This document summarizes the history of governance in Africa from ancient times through the present day. It outlines the rise and fall of kingdoms and empires, the impacts of colonialism and independence movements, and recent developments in decentralization and the strengthening of local governance. Key events covered include the establishment of early centralized states, the Berlin Conference that partitioned Africa, independence in the mid-20th century, and the growing role of regional organizations, civil society, and traditional authorities over the past few decades.

1. 3100 BC to 332 AD: Pharaonic civilization in Egypt.
3rd century BC to 275 AD: Alexandrian Library
7th century: Beginning of intra African long distance trade
1236: Mandé Charter in Mali, earliest declaration of human rights
9th to 19th century: Rise and fall of centralized African kingdoms
(situated on rivers and on the coast). States involved in long distance
trade (gold, ivory, wood, salt, slaves, and spices) with African, Euro-
pean and Arabic partners. No clear-cut borders. Large part of African
population lived in decentralized stateless societies.
15th century: Foundation of 1st African University in Timbuktu (Mali)
Between the 15th and
the early 17th century:
Age of discovery and
conquest, extension
of European power in
world politics.
Late 17th to early 19th
centuries: Triangular
system of transatlantic
slave trade.
Late 18th and 19th
century: Research on
precious natural resour-
ces fuelled desire of
Europeans to take pos-
session of them.
1884/1885: Berlin Conference, Zones of influence in Africa were
determined among competing European states.
• Continent partitioned on paper, in reality it took decades to fight fier-
ce resistance of Africans and to establish a colonial administration.
Ethiopia, Liberia and Botswana remained largely independent.
• Formerly flux borders turned fixed and cut across trading and
transhumant routes, separating cultures formerly united.
• European administrative languages now linked some, but separated
other neighbouring regions of the continent.
• Indirect Rule approach characterized British rule.
• Direct Rule approach was applied by France, Portugal, and Belgium.
• The focus of colonialism lay on extraction of raw materials (agricul-
tural produce, mineral resources etc.) and creation of markets for
industrial products.
• Leadership and spirituality linked.
• Rich legacy of governance forms: Typologies of pre-colonial Gover-
nance Systems differentiate decentralized consensual systems
(age-set systems, village-kinship systems) and centralized chieftaincy
systems with varying degree of accountability of rulers.
• Legitimate Political Power based on fulfilled basic government
expectations of the ruled and/or on technical superiority (horses,
weapons, riches).
• Expectations from rulers handed down from generation to generati-
on, “social capital“ counted: reputation of wisdom, negotiation skills,
generosity, protection of group interests, not of individuals.
• Council systems served to narrow differences and reach unanimity.
Public meeting spaces (“arbre /case à palabre”) can be found all
over Africa.
• The deposal of a ruler possible, secession in case of dissent
frequent.
• Due to low population density on the continent, whenever parts of a
population resented an existing form of governance, one option was
to leave, to form a new community and to cultivate a part of the
wilderness.
• Women and youth usually excluded in decision making.
• Indirect Rule accepted traditional rule and law as long as rulers
fulfilled their administrative tasks.
• Under Direct Rule rigid centralized structure, a single legal order
defined by the ‘civilized’ laws of Europe, no native institutions were to
be recognized, local traditional authorities extended arm of a centra-
lized administrative system.
• The collection of taxes and the recruitment of forced labor prime task
of chiefs in both approaches. Population forced into money economy,
settlers were provided with workforce.
• Chiefs received salary, kept a part of the collected taxes;
their families gained preferred access to education.
• Power of chiefs backed by the colonial administration. Abuse of tradi-
tional power led to loss of accountability towards the people. Orders
were communicated in a top-down manner without consultation.
• Chiefs could act as mediators in the interests of their people.
• At school Africans exposed to a Eurocentric worldview.
African forms of knowledge sharing, African values and history were
neglected.
• Africans deprived of equal rights.
• Africans had limited access to education, higher education not
promoted. Education was supposed to transmit basic knowledge
needed for simple jobs in the formal sector.
• Most schools around bigger economic centers – rural areas
disadvantaged.
• The education system left Africans with a desire to be part of the
modern world and with growing sense of injustice and the need for
resistance.
1919 – 1945: Five international Pan-African Congresses joined Afri-
cans from Africa and from the Diaspora in discussions to end colonia-
lism.
In the 1930s: African civil society voices inside and outside of Africa
promoted self-governance and fought against inequality and injustice.
In the 1930s: In France, the Négritude Movement, initiated by franco-
phone intellectuals, (Césaire /Senghor/ Damas) advocated the pride in
being black and a valorization of African history, traditions and beliefs.
1918 - 1950: Fascism and Socialism dominated the intellectual deba-
tes in this era. Colonial powers weakened by economic crisis in Euro-
pe and by 1st and 2nd World War. Africans fought in both wars.
1st December 1944: Mutiny of African Soldiers (“Tirailleurs Sénéga-
lais”) in Thiaroye Camp. Bloody crackdown sparked wave of national
claims
Flight from forced labour, taxation and expropriation of fertile land (e.g.
Algeria or Kenya) led to migration of the predominantly male popula-
tion from rural areas to growing cities to work in mines, harbours, rail-
way etc..
The traditional order eroded in towns, in rural areas relative degree of
continuity of traditional forms of local governance.
In the 1930s: Africans organized themselves into farmers’, workers’,
and students’ associations and created germ cells of resistance.
After 1945: Foundation of hundreds of political parties all over Africa.
1944 Conference of Governors of French Black Africa held in Brazza-
ville: proposed that the colonies send representatives to the French
Constitutional Assembly.
1955: Afro-Asian Conference in Bandoeng, Indonesia, participants
from 29 countries, objective: fight against colonialism/ neo-colonialism,
influenced birth of non-aligned movement.
Development of liberation movements and political parties.
In the 50s, 60s and 70s independence of majority of African states by
transition or wars of liberation.
The majority of states presidential one-party states, socialist one-party
states or military regimes, few competitive multiparty systems.
Strategy: Strong central state, quick modernization strategy.
Support from either Eastern or Western countries.
Trade mostly linked to former colonial power.
1963: Establishment of the Organization of African Unity (AOU).
1950 – 1989: Widespread political instability, wars, civil wars and coup
d’états destroyed
chances for eco-
nomic develop-
ment.
1979: 1st of 36
subsequent World
Bank Structural
Adjustment Pro-
grammes (SAP) in
in Africa sparked
social claims ac-
ross the continent
• Colonial languages and borders were maintained.
• Scarcity of trained personnel to keep the modern sector running.
• No trained, efficient public administration at local level, poor service
delivery, customary governance remained resilient.
• Mega projects were planned, (dams, heavy industry, state farms with
attached communal villages).
• Big state enterprises struggled, small and medium scale private busi-
nesses neglected.
• Large loans by Eastern and Western allies.
• New political elites often from ethnic groups close to the capital (high-
est number of graduates). Ethnic conflicts instead of national unity
followed.
• Local governance executed central policies without influencing them.
• Mega projects failed, facilities could not be run properly, debts that had
financed these projects remained.
• Policy advice of World Bank and IMF at the end of the 70s was to cut
costs in the public sector, enhance efficiency, privatize state enterpri-
ses and decentralize.
• The 1st wave of decentralization did not consider adequate financial
means and training at local governance level. No significant effect.
1989: End of Cold War, worldwide wave of democratizations.
Between 1989 and 1994: Multiparty elections in more than 40 African
states.
1998: 1st Africities summit on Pan-African dialogue on decentralization
and local development.
2000: 2nd Africities summit; birth of the All Africa Ministerial Confe-
rence on Decentralization and Local Development (AMCOD).
2001: Birth of the New Partnership for Africa‘s Development (NEPAD)
as African Planning and Coordinating Agency.
2002: Organization of African Unity dissolved, re-founded as African
Union (AU), focus on economic development, peer learning, and joint
strategic action of member states.
2003: Launch of the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) as
self-monitoring mechanism between Member States of the AU.
Since 1989: Revitalization or foundation of Regional Organizations
which work on the removal of barriers in intra-African-trade (to date
only 10-12%).
Since 2011 Wave of regime changes in North Africa, with the Internet
as influencing factor.
• Traditional Authorities and Customary law increasingly integrated into
national legislation. (Legal Pluralism)
• Influence of civil society and the media on local politics has grown.
• In the 1990s: Enshrinement of decentralization in the constitution of
many countries which led to:
- holding of sub-national elections;
- devolving of responsibilities, (only partly) of resources to
sub-national officials;
- Decision-making in the areas of planning, management and
implementation.
• Political component of decentralization most advanced.
• Fiscal and administrative components lagging behind.
African states have clearly committed themselves to democracy and to
underlying shared values in governance. These values are:
1. Inclusion of citizens;
2. Respect and consideration of cultural diversity;
3. Promotion of integration of the local level;
4. Respect of the Rule of law;
5. Participation of the grassroots population in governance;
6. Free administration of local councils;
7. Reliability and accountability;
8. Transparency;
9. Equity and gender equality;
10. Respect of Human and Peoples’ Rights;
11. Valorization of traditional knowledge;
12. Sharing and good management of resources;
13. Respect of the environment.
Links between modern democratic concepts and traditional concepts
of governance are nowadays highlighted. The focus lies on communi-
ty-spiritedness and respect (e.g. Ujamaa, Ubuntu).
• People in rural areas suffered from uncontrolled chieftain and
colonial despotism and arbitrariness.
• Traditional value system remained influential (mutual solidarity).
• The Négritude movement and the Pan-African movement were
linked, but differed. The Pan-African approach focused on power and
economic perspectives and the Négritude movement focused more
on cultural differences to Europe and valorised these differences
• The educated urban African elite came to see themselves as defen-
ding the right of the simple people, without the power of literacy. The
fight for justice and equality was held up as prime value.
Centralized system,
absolute power
Abyssinia (Ethiopia), Rwanda, Swazi
Centralized system, limited
checks and balances
Nupe, Buganda, Zulu, Haussa, Yoruba
Centralized systems, well
defined systems of checks and
balances
Ashanti, Busoga of Uganda, Lesotho,
Tswana of Botswana
Decentralized
age-set-systems
Oromo, Kikuyu, Masai
Decentralized village/
kinship systems
Ibo village assembly, Eritrean Baito, Tiv of
Nigeria, Owan Society of Nigeria, Council
System of the Berbers
• Socialist regimes advocated science, equality of the sexes, internatio-
nal solidarity, and community spiritedness. They condemned individu-
alistic behaviour (common ground with tradition). However: Traditional
authorities were seen as colonial collaborators, tradition associated
with backwardness.
• Little room for constructive criticism of citizens or consensus building in
public politics.
• In 1967 President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania presented concept of
an African Socialism. Two Swahili words important: Ujamaa (village,
community, family, family values, community spirit) und kujitegemea
(self-reliance). Mutual respect, common property and a work ethic
were central values. The communal villages in Tanzania economically
unsuccessful, but literacy rates rocketed.
• National Unity was proclaimed as value, ethnic/cultural identity sub-
dued.
BEFORE 1885
Panorama of regional diversity of political
systems, political and economic power
on the African continent
1885 – 1918
Colonial invasion, popular resistance,
integration of African political systems into
the government logic of the colonizers
1918 – 1950
Rising African consciousness,
opposition, colonial change
1950 – 1989
Independent Africa, troubled nation-buil-
ding processes, Structural Adjustment
AFTER 1989
Democratic Turn, Decentralization and
Revival of Pan African Governance
Architecture
Local Economic Development is a Precondition for National,
Regional and Continental Economic Development
• Economic growth at local level is essential: It provides communities
and in the end the state at all levels of governance with the means to
improve public service-delivery (Schools, Hospitals, Sanitation,
Access to Water and Electricity).
• Big, medium and most of all, small-scale private enterprises at local
level need business-friendly environments without excessive red
tape to thrive.
• Remittances are increasingly acknowledged as an economic factor
in local development.
• To enhance inner African trade, Regional Organizations need to cut
down barriers (customs, taxes, regulations) so that borders, created
in colonial times, gradually lose their static nature (solidarity between
countries).
• Peace is both a precondition and an outcome for Local Economic
Development.
New Public Governance for Africa
• A capable central state is needed to drive and safeguard
decentralization reforms against disruptions.
• Cooperative exchange between efficient local, provincial, national
and continental governance structures will help to successfully
implement local development strategies (complementary, harmo-
nised planning).
• The financing of decentralization and adequate training of public
servants is key to improved public service delivery.
• There is no ready-made concept for decentralization in Africa.
Exchange between states on different models is desirable.
• Taking time for consensus building at local level is a catalyst for
lasting results.
• Knowledge is Power
• Profound knowledge of customary governance and mediation skills
need to be valued and promoted in learning.
• Joint action on scientific research and capacity building is crucially
important in order to defend African interests (knowledge of the
continent’s riches).
• The African Diaspora is an emerging player to be considered in local
development.
Unity / Diversity
• Cultural traditions and identities are essential.
• A nation state with decentralized structures gives space to cultural
diversity.
• However: The central state has to guarantee the overarching
democratic rights and values of its entire people (people of all
beliefs, men and women, younger and older people).
Shared African Values and Principles
• African states have agreed on a set of shared values. They are
elaborating an African Charter on the Values and Principles of
Decentralization, Local Governance and Local Development to
guide the creation of “an integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa,
driven by its own citizens and representing a dynamic force in the
global arena.”
ProducedbyGFAConsultingGroupGmbH|PhotoCredits(fromlefttoright):AfricanKingdoms:PropertyofAfricanStudiesCenter,MichiganStateUniversity·TheEmirandhisEntourage,Ilorin,South-WestNigeria:PropertyofFrobenius-Institut,JohannWolfgangGoethe-UniversityFrankfurt.·TheBattleofAdwa:PropertyofBritishMuseumImages·TreatybetweenKikuyuandBritishEastAfricaCompany.Kenya,1897.Propertyofpicture-alliance/MaryEvansPictureLibrary·DogonMaskShutterstock·Membersofthe5thPan-AfricanCongress.Manchester,UnitedKingdom.1945.ManchesterLibraries,Informationand
Archives,ManchesterCityCouncil·Tirailleurssenegalais,àLongchamp,le14juillet1913©Delius/Leemage,picture-alliance/maxppp·KairoShutterstock·WarofLiberation.RaidoftheprefectureofthedepartmentOran.Algeria.14.05.1958.Propertyof:picture-alliance/dpa.·PostertotheOAUfoundationpicture-alliance/dpa,A9999_DB_Sepp_Riff·CommunityPlanninginAngola,GFA;MagnusSchmid·Children:Fotolia·UNESCOWorldHeritageTimbuktu:Shutterstock·ConferencecentrefortheAfricanUnion(AU).AddisAbaba,Ethiopia.28.01.2012.Propertyofpicture-alliance/ZUMAPRESS.com.29265917.
Source: Economic Commission for Africa, 2007
AFRICAN LOCAL GOVERNANCE TIMELINE – ALGOT
EVOLVING LESSONS FROM AFRICA’S GOVERNANCE HISTORY
Triggers
and
Programmatic
Interventions
at Macro
Level
Institutional
Responses
at Local
Governance
Level:
•Checks and
Balances
•Participation
•Repre-
sentation
Values:
•Equity &
Equality
•Account-
ability
•Consensus
building/
Conflict
resolution
•Community
spirited-
ness
Carthage
Classical
Egypt
Kush
Axum
Ethiopia
Kanem-Bornu
SonghayGhana
Ashanti Yoruba
Luba
Rwanda
Buganda
Lunda
Lozi
Malawi
Kilwa
Zulu Kingdom
Congo
Mali
MerinaMonomotapa
Wolof
DOMINATION POLITICAL AWARENESS NATION BUILDING LOCAL DEVELOPMENT LESSONSAUTONOMY