner (fourth grade)
"Start with one partner making an underhand serve [rule] to the
wall, and on the rebound, let the ball bounce [rule] before the se
cond
partner volleys the ball back to the wall [task]. Try to keep the
ball above the line [goal]. When the ball [equipment] comes bac
k, it will be
the server's turn to volley after the bounce. See how many you c
an make that go above the line [goal]."

With respect to the task to be performed, three factors may have
an impact on its difficulty and hence the likelihood of successf
ul completion.
The first of these relates to whether the task requires manipulati
ng or managing any equipment. While locomotor skills such as r
unning, jumping, leaping, and swimming involve whole-
body movements only, manipulative tasks require the performer
to control not only their body
but also an external object. The extent of the dexterity required
for that manipulation will have an effect on the probability of s
uccess.
Nonetheless, even in cases where manipulation is not required, s
ome tasks require complex body movements. Consider the move
ments
performed by skilled gymnasts or ice skaters. These require cha
nges in various pathways, levels, and directions, often with spee
d, while retaining an element of great aesthetic presentation.
Two other key elements of a task are its predictability and its ti
me demands. Predictability relates to the extent to which the per
former can
expect the environment they are in to be stable and relatively co
nstant. When performing a long jump into a pit, the environment
is essentially
the same during each attempt. The jumper can measure their run
up and begin from the same point each time. Further, the takeof
f board is
stable and remains the same length from the pit. Likewise, a swi
mmer in a pool can focus entirely on their stroke mechanics and
breathing.
Compare this situation to one where a student is practicing the e
ntry into a jump rope being turned by two classmates. In this ca
se, the turning
rope presents a much less predictable environment, particularly
when the rope is turning away from the jumper. Even more unpr
edictable
would be the environment presented in a basketball game. In thi

s case, there is a constant movement of players and the ball, and
players can
move from offensive to defensive goals in an instant. The only
part of basketball that is high in predictability occurs when a pl
ayer is taking free
throws. In Chapters 5 and 6 there are many sample tasks you ca
n use in your future teaching. These are described as whether th
ey are predictable or less predictable.
The environment plays a large role in the success of physical
activities. How do factors like predictability and timing affect t
he way children perform in a sport like swimming?
Stacy Gold/National Geographic Stock
In terms of time demands, a task may be either self-
paced or externally paced. That is, in self-
paced tasks, the performer can decide when they want to initiate
the task. Think of tenpin bowling or another target game like go
lf. The task does
not require you to bowl or hit at a certain time. In contrast, exte
rnally paced
tasks are those where the nature of the environment strongly inf
luences when
you act. In most invasion games, such as basketball or soccer, t
he timing of your
passes, dribbles, and shots is dependent on the actions of your t
eammates or the
opposition. Similarly, batters in striking and fielding games, suc
h as cricket and
baseball, have to respond to the bowl or pitch as it is delivered t
o them. In
Chapters 5 and 6, the sample tasks are also arranged according t
o the extent to which they are self- or externally paced.
These task constraints are considered the most important for ph
ysical educators.
Anytime the teacher can modify the task and the implements use
d, the size of

the playing area or the rules of a game will positively impact st
udent learning.
Further, as Williams, David's, and Williams (1999) note, task co
nstraints play a
powerful role in influencing learners' motivation. One aspect of
a task is whether
it takes place in a predictable or constantly changing environme
nt. The next
section will describe a classification system that further develop
s this idea.
Open/Closed Classification System
A skill that occurs in an environment that does not change from
attempt to attempt, and where the performer can make their acti
on plan
before they make their movement, is known as a closed skill. In
closed skills, the main concern for the learner is the developmen
t of good
technique that will allow them to reproduce that skill over and o
ver in the same way. Think about playing darts. The action of se
nding the dart
to the board will be the same for each throw, with the only diffe
rence being the exact target number on the board. Consistency i
n closed skills is a major point of emphasis.
Where a skill occurs in an environment that is continually chang
ing, this is known as an open skill. Open skills require adaptatio
ns "on the run,
"often with very little time for strategic planning. Consider two
players in a wrestling match. While both have their own tactics
and skills in
mind, they have to not only attempt to put these into play but al
so adjust to the moves of their opponent and the ways in which t
hat opponent counteracts their own moves.
It is important to understand that closed and open skills should
be thought of as lying on a continuum rather than being simply
classified as
purely closed or open. It is also important to note that no skill is

completely closed. Think of skating alone on a lake versus skat
ing on a
crowded ice rink. While the fundamental locomotor skills are es
sentially the same, the perceptual and decision-
making tasks on the ice rink are
far more complex and demanding than when skating alone in an
open space. Figure 4.2 gives further examples of this idea.
Figure 4.2: A continuum of closed and open skills
Closed and open skills should be viewed as part of a continuum,
with closed or predictable skills on one end, semi
predictable skills in the middle, and open or unpredictable skills
on the other end.
The Three Elements Together: Gentile's Multidimensional Class
ification System
Gentile (2000) offers an explanation for how the characteristics
of the environment and of the task interact to place certain dema
nds on the
learner. Gentile asks us to consider the regulatory conditions an
d the action requirements of each task. The regulatory condition
s relate to the
environment and its level of predictability and/or stability. Simi
lar to the concept of closed/open skills, the first consideration is
whether the
environment is stable or perhaps in motion. For example, is the
basketball player shooting a free throw (environment is stable)
or engaged inactive play during a game (environment is in moti
on)? In terms of stability, the regulatory conditions might remai
n fixed or may vary. Consider
a baseball player. When warming up, the goal might be to hit th
e ball off a tee (fixed stability). However, during the game, the
opposing pitcher
is trying to deceive him with changes of speed and movement of
the ball (varying stability).
The action requirements of a task refer to whether the performer
is stationary or moving and/or if they are required to manipulat

e an objector attend to an opponent. Table 4.1 provides example
s of all these combinations.
Table 4.1: Examples of activities in various elements of Gentile'
s system
Regulatory Conditions
Action Requirements
Neither body transport nor object manipulation
Object manipulation only
Body transport only
Both body transport and object manipulation
Stationary and fixed
Marching in place
Throwing adapt
Swimming laps in a pool
Throwing a javelin
Stationary and variable
Drawing letters in the sand
Playing putt putt
Completing a walkthrough in football practice
Performing an ice dance with a partner
Moving and fixed
Riding down a water slide

Playing with a yoyo
Running up stairs
Walking on stilts on an open space
Moving and variable
Riding an inner tube down a flowing stream
Volleying a hacky sack
Rollerblading on a congested pathway
Riding a bicycle in heavy traffic
From
<https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUPED212.12.1/sections/se
c4.1>
3.2
Monday, October 12, 2015
11:25 AM
Motor Development in Early Childhood
As noted in Table 3.1, infancy is the period in a child's life up t
o age one. Early childhood is considered as spanning from one t
o six years old(toddler: one to three; preschooler: three to six).
Table 3.2 provides a sample of motor development during these
years. You will notice that
this table focuses on walking, running, climbing, and riding. Th
e manipulative skills of throwing, catching, and kicking are add
ressed in more detail in Chapter 6.
Table 3.2: Typical gross motor milestones
One year old
· Walks unassisted
· Climbs onto low furniture
· Climbs stairs with assistance
· Pulls or pushes toys with wheels
Two years old

· Runs very stiffly on toes
· Walks on tiptoes
· Walks upstairs holding the banister
· Pedals a tricycle while adult pushes
Three years old
· Runs without falling
· Walks backward easily
· Moves a chair to reach for an object
· Rides tricycle using pedals, unassisted by an adult
Four years old
· Walks upstairs like an adult by alternating feet
· Runs smoothly with changes in speed
· Skips using alternate feet rather than galloping
· Jumps up and down on the floor several times
Five years old
· Hops on one foot
· Performs jumping jacks
· Walks up and down the stairs while carrying objects
· Jumps a rope
Six years old
· Jumps over objects ten inches high
· Rides a bicycle with training wheels
· Walks securely on balance beam
· Balances on roller skates
Source: Dunlap, 1997
Development of Fine Motor Skills
When children are able to play with
interlocking blocks, they have begun to
master their fine motor skills. How do
these skills transfer into the abilities we have as adults?
F1 Online/SuperStock
Fine motor skills are those in which the movement is controlled
by small muscle groups. Examples of
these skills include writing, drawing, cutting with scissors, or pl

aying an instrument. Newborn children
have very few fine motor skills and fail to exhibit much control
of any object. However, by six months
they are able to pick up objects using what is called a palmar gr
asp (using the palm of their hand).This progresses to even finer
control by 12 months, when the infant is able to use their thumb
s and
forefingers to hold objects. This form of holding is called the pi
ncer grasp.
After their first year, toddlers are able to pass objects from one
hand to the other, which is a
precursor to even finer skills, such as making strokes with a pen
cil or crayon or turning pages of a
book. These skills appear near the end of the second year. Two-
year-old toddlers can also conduct
play actions such as stacking blocks or turning the pages of a bo
ok. Older toddlers can begin to copy
and draw certain shapes (three years), and then in the years just
before starting school, can use
scissors (four years), write letters, and begin to draw people sho
wing rudimentary body parts (five
years). During the school years, fine motor skills are even more
sophisticated. These children are able
to paint and draw, use interlocking construction blocks, and util
ize keyboards on either computers or various video games.
From
<https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUPED212.12.1/sections/se
c3.2>

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