Strategic Management Theory andPracticeStrategy Formula.docx

Strategic Management: Theory and
Practice
Strategy Formulation
Contributors: By: John A. Parnell
Book Title: Strategic Management: Theory and Practice
Chapter Title: "Strategy Formulation"
Pub. Date: 2014
Access Date: March 24, 2018
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Ltd
City: 55 City Road
Print ISBN: 9781452234984
Online ISBN: 9781506374598
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781506374598.n9
Print pages: 246-269
©2014 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
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Strategy Formulation
Chapter Outline
Strengths and Weaknesses
Human Resources
Board of Directors
Top Management
Middle Management, Supervisors, and Employees
Organizational Resources
Physical Resources
Opportunities and Threats
The SW/OT Matrix
Issues in Strategy Formulation
Evaluating Strategic Change
Strategy, Corporate Social Responsibility, and Managerial
Ethics
Effects on Organizational Resources

Anticipated Responses From Competitors and Customers
Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions and Exercises
Practice Quiz
Student Study Site
Notes
This chapter marks a shift from analysis toward
recommendations. Reconsidering the firm's
current strategic initiatives is the first step in evaluating its
activities and thinking about what
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the firm should be doing.
After the firm's mission and ongoing strategic directions are
well understood, the organization
can begin to craft a strategy. The first step in this process, a
SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats) analysis, enables top managers to
position the firm to take
advantage of select opportunities in the environment while

avoiding or minimizing
environmental threats.1. In doing so, the organization attempts
to emphasize its strengths and
moderate the potential negative consequences of its weaknesses.
Sometimes referred to as
TOWS, the SWOT analysis also helps uncover strengths that
have not yet been fully utilized
and identify weaknesses that can be corrected. Matching
information about the environment
with knowledge of the organization's capabilities enables
management to formulate realistic
strategies for attaining its goals.2.
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Strengths and Weaknesses
The first two elements of the SWOT analysis—strengths and
weaknesses—represent internal
firm attributes. In addition, a firm's strengths and weaknesses
are considered relative to key
competitors in its industry. In other words, customer loyalty

would be viewed as a strength or
weakness for an organization if it is more pronounced in that
firm than in most others in the
industry. Hence, strengths can be viewed as artifacts of past
success in an organization
whereas weaknesses can be seen as gaps between an
organization's current position and the
industry norm. As an extension of this logic, the notion of gap
analysis seeks to identify the
distance between a firm's current position and its desired
position with regard to an internal
weakness. When possible, a firm should take action to close the
gap—especially when the
gap leaves a firm vulnerable to external threats in its
environment. Simply closing
performance gaps is not sufficient, however. Strategic decisions
should accentuate
competitive advantage, not just seek to match rivals or industry
norms.
The value chain is also a useful concept for analyzing a firm's
strengths and weaknesses
and understanding how they might translate into competitive
advantage or disadvantage. The
value chain describes the activities that comprise the economic
performance and capabilities
of the firm. The organization is viewed as an intermediary that
systemically transforms low-
value inputs into high-value outputs. Specifically, the value
chain identifies primary and
support activities that create value for customers. Primary
activities in the chain include
inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing,
and service. Support activities
include the firm infrastructure, human resources management
(HRM), technology, and

procurement. Each of these activities plays a role in the
transformation and can be evaluated
in terms of effectiveness and efficiency, ultimately connoting
strengths and weaknesses.3.
By considering all of the firm's processes from the procurement
of raw materials to the
delivery of a final product and/or service, strategic managers
can identify discrete activities
performed along the way that may add exceptional value to the
end product or detract from it.
For example, in March 2002, after a gradual decline in travel
agency commissions throughout
the industry, Delta Airlines announced an end to most of the
commissions it pays to travel
agents. With Delta's ability to trim sales costs through direct
selling, airline executives no
longer believed that domestic travel agents were adding
sufficient value to justify the
expense.4. Other major airlines followed suit, and by the late
2000s, all major airlines were
utilizing their Internet sites to provide the sales and support
services traditionally provided by
third-party travel agencies. Today, firms like Orbitz,
Travelocity, and the remaining traditional
travel agencies have found other ways to add value, such as
emphasizing tour packages,
online search features, personal service, convenience, or hotel-
car-airline packages.
There are three broad categories of firm resources that form the
foundation for firm strengths
and weaknesses:

Human resources: The experience, capabilities, knowledge,
skills, and judgment of all
the firm's employees
Organizational resources: The firm's systems and processes,
including its strategies at
various levels, structure, and culture
Physical resources: Plant and equipment, geographic locations,
access to raw
materials, distribution network, and technology.
Each resource category is discussed in greater detail next.
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Human Resources
The most attractive organizational and physical resources are
useless without a competent

workforce of managers and employees. A firm's human
resources (HR) can be examined at
three levels: (1) the board of directors; (2) top management; and
(3) middle management,
supervisors, and employees.
Board of Directors
Because board members are becoming increasingly involved in
corporate affairs, they can
materially influence the firm's effectiveness. In examining
strengths and weaknesses they
bring to the firm, one should consider the following issues:
Prospective contributions of corporate board members: Strong
board members possess
considerable experience, knowledge, and judgment, as well as
valuable outside
political connections.
Tenure (experience) as members of the corporate board: Long-
term stability enables
board members to gain organizational knowledge, but some
turnover is beneficial
because new members often bring a fresh perspective to
strategic issues.
Connection to the firm (i.e., internal or external) and ability to
represent various
stakeholders: Although it is common for several top managers
to be board members, a
disproportionate representation of them diminishes the identity
of the board as a group
apart from top management. Ideally, board members should
represent diverse
stakeholders, including minorities, creditors, customers, and the
local community. A
diverse board membership can contribute to the health of the

firm.
Top Management
Three issues should be considered relative to the strengths and
weaknesses of any firm's top
management.
Backgrounds and capabilities of top managers: Comprehending
their strengths and
weaknesses in experience, managerial style, decision-making
capability, and team
building is useful. Although having executives who have an
extensive knowledge of the
firm and its industry can be advantageous, managers from
diverse and complementary
backgrounds may generate innovative strategic ideas. In
addition, an organization's
management needs may change as the firm grows and matures.
Because firms are
often started by innovative entrepreneurs who happen to be poor
administrators, they
often add key administrators to the top management team, which
includes the group of
top-level executives—headed by the chief executive officer
(CEO)—all of whom play
instrumental roles in the strategic management process.
Tenure (experience) as members of top management: Although
lengthy tenure can
mean consistent and stable strategy development and
implementation, low turnover
may breed conformity, complacency, and a failure to explore
new opportunities. CEO
turnover is even desirable when the firm is unable to meet its
performance targets.
Strengths and weaknesses of individual top managers: Some

executives may excel in
strategy formulation, for instance, but be weak in
implementation. Some may spend
considerable time on internal stakeholders and operations
whereas others may
concentrate on external constituents. As with the board of
directors, it is helpful for
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board members to possess complementary skills to function well
as a team. In addition,

a number of large companies offer financial incentives to sign
and retain top executives
with knowledge critical to the firm.
Middle Management, Supervisors, and Employees
Even the best strategies will fail without a talented workforce to
implement them. A firm's
personnel and their knowledge, abilities, commitment, and
performance tend to reflect the
firm's human resource programs. These factors can be explored
by considering five key
issues:
Existence of a comprehensive human resource planning
program: Developing such a
program requires that the firm forecast its personnel needs,
including types of positions
and requisite qualifications, for the next several years based on
its strategic plan.
Strategically relevant knowledge or expertise possessed by
members of the firm: Many
firms place a great emphasis on retaining high-quality
individuals in a number of areas,
such as research and development (R & D) or sales. This is a
critical issue when a firm
is heavily involved in global competition. Interestingly, all
companies claim to have the
best workforce, but clearly this is not the case.
Emphasis on training and development: Some firms view
training and development as a
strategic issue and seek long-term benefits from its training
programs. In contrast,
other firms view training as a short-term necessity and
emphasize cost minimization in
their programs.

Turnover: High turnover relative to levels among close
competitors generally reflects
personnel problems, such as poor management-employee
relations, low compensation
or benefits, or low job satisfaction due to other causes.
Emphasis on effective performance appraisal (PA): Progressive
firms utilize PA to
provide accurate feedback to managers and employees, link
rewards to actual
performance, and show managers and employees how to
improve performance, as well
as comply with all equal employment opportunity requirements.
Firms that do not
adequately appraise high performers—and reward them—are
more likely to lose them.
Organizational Resources
The alignment between organizational resources and business
strategy is critical for long-
term success. In this regard, seven key issues are noteworthy:
Consistency among corporate, business, and functional
strategies: To facilitate strategy
integration, managers at the corporate, business unit, and
functional level should be
represented at each level of strategic planning. The strategy at
each level should
influence and be influenced by the strategy at the other levels.
Consistency between organizational strategies and the firm's
mission and goals: The
mission, goals, and strategies must be compatible and integrated
to reflect a clear
sense of identity and purpose for the organization.
Consistency between the firm's strategies and its culture: For a
strategy to be effective,

it must be supported by an organizational culture that
emphasizes values that support
it.
Consistency between the firm's strategies and its structure: It is
important to note any
structural changes that might be required should the
organization seek to implement a
major change in strategy.
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Position in the industry: All things equal, firms that possess
strong market positions are
in a better position to implement strategic changes than those in
weak positions. For
firms operating globally, this assessment must be made in the
various nations in which
the firm operates.
Product and service quality: It is important to comprehend how
quality levels of the
firm's products and services compare with those of rival firms.
Reputation of the firm and/or brand: Many firms have
established reputations for factors
such as high quality and customer service. Recent surveys have
identified a number of
strong brands such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Apple,
Starbucks, and Google. The
Toyota brand lost considerable value after the brake crisis in
2009 and 2010, but
appeared to recover well in 2011 and 2012.5.
Physical Resources
Physical resources can differ considerably from one
organization to another, even among
close competitors. For example, Amazon.com requires different
physical plants than a
consulting firm. Nonetheless, five issues concerning the
strengths and weaknesses of
physical resources should be considered:
Currency of technology: All things equal, competitors with
superior technology and the
ability to use it have a decided competitive advantage in the
marketplace. This is

especially true in global markets and should be assessed in each
of the nations in
which the firm operates.
Quality and sophistication of distribution network: Distribution
networks apply to both
manufacturing and service concerns. American Airlines’
domination of passenger gates
at Dallas/Fort Worth Airport and Delta's similar control in
Atlanta give both of these
service companies a competitive advantage.
Production capacity: A continual backlog of orders may indicate
a growing market
acceptance of a firm's product, or it may depict serious
problems associated with
insufficient capacity. A firm can expand its capacity by
increasing production shifts or
obtaining additional facilities, but such measures can be costly.
Reliable access to cost-effective sources of supplies: Suppliers
who are unreliable, lack
effective quality control programs, or cannot control their costs
well do not foster a
competitive advantage for the buying firm.
Favorable location(s): Ideally, the organization should be
located where skilled labor,
suppliers, and customers are readily accessible.
In an optimal setting, all three types of resources work together
to provide the firm with a
competitive advantage that can be sustained. Following the
resource-based perspective
introduced in Chapter 1, firm success depends primarily on the
combination of resources it
possesses The VRIO (valuable, rare, imitable, and organization)
framework helps strategic
managers evaluate the competitive quality of the resources
controlled by the organization on

the basis of four progressive characteristics:6.
Valuable: Can the resource be employed to exploit an
opportunity or neutralize an
external threat? Resources that are merely valuable can assist
the firm in attaining
competitive parity with rivals but not competitive advantage.
Rare: Is the resource controlled by a relatively small number of
individuals or firms?
Resources that are both valuable and rare can produce
temporary competitive
advantage. This is worthwhile, but a resource's scarcity tends to
erode over time.
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Imitable: Can other firms easily imitate or acquire the resource?
If rivals cannot imitate
or acquire a valuable and rare resource, then a firm has the
potential for achieving and
maintaining competitive advantage over the long term.
Organization: Is the firm poised to exploit the resource? Firms

that are able to leverage
valuable, rare, and inimitable resources can attain sustained
competitive advantage.
While firm resources—both tangible and intangible—ultimately
constitute the firm's
strengths and weaknesses, merely possessing a resource does
not always benefit the
organization. Resources are translated into desired results by a
firm's capabilities, its
skills at coordinating and leveraging resources to create value.7.
Table 9.1 VRIO Framework8.
Resourc
e
Charact
eristic
Definition Implication
Valuabl
e
Can be employed to exploit
an opportunity or neutralize
a threat
If only valuable, then there is only parity with rivals.
There is no competitive advantage.
Rare
Controlled by one or a few
entities
If only valuable and rare, competitive advantage

exists but is likely to be temporary.
Inimitab
le
Costly for rivals to duplicate
If valuable, rare, and inimitable, the firm has the
potential for long-term competitive advantage.
Organiz
ation
The firm possesses the
appropriate capabilities to
leverage the resource
If valuable, rare and inimitable, and if the firm has the
appropriate capabilities, then sustainable competitive
advantage can be achieved.
Capabilities are essential if valuable, inimitable, and rare
resources are to be effectively
employed. The ability to manage supply chains, adjust pricing,
and execute flexible
production represent a few capabilities Toyota has leveraged
during the past two decades.
Although resources and capabilities are sometimes used
interchangeably in the popular press
and both can represent strengths or weaknesses, the distinction
between the two concepts is
an important one.9.
The unique combination of a firm's human, organizational, and
physical resources— as
transformed into capabilities—should be emphasized in its

strategy. As the firm acquires
additional resources, unique synergies occur between its new
and existing resources.
Because each firm possesses its own distinct combination of
resources, the particular types of
synergies that occur will differ from one firm to another.
Leveraging these synergies into
sustained competitive advantages is a key task of top
management (see Case Analysis 9.1).
Case Analysis 9.1 Step 16: What Strengths Exist for the
Organization?
Step 17: What Weaknesses Exist for the Organization?
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Resources and strategic capabilities are the foundation for a

firm's internal strengths
and weaknesses. The VRIO framework should be employed to
evaluate the competitive
quality of firm resources. The organization's strengths and
weaknesses should be
numbered, each with as much depth and justification as
possible. Many possible
organizational strengths and weaknesses can emanate from its
resource base,
including (but not limited to) the following:
Brand names and recognition
Company reputation
Control systems
Costs (internal)
Customer loyalty
Decision making
Distribution
Economies of scale
Environmental scanning
Executive leadership
Financial resources
Forecasting
Government lobbying

HR
Information systems and technology
Internet presence
Labor relations
Location
Logistics and inventory management
Manufacturing and operations
Market share
Organizational structure
Physical facilities and equipment
Product/service differentiation
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Product/service quality
Promotion and advertising
Public relations
Purchasing and channel management
Quality control
R & D
Sales
Strategic capabilities
Technology and patents
The previous list includes examples of strengths and
weaknesses, but there are many
others. To set the stage for the remainder of the analysis, it is
important to state clearly
how each strength has benefited the organization and how each

weakness has
hindered it. In many instances, the strengths are the primary
catalysts for the
organization's successes, and its weaknesses are the main
reasons why it has failed in
certain endeavors.
There is no set target for the number of strengths or weaknesses
that should be
identified in a case analysis. When only several are identified,
however, it is likely that
the effort is not thorough. When the list becomes too long-as
would be the case if all of
the items in the previous list happened to be associated with
strengths and/or
weaknesses-it becomes cumbersome to manage in the remaining
steps of the
analysis. In this situation, it is necessary to consider pooling
several items into a single
one whenever feasible. For example, “expertise in advertising”
and “a strong sales
force” could be merged into a single item entitled “marketing
expertise.”
Opportunities and Threats
The last two elements of the SWOT analysis—opportunities and
threats—are associated with
factors outside the organization. As such, they must emanate
from the earlier analyses of the
industry and the macroenvironment (i.e., PEST, or political-
legal, economic, social, and
technological forces). Although an industry-level analysis may
identify general factors, this
stage shifts to the firm level and considers how the external
forces could affect the

organization under consideration. For example, an analysis of
the social forces affecting
investment houses may identify consumer acceptance of the
Internet as a social force
affecting the industry. Considering online broker TD
Ameritrade, this force may be translated
into both opportunities (e.g., a growing market of potential
online investors who are still
utilizing traditional brokers) and threats (e.g., intense
competition from the myriad of Internet
sources that may erode the loyalty of current customers to
Ameritrade offerings).
External opportunities and threats must not be confused with
internal strengths and
weaknesses. Factors associated with the firm such as a poor
financial position, an ineffective
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marketing strategy, or a strong brand image are internal factors
and therefore must be
classified as strengths or weaknesses. In contrast, factors
outside the firm such as
demographic changes, competitive threats, or recent legislation
are external factors and
therefore must be classified as opportunities or threats. At the
international level, a number of
external factors should be considered as prospective
opportunities and threats, including the

cyclical or seasonal nature of the industry in which the firm
operates, as well as the intensity
of global competition.
It is also critical to distinguish between opportunities and
alternatives, although the distinction
can sometimes appear to be one of semantics. Opportunities
represent the application of
forces in the external environment to a specific organization.
Alternatives emanate from the
SW/OT matrix (discussed later) and represent specific courses
of action that the organization
may choose to pursue. The two are related but must be
distinguished. For example,
increasing societal interest in Cajun food may present an
opportunity for a restaurant. When
evaluated in the SW/OT matrix relative to internal factors such
as the company's existing
locations in Louisiana and its strong reputation for innovative
cuisine, this opportunity may
lead to an alternative for the company to consider, such as
introducing a new line of Cajun
offerings (see Case Analysis 9.2).
Case Analysis 9.2 Step 18: What Opportunities Exist for the
Organization?
Step 19: What Threats Exist for the Organization?
In the SWOT analysis, one must not only identify strengths and
weaknesses but must
also translate the analysis of the macroenvironment and industry
into opportunities and
threats. Although these issues will have been addressed at the
industry level earlier in
the analysis, they should be integrated into a discussion that

highlights specifically
how they present opportunities to or threaten the organization.
For example, if it was
previously noted that the industry rises and falls abruptly with
economic conditions,
then the prospects of a recession may pose a major threat for the
firm. If it was noted
that technological advances have not yet been incorporated into
production processes
in the industry, then application of this technology may become
an opportunity worth
considering for the organization.
There is no set target for the number of opportunities or threats
that should be
identified. When only several in each category are identified,
however, it is likely that
the analysis is superficial and key issues have not been
included.
The SW/OT Matrix
After the SWOT analysis is completed, alternative courses of
action may be analyzed by
creating a SW/OT matrix.10. The SW/OT matrix extends the
SWOT analysis by using it as a
tool for generating strategic alternatives for the firm. This is
why it is critical that external
opportunities not be confused with alternative courses of action.
Prospective strategic options
for the firm emanate from the SW/OT matrix.
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A SW/OT matrix is created with strengths and weaknesses listed
vertically on the left side and
opportunities and threats listed across the top. Alternatives
emerge from the combination of
one or more strengths/weaknesses from the left side of the
matrix with one or more
opportunities/threats from the top. For example, a company that
can develop and produce
high-quality electronic products in a short period of time—a
strength—could take advantage
of an increased consumer interest in smartphones—an
opportunity—by developing and
marketing one, a strategic alternative. This does not mean that
the company should
necessarily pursue such a strategy but merely that the
alternative warrants further
consideration. The SW/OT matrix is a systematic means of
developing strategic alternatives
available to the organization, but it also requires brainstorming
and creative skills as well. The
SW/OT matrix helps top managers position a firm in its
environment so that it leverages its
strengths while minimizing the detrimental effects of its
weaknesses.
In general, four categories of alternatives emerge from the
SW/OT matrix, each representing

the combination of one or more strengths or weaknesses with
one or more opportunities or
threats:
Strength-Opportunity: These “offensive” alternatives tend to be
the most common and
involve utilizing an organizational strength to address an
opportunity. In the late 2000s,
Canadian donut shop Tim Horton's began a campaign to expand
rapidly into U.S.
markets.11. Tim Horton was leveraging a strength—its success
and strong track record
in Canada—to pursue an opportunity: increasing demand for
donut shops in bordering
states. At the same time, Honda utilized two strengths: (1) a
combination of motorcycle
quality and (2) affordability along with a strong partnership
with an Indian manufacturer
—to capitalize on an opportunity—increasing disposable income
and demand for
economical transportation in India—to produce and sell more
than 4 million
motorcycles and scooters in India, accounting for more than
one-half of the nation's
market share.12.
Weakness-Threat: These “defensive” alternatives involve taking
some corrective action
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to eliminate or minimize a weakness so as to minimize the
effect of a threat. If an airline
with an aging, fuel-inefficient fleet (a weakness) is facing the
prospects of a substantial
increase in the price of fuel (a threat), it may consider a
weakness-threat alternative
such as consolidating flights or upgrading its airplanes to
newer, more efficient models.
Strength-Threat: These alternatives involve utilizing a strength
to eliminate or minimize
the effect of a threat. Strength-threat alternatives may be
offensive or defensive.
Suppose a manufacturer with a strong track record of innovation
(a strength) is facing
the prospects of increased consumer scrutiny and government
regulation of its
products because of ecological concerns (a threat). This firm
may consider a strength-
threat alternative such as a product redesign to address the
changing needs of the
marketplace and regulatory environment ahead of its rivals.
Weakness-Opportunity: These alternatives involve shoring up a
weakness so that the
organization can take advantage of an opportunity and may be
offensive or defensive.
Borders bet on a brick-and-mortar strategy in the early 2000s
but changed course in
2008 because of continued growth in online sales.13. Borders

sought to overcome a
weakness—a lack of a branded e-commerce site—by pursuing
an opportunity, growth
in the Internet segment. Borders’ action was too late, however,
as the company
liquidated in 2011. Motorcycle icon Harley-Davidson, suffering
from a 35% decline in
U.S. retail sales, opted to join Honda and sought to take
advantage of prospects for
rapid growth in the Indian market. Unlike Honda, however,
Harley is pursuing the most
affluent Indian consumers with a line of motorcycles starting at
more than $15,000,
more than 15 times the average annual salary.14. The ultimate
success of Harley-
Davidson's strategy remains to be seen.
Typically, most of the individual internal-external combinations
(i.e., matches between
strengths/weaknesses and opportunities/threats) will not
produce viable alternatives. Further,
several different combinations of internal and external factors
can produce the same
alternative. Some of the alternatives that emerge might be
eliminated from further
consideration for obvious reasons (e.g., taking the action would
be illegal). In addition, a given
SW/OT matrix might generate a large number of alternatives in
a particular category whereas
only a few may be generated in other categories. Emphasis
should be placed on the specific
alternatives, not the four categories of alternatives. Once
generated, strategic alternatives
should be analyzed further.

Figure 9.2 provides a simplified example of a SW/OT matrix for
McDonald's. Assume that the
SWOT analysis for McDonald's identified strengths of financial
stability, brand recognition,
and a strong ability to produce consistent products throughout
the world. Two weaknesses
were identified as well: (1) a reputation for lackluster taste and
(2) a heavy dependence on
fried foods. There were two key opportunities: (1) economic
growth in emerging economies
and (2) the increasing health consciousness in the United States
and other global markets.
Two threats were highlighted as well, including the global
economic downturn and the
increasing popularity of easy-to-prepare microwaveable foods.
A thorough SWOT analysis for
McDonald's would develop many more than two or three factors
in each category in our
simple example. Nonetheless, the number and complexity of the
factors are kept to a
minimum in this example so that the process of developing
alternatives can be clearly
illustrated.
Figure 9.2 A Simple SW/OT Matrix for McDonald's
Opportunities
Threats
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Growth in emerging
economies
Increasing health
consciousness in U.S. and
other markets
Global economic downturn
Growing popularity of easy-
toprepare items in grocery
stores
Strengths
Financial
stability and
resources
Brand name
and recognition

Consistency in
operations
Alternative 1: Launch new locations in BRIC (Brazil, Russia,
India,
and China) nations (S1, S2, O1)
Alternative 2: Expand healthier food alternatives (W1, W2, O2)
Alternative 3: Launch foods in grocery outlets (S2, S3,
T2)Weaknesses
Reputation for
bland-tasting
fast food
Dependence on
fried foods
Following the example, three possible alternative courses of
action can be identified for
further consideration. First, McDonald's could emphasize its
financial and brand strengths
and seize an emerging market opportunity by expanding
aggressively into the rapidly growing
BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) nations. Other nations
(e.g., Mexico, South Africa)
could also be considered as part of the alternative, but this
example assumes that industry
and/or external environment assessments highlighted specific
advantages of the BRIC
nations.
Second, McDonald's could address its weaknesses of declining
market share and
dependence on fast food and capitalize on increasing health
awareness in the United States
and other parts of the world by expanding its offerings of
healthier foods such as grilled

chicken and salads. McDonald's has moved in this direction in
recent years, but most of its
revenues are still derived from traditional fried foods (e.g.,
hamburgers, french fries), soft
drinks, and the like.
Third, McDonald's could emphasize its brand name and
consistency strengths and address
the threat of increased popularity of easy-to-prepare grocery
items by introducing its own line
of grocery products. Other fast-food and fast casual restaurants
such as Taco Bell and T.G.I.
Fridays have introduced products in grocery stores, and White
Castle even distributes it
famous hamburgers, known as “sliders,” in microwave-ready
form.
This simple example considers only a few hypothetical items in
each of the SWOT categories,
suggests only three prospective alternatives, and does not
suggest that McDonald's should
necessarily adopt any of them. Continuing to implement the
current strategy in its present
form—the so-called “no change” option—should be considered.
This alternative—denoted as
the final option in the previous example—should be analyzed as
critically as the other ones.
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Selecting the “no change” alternative should not be considered
as a low-risk option because
resisting change may be just as likely to expose a firm to great
danger as embracing it.
The strategic alternatives should also be presented in the
strategy level-strategy complexity
(SLSC) matrix. The SLSC matrix compares and contrasts the
alternatives on the basis of
strategy level—corporate, business, or functional—and strategy
complexity—the extent to
which executing the strategy would require substantial change,
resources, and uncertainty.
All things equal, the lower the strategy level (i.e., closer to
functional level) and the less
complex the strategy, the easier it will be to execute.
Alternatively, the higher the strategy level
and the more complex the strategy, the more difficult execution
is likely to be. For this reason,
implementing multiple high level, complex strategies is usually
not advisable.
Figure 9.3 applies the SLSC matrix to the McDonald's example.
Each of the alternatives
except the “no change” option appears in the matrix. Although
most alternatives influence
each strategy level to some extent, developing and emphasizing
more healthy foods is largely
a functional strategy concern most closely associated with
production and marketing. In
contrast, launching new locations is associated with corporate
growth and involves all of the
complexities of global operations. Emphasizing frozen foods in
grocery outlets involves both
functional (e.g., production and distribution) and business level
strategy changes. Relatively

speaking, developing a new distribution channel and producing
a line of frozen food might be
viewed as a moderately complex endeavor. In this example, the
SLSC enables the decision
maker to examine the strategies available to the firm in terms of
resources required for
execution.
Figure 9.3 Strategy Level-Strategy Complexity Matrix for
McDonald's
Evaluating the pros and cons of strategic alternatives in a
detailed, objective, and thorough
manner is critical. In some instances, a logistical problem can
pose a serious challenge to an
alternative. When automakers began to develop electric cars in
the late 2000s, the need for
ready access to inexpensive, plentiful electricity had not been
fully addressed. If drivers
charge their cars at night when electricity demand is low, utility
companies will enjoy greater
revenues without necessarily having to add capacity. However,
if drivers charge their cars
during the day when electricity demand is high, utilities will be
faced with a capacity problem
and rates will likely rise.15. Given the high demand for electric
cars at the time, this potential
drawback would not be sufficient to preclude the alternative
from consideration. The potential
problem and possible solutions should be seriously considered
when evaluating the
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alternative, however.
Problems with implementation can often be traced to the lack of
a thorough evaluation of the
strategic alternatives available to a firm (see Case Analysis
9.3). For example, it is easy to
assume that well-known brands will be readily accepted in new
markets or that competitors
will not respond effectively to major strategic changes. Even
major retailers, however, can find
themselves battling stiff local competition when they expand
abroad.16.
Case Analysis 9.3 Step 20: What Strategic Alternatives Are
Available to the Organization?
Alternatives are organizational courses of action that (1) are
worth considering because
they offer some potentially positive benefits and (2) are within
the realm of possibilities
for the organization. For starters, one alternative is to continue
with the present
strategy. Sometimes this alternative is the most desirable, but
typically some changes
are needed. Additional alternatives should be identified from
the SW/OT matrix in two
ways. First, one should consider more fully utilizing one's
strengths to take advantage
of existing opportunities or palliate threats if the organization is
not presently doing so.

For example, if an organization has excess production capacity
and there exists a
market not presently served, then moving into this market is
worth considering.
Second, one should also consider taking action to minimize the
weaknesses so that
the organization can pursue opportunities or minimize the effect
of threats. It is critical
to identify the S/W-O/T combinations that result in the
identification of each alternative,
but it is not worthwhile to include alternatives that are
obviously implausible or
unattractive (e.g., McDonald's could close its fast-food stores to
concentrate on
promoting frozen foods through grocery outlets) for the sake of
creating a list. All of the
alternatives to be considered should be deemed viable upon
cursory examination.
Alternatives should also be plotted in the SLSC matrix.
There is no set number of alternatives that should be generated.
As with the
identification of elements within the SWOT, too few
alternatives imply a superficial
analysis whereas too many alternatives can become difficult to
assess.
Step 21: What Are the Pros and Cons of These Alternatives?
Some of the alternatives identified in Step 20 may be mutually
exclusive whereas
others may not. Inevitably, one must assess the attractiveness of
each alternative. It is
not appropriate to subjectively promote one or two that will be
recommended later.
Rather, pros and cons must be objectively identified for each

alternative. Even
attractive alternatives have costs and downsides, and others may
have limited
prospects for success-factors that should be converted to dollars
whenever possible.
For example, quality circles may be proposed as a solution to
low morale without
considering the costs. Quality circles require a commitment of
time (i.e., lost
production) and effort if they are to be successful, and
management must also be
willing to implement suggestions. In the final analysis, quality
circles may be desirable,
but no strategy can be implemented cost-free.
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Interestingly, the quality circles recommendation also has
another problem. Most
scholars and practitioners have reported that quality circles are
effective only when part
of a larger approach to employee empowerment. As such, a
quality circle alternative
should encompass an overall strategic change as related to the
organization's HR, not
simply the implementation of a technique.
It is important to consider competitive responses in concert with
this and the
subsequent case analysis step. For example, a McDonald's drop

in price for the Big
Mac cannot be considered in isolation of a likely price cut at
Burger King. In many
cases, anticipated retaliation is a “con” of the alternative and
could ultimately render
the alternative as undesirable. Assuming that competitor
behavior will not change over
time-especially in response to a major strategic change-is
shortsighted.
Step 22: Which Alternative(s) should be Pursued and Why?
This phase necessitates an objective and subjective analysis of
the pros and cons
associated with each alternative. It is important that an
alternative not be selected
without both arguing for its selection and explaining why
competing alternatives were
rejected. When two or more options are mutually exclusive,
eliminating the options not
chosen is just as important as selecting the desired choices.
While it is important to
spend time analyzing the alternatives, one must resist the
temptation to overana-lyze
and avoid making the difficult choices, a process often referred
to as analysis to
paralysis.
The direction of a strategic change can affect the difficulty of
its implementation. In general, a
business pursuing differentiation can shift to a cost leadership
approach more easily than a
low-cost business can shift to differentiation. Because a low-
cost business is likely to be
associated with value rather than quality, it is difficult to
convince buyers that they should pay

more because its products are differentiated.
Issues in Strategy Formulation
Crafting a strategy is not an easy task, even with the assistance
of tools like the SW/OT and
SLSC matrices. When a strategy appears attractive, a number of
issues should be considered
before it is implemented. Four such issues are discussed in this
section.
Evaluating Strategic Change
Should an organization change course when performance
declines, or should it stay the
course? On the one hand, its strategic managers may choose to
commit to a strategic course
of action for an extended period of time and enjoy the benefits
of specialization, expertise,
organizational learning, and a clear customer image.
Alternatively, an organization can remain
flexible so that it does not become committed to products,
technology, or market approaches
that may become outdated. In a perfect world, organizations
commit to predictable,
successful courses of action, and strategic change is only
incremental. However, outcomes
are not always predictable.
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As with many strategic issues, there are two compelling sides to
this debate. When traditional
firms perform poorly, their strategic managers are exhorted by
business analysts to promote
flexibility and strategic renewal to improve profitability. In
contrast, when bold strategic
changes fail, pundits assert that a company must return to its
“core business.” Hence, it is
easy to migrate freely from one side of the debate to the other,
often with convincing empirical
and intuitively appealing arguments.
The needs for strategic flexibility or commitment can be
debated on at least four grounds.
First, a strategy tends to yield superior performance when it fits
with the organization's
environment. Without strategic flexibility, an organization
cannot adapt to its changing external
environment. Even if an organization's strategy and its
environment are in concert, an
environmental shift may necessitate strategic change to
maintain alignment. Changes in
competition and technology can also necessitate a change in the
knowledge base within the
organization if it is to prosper. The state of the environment is
not always fully understood by
strategy formula-tors, and top managers may be most likely to
contemplate a strategic
change when perceived environmental uncertainty is high.
The economic downturn of the late 2000s prompted many luxury
retailers to develop new or
more greatly emphasize existing outlet stores. Saks Fifth
Avenue renamed its Off Fifth outlets
to “Saks Fifth Avenue Off Fifth” to more closely link the

outlets with the Saks brand. Nike
renovated its outlet stores and added new ones to attract bargain
shoppers.17.
In contrast, however, a change in any key strategic,
environmental, or organizational factors
may entice strategic managers in a business to modify its
strategy to incorporate these
changes. However, since such variables are constantly evolving,
this is a challenging process,
and strategic inaction may minimize uncertainty. Indeed, a
strategic change is most risky
when competitors are better equipped to respond if it is deemed
successful. As such,
strategic change can challenge the assumptions of all
organizational members and may be
difficult to implement even with employee support.
Second, flexibility is necessary if an organization is to seek
first-mover advantages by entering
a new market or developing a new product or service prior to its
competitors. Being a first
mover can help secure access to scarce resources, increase the
organization's knowledge
base, and result in substantial long-term competitive advantage,
especially when switching
costs are high. Maintaining commitment to the firm's strategy
can preclude movement into
attractive strategic domains.18.
In 2008, Fisher-Price began to emphasize its toys in China,
Brazil, Russia, and Poland,
developing nations where brand-name American products in
many categories were not

common. Emerging markets like these have fast-growing middle
classes. By promoting its
products in these nations, Fisher-Price sought to establish a
foothold while the market was
still in its infancy.19.
However, even when strategic change results in a successful
new product or service, there is
no assurance that this success can be maintained. In fact,
competitors may distort consumer
perceptions and reap the benefits of the initial strategic change.
When a consumer goods
company imitates another, for example, consumers may
purchase the imitation product
thinking it is the original. If consumers dislike the product, this
dissatisfaction can be
transferred to the original. On the other hand, a consumer who
likes the product may realize
that it is an imitation and transfer the positive associations with
the original product to that of
the imitator. Either scenario can prove costly to the originator.
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Third, if a firm's environment is relatively stable, strategic
change can be attractive when the
organization's set of unique human, physical, capital, and
informational resources change.
Resource shifts necessitating strategic change may be more

prevalent in some organizations
than in others. Following this logic, strategic change can
improve an organization's ability to
adapt by forcing healthy changes within the business. The
initial pain associated with change
may be offset by the emergence of a lean, rejuvenated
organization with a fresh focus on its
goals and objectives.20.
However, consumer confusion may result from strategic change
even when the new strategy
represents a better fit with the firm's resources. Apple
discovered this in 2007 when it cut the
price of the iPhone from $599 to $399 after just 10 weeks on the
market. Although customers
who paid the higher price were offered a $100 rebate, many felt
a sense of remorse. In
addition, this rapid price shift might have conditioned
prospective customers in the future to
wait for price cuts when new Apple products are released in the
future.21. Apple survived this
challenge, and the iPhone continues to be one of the most
popular smartphones well into the
2010s.
Fourth, strategic change may be necessary if desired
performance levels are not being
attained by the organization. In some cases, a change in strategy
may be required to improve
the ability of the business to generate revenues or profits,
increase market share, and/ or
improve return on assets or investment. In many cases, new
CEOs are recruited for that
purpose.

In contrast, the measures required to implement a change in
strategy may necessitate
substantial outlays of capital, thereby further denigrating the
organization's financial position.
Considering the Miles and Snow typology as an example, a shift
from a prospector or
analyzer strategy to a defender strategy may require investments
in sophisticated production
equipment to lower production costs, a characteristic more
important to effective
implementation of a defender strategy. Likewise, a shift from
defender or analyzer to
prospector may require substantial outlays to develop or
enhance R & D facilities.
Carrefour faced these trade-offs in 2010 when it embarked on a
major strategic change.
Carrefour was the world's second largest retailer at that time
with stores and offerings similar
to those of its larger rival, Wal-Mart. After losing global market
share for several years, CEO
Lars Olofsson embarked on an effort to transform the company
from a big box selling other
companies’ brands into a strong consumer label in its own right.
Just as IKEA Group found
success by establishing and selling its own brand of furniture,
Olofsson envisioned Carrefour
as a retailer that emphasizes its own private labels at the lowest
prices in the industry. The
strategic shift required initial outlays of an estimated several
hundreds of millions of dollars,
including store makeovers and the implementation of a cost-
saving stock-management
system the company pioneered in China.22.

Ironically, Wal-Mart was experiencing some strategic
difficulties of its own. Same-store sales in
the United States declined every quarter from mid-2009 to mid-
2011, a time marked by a
recession and general economic stagnation. Wal-Mart attempted
to broaden its appeal
beyond traditional price-oriented customers during this period
by raising some prices,
widening aisles, and adding more brand-name merchandise but
was unsuccessful. The big
box did not break the losing streak until its third fiscal quarter
in 2011 when revenues
increased at a 1.3% clip. Wal-Mart had to cut prices to reverse
the trend, but lower margins
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also led to a decline in profits.23.
The decision to incorporate a substantial change in strategy can
be alluring, especially when
performance is poor. In some instances, however, strategic
change is required for survival, as
was the case for 789 Chrysler dealers that were eliminated in
2010 as part of the company's
bankruptcy reorganization effort. Some dealerships simply
closed, while others continued
selling other brands, focused on vehicle repairs, or embarked on
new business ventures. In

Clarkston, Michigan, Chuck Fortinberry opened a furniture
store after his Chrysler dealership
closed—while revamping the car store to make vehicles
handicap accessible.24. I t i s
necessary to recognize the costs associated with strategic
change before resources are
committed.
Strategy, Corporate Social Responsibility, and Managerial
Ethics
Strategy decisions should not be based solely on projected
effects on financial performance.
An organization's strategies at all levels should be compatible
with its stance on social
responsibility and ethics. Strategic alternatives should be
considered in light of stated
positions on corporate social responsibility (CSR). Marketers of
alcoholic beverages must
consider whether or not attractive advertising campaigns may
attract minors as well. A
manufacturer must consider how a plant relocation might affect
the community in which it is
currently located. Video game developers, for example, must
consider how much violence is
acceptable in the games they market to various age groups.
Hence, there are social
responsibility and/or ethical considerations facing every
organization.
Effects on Organizational Resources
Executing a strategy requires resources that could be used for
another purpose. The most
obvious example is capital. If a firm pursues aggressive

expansion into an uncharted
geographical area, for example, the capital required will not be
available for other purposes
such as R & D or a new advertising campaign. If a firm
launches a service enhancement effort
by requiring sales representatives to make more frequent visits
to existing customers, they will
not be able to pursue new accounts as vigorously as before.
These trade-offs should be
considered before a strategy is adopted.
Unfortunately, many firms do not fully consider these trade-
offs. Instead, they devise
strategies whose success depends on “doing more with less.”
Managers and employees are
stretched thin while new programs are implemented without
eliminating old ones. In the end,
an organization may find itself performing lots of activities but
none of them well.
Anticipated Responses from Competitors and Customers
Strategies are not implemented in a vacuum. Competitive
responses should be expected
when a substantial strategic change is employed. In many
situations, the prospective gains
associated with a strategic change will be reduced when the
response is considered. For
example, the development of new products may produce few
new customers if competitors
respond quickly by developing a similar offering.
In some cases, considering the retaliation makes an otherwise
attractive strategic alternative
undesirable. For example, American Airlines could probably
secure more fliers than Delta on

common routes if its fares were priced below those of the rival.
If American initiated a price
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cut, however, Delta would almost certainly match it. It is likely
that the reduced fares would
attract few additional fliers to either airline. Hence, both
airlines would be forced to operate the
same routes with virtually the same number of customers at
lower fares. When competitive
retaliation is considered in this example, American is probably
best served not to spark a price
war with Delta.
Consider another example that illustrates the fact that changes
in the competitive environment
do not always materialize as one might expect. When an airline
hub closes, for example, one
might expect flights to and from the affected city to increase in
price because of the departed
competitor. In the United States, however, discount airlines
often fill the empty gates, actually
fostering greater price competition.25. Hence, one could argue
that it may be in the best
interest of traditional carriers not to drive less competitive
rivals out of key hubs lest they be
bombarded by greater competition. Customer responses can be
difficult to predict, but

responses to strategic change should be anticipated and
accounted for, especially when
there are substantial shifts in prices or product line.
Given the complexity of competitor retaliation, some firms opt
for a blue ocean strategy, an
approach to growth contingent on inventing or discovering a
new industry or industry segment
that creates new demand. In many respects, Starbucks, eBay,
and Cirque du Soleil
reinvented the coffee house, auction, and circus industries by
executing a radically different
approach that opened up substantial, previously untapped
markets.26. Put another way,
Starbucks did not reinvent the cup of coffee but rather
reinvented the coffee shop experience.
A large number of firms and new enterprises have failed in their
attempts to charter new
waters, however, suggesting that successful blue ocean
approaches require research,
creativity, and a lot of savvy.
Summary
The SWOT analysis serves as the basis for the formulation of
strategies at all levels. The
SWOT summarizes the organization's internal (i.e., strengths
and weaknesses) and external
(i.e., opportunities and threats) characteristics. Strengths and
weaknesses emanate from an
analysis of human, organizational, and physical resources.
Opportunities and threats are
based on analyses of the macroenvironment and industry. The
SW/OT matrix generates
strategic alternatives by combining internal and external factors

delineated in the SWOT
analysis.
Before a strategy is selected, however, several other
considerations should be made. These
include the costs associated with strategic change, the strategy's
fit with the organization's
stance on social responsibility and managerial ethics, effects on
organizational resources,
anticipated responses from competitors, and potential
difficulties in implementing the strategy.
The SLSC matrix helps evaluate alternatives by considering the
level of analysis—corporate,
business, or functional—and the degree of strategic complexity.
Key Terms
Blue Ocean Strategy: A growth strategy contingent on inventing
or discovering a new
industry or industry segment that creates new demand.
Capabilities: A firm's skills at coordinating and leveraging
resources to create value (often
called strategic capabilities or dynamic capabilities).
Gap Analysis: Identifying the distance between a firm's current
position and its desired
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1.
2.

3.
4.
position with regard to an internal weakness. All things equal, it
is desirable to take action
to close the gap, especially when the gap leaves a firm
vulnerable to external threats in its
environment.
Human Resources (HR): The experience, capabilities,
knowledge, skills, and judgment of
the firm's employees.
Organizational Resources: The firm's systems and processes,
including its strategies at
various levels, structure, and culture.
Physical Resources: An organization's plant and equipment,
geographic locations,
access to raw materials, distribution network, and technology.
Strategy Level-Strategy Complexity (SLSC) Matrix: A tool for
evaluating strategic
alternatives that considers the organizational level of the
alternative and the degree of
strategic complexity.
SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats)
Analysis: An analysis
intended to match the firm's strengths and weaknesses (the S
and W in the acronym) with
the opportunities and threats (the O and T) posed by the
environment.
SW/OT Matrix: A tool for generating alternative courses of
action by identifying relevant
combinations of internal characteristics (i.e., strengths and
weaknesses) and external
forces (i.e., opportunities and threats).
Value Chain: A useful tool for analyzing a firm's strengths and
weaknesses and

understanding how they might translate into competitive
advantage or disadvantage. The
value chain describes the activities that comprise the economic
performance and
capabilities of the firm.
VRIO (Valuable, Rare, Inimitable, and Organization)
Framework: A tool for assessing
the competitive quality of a firm's resources by examining
value, rarity, imitability, and
organization.
Review Questions and Exercises
What is the value chain? How is it useful to strategy
formulation?
How do a SWOT analysis and SW/OT matrix help managers in
the strategic decision-
making process?
What types of alternatives can be generated from a SW/OT
matrix?
Should an organization change strategies when performance
declines? Explain.
Practice Quiz
True of False?
1. The first step in crafting a strategy is the SWOT analysis.
2. The value chain is an analytical technique for identifying
organizational opportunities
and threats.
3. Opportunities and threats should emanate from the analysis
of macroenvironmental
and industry forces.
4. A factor can be both an opportunity and a strength.
5. Another name for an opportunity is an alternative.

6. Choosing the “no change” strategy and thereby
recommending that the current strategy
be continued is the least risky option.
Multiple Choice
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A.
B.
C.
D.
A.
B.
C.
D.
A.
B.
C.
D.
A.
7.
The tool that enables executives to position an organization to
take advantage of particular
opportunities in the environment while avoiding or minimizing

environmental threats is
called_______.
PEST analysis
SWOT analysis
total quality management (TQM) analysis
none of the above
8.
The description of activities that comprise the economic
performance and capabilities of
the firm is known as_______.
the value chain
process innovation
quality assessment
none of the above
9.
To sustain competitive advantage, firms must acquire or
develop resources that
are_______.
difficult for competitors to imitate
long lasting
difficult for competitors to acquire on the market
all of the above
10.
Physical resources include_______.
production facilitiesA.
B.

C.
D.
A.
B.
C.
D.
A.
B.
C.
D.
production facilities
plant locations
production capacity
all of the above
11.
Which of the following could not be an example of a weakness?
product quality
fierce competition
human resources
all of the above
12.
Which type of alternative is always defensive in nature?
strength-opportunity
strength-threat
weakness-opportunity
weakness-threat

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Visit the student study site at www.sagepub.com/parnell4e to
access these additional
materials:
Answers to Chapter 9 practice quiz questions
Web quizzes
SAGE journal articles
Web resources
eFlashcards
Notes
1. K. W. Glaister and J. R. Falshaw, “Strategic Planning: Still
Going Strong?” Long Range
Planning 32, no. 1 (1999): 107-116.
2. P. C. Nutt, “Making Strategic Choices,” Journal of
Management Studies 39 (2002): 67-96.
3. The concept of the value chain is only introduced in this
chapter. For a more thorough
discussion, see M. Porter, Competitive Advantage: Creating and
Sustaining Superior
Performance (Boston: Free Press, 1985).
4. N. Harris and S. Carey, “Delta Ends Commissions for Most

Travel Agents,” Wall Street
Journal Interactive Edition, March 15, 2002.
5. J. Gapper, “Big Names Prove Worth in Crisis,” Financial
Times, A p r i l 2 8 , 2 0 1 0 ,
www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/258c534a-50ca-lldf-bc86-
00l44feab49a,s01=l.html#axzz1f2CB8HvX(accessed November
28, 2011).
6. J. Barney, “Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive
Advantage,” Journal of Management
17(1991): 99-120.
7. K. M. Eisenhardt and J. A. Martin, “Dynamic Capabilities:
What Are They?” Strategic
Management Journal 21 (2000): 1105-1121.
8. J. Barney, “Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive
Advantage.”
9. J. B. Barney, Gaining and Sustaining Competitive Advantage
(Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 2007); D. Teece, G Pisano, and A. Shuen,
“Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic
Management,” Strategic Management Journal 18(1997): 509-
533.
10. Based on H. Wilrich, “The TOWS Matrix—A Tool for
Structural Analysis,” Long Range
Planning 15(2) (1982): 54-66.
11. D. Belkin, “A Canadian Icon Turns Its Glaze Southward,”
Wall Street Journal, May 15,
2007, B1.
12. J. Murphy and E. Bellman, “Riding Two-Wheelers in India,”

Wall Street Journal, June 6,
2008, B1.
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http://www.sagepub.com/parnell4e
http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/258c534a-50ca-lldf-bc86-
00l44feab49a,s01=l.html#axzz1f2CB8HvX
13. J. A. Trachtenberg, “Borders Business Plan Gets a Rewrite,”
Wall Street Journal, March
22, 2007, B1.
14. E. Bellman, “Harley to Ride Indian Growth,” Wall Street
Journal, August 28, 2009, B1.
15. R. Smith, “Utilities, Plug-In Cars: Near Collision?”, Wall
Street Journal, May 2, 2008, B1.
16. S. Jung-a, “Carrefour's Korean Stores to Go Upmarket,”
Financial Times, October 7, 2003,
18.
17. V. O'Connell, “Luxury Retailers Pin Hopes on Outlets,”
Wall Street Journal, April 30, 2008,
B1.
18. B. Peterson and D. E. Welch, “Creating Meaningful
Switching Options in International
Operations,” Long Range Planning 3 3 ( 2 0 0 0 ) : 6 8 8 - 7 0
5 ; M . B . L i e b e r m a n a n d D . B .

Montgomery, “First-Mover Advantages,” Strategic Management
Journal 9 (1988): 41-58.
19. N. Casey, “Fisher-Price Game Plan: Pursue Toy Sales in
Developing Markets,” Wall Street
Journal, May 29, 2008, B1.
20. J. B. Barney, “Is the Resource-Based ‘View’ a Useful
Perspective for Strategic
Management Research?” Academy of Management Review 26
(2001): 41-56.
21. R. Karlgaard, “The Cheap Revolution,” Wall Street Journal,
October 3, 2007, A19.
22. C. Passariello, “Carrefour's Makeover Plan: Become IKEA
of Groceries,” Wall Street
Journal, September 16, 2010, B1-B2.
23. K. Talley, “Wal-Mart Sticks to Low Prices,” Wall Street
Journal, November 16, 2011, B3.
24. J. Bennett, “After Getting the Boot, Car Dealers Regroup,”
Wall Street Journal, October
11, 2010, B1, B2.
25. S. McCartney, “Why Travelers Benefit When an Airline Hub
Closes,” Wall Street Journal,
November 1, 2005, D1, D8.
26. W. C. Kim and R. Mauborgne, “Blue Ocean Strategy,”
Harvard Business Review 82, no. 10
(2004): 76-84.
Strategy + Business Reading: 10 Clues to Opportunity

Market anomalies and incongruities may point the way to your
next
breakthrough strategy.
by Donald Sull
During their heyday in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
transatlantic cruise lines
such as the Hamburg America Line and the White Star Line
transported tens of
millions of passengers between Europe and the United States.
By the 1960s, however,
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their business was being threatened by the rise of a disruptive
new enterprise, namely,
nonstop transatlantic flights. As it happened, the cruise ship
lines had one potential
strategy with which to save their business: vacation cruises.
Starting in the 1930s,
some of these lines had sailed to the Caribbean during the
winter, thus using their
boats when rough seas made the Atlantic impassable. And in

1964, when a new port
was opened in Miami, Fla., the pleasure cruise business began
to boom.
But the great cruise lines missed this breakthrough opportunity.
They saw their
profitability fall while dozens of startups, including Royal
Caribbean and Carnival,
retrofitted existing ships to offer pleasure cruises and built an
entirely new travel and
leisure category that continues to grow today.
Managers and entrepreneurs walk past lucrative opportunities
all the time, and later
kick themselves when someone else exploits the strategy they
overlooked. Why does
this happen? It's often because of the natural human tendency
known to psychologists
as confirmation bias: People tend to notice data that confirms
their existing attitudes
and beliefs, and ignore or discredit information that challenges
them.
Although it is difficult to overcome confirmation bias, it is not
impossible. Managers can
increase their skill at spotting hidden opportunities by learning
to pay attention to the
subtle clues all around them. These are often contradictions,
incongruities, and
anomalies that don't jibe with most of the prevailing
assumptions about what should
happen. Here is my own “top 10” field guide to clues for hidden
breakthrough
opportunities, observed in a wide variety of industries,
countries, and markets. If you
find yourself noticing one or more of them, a major opportunity

for growth could be
lurking behind it.
This product should already exist (but it doesn't). As the
accessories editor
for Mademoiselle magazine in the early 1990s, Kate Brosnahan
spotted a gap
in the handbag market between functional bags that lacked style
and extremely
expensive but impractical designer bags from Hermès or Gucci.
Brosnahan quit
her job, and with her partner Andy Spade, founded Kate Spade
LLC, which
produced fabric handbags combining functionality and fashion.
These attracted
the attention of celebrities such as Gwyneth Paltrow and Julia
Roberts. Many
well-known product innovations—including the airplane, the
mobile phone, and
the tablet computer—began similarly, as products that people
felt should
already exist.
This customer experience doesn't have to be time-consuming,
arduous,
expensive, or annoying (but it is). Consumer irritation is a
reliable indicator of
a potential opportunity, because people will typically pay to
make it go away.
Reed Hastings, for example, founded Netflix Inc. after receiving
a US$40 late
fee for a rented videocassette of Apollo 13 that he had
misplaced. Charles
Schwab created the largest low-cost brokerage house because he
was fed up
with paying the commissions of conventional stockbrokers.

Scott Cook got the
idea for Quicken after watching his wife grow frustrated
tracking their finances
by hand.
This resource could be worth something (but it is still priced
low).
Sometimes an asset is underpriced because only a few people
recognize its
potential. When a low-cost airline such as easyJet or Ryanair
announces its
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intention to fly to a new airport, real estate investors often leap
to buy vacation
property nearby. They rightfully expect a jump in real estate
values. Similarly,
the founders of Infosys Technologies Ltd., India's pioneering
provider of
outsourced information technology services, were among the
first to recognize

that Indian engineers, working for very low salaries, could
provide great value to
multinational clients. The company earned high profits on the
spread between
what they charged clients and what they paid local engineers.
This discovery must be good for something (but it's not clear
what that
is). Researchers sometimes recognize that they have stumbled
on a promising
resource or technology without knowing the best uses for it
right away. The
resulting search for a problem to solve can lead to great
profitability. One
example was the founding of the ArthroCare Corporation, a
$355 million
producer of medical devices based on a process called
coblation, which uses
radio frequency energy to dissolve damaged tissue with minimal
effect on
s u r r o u n d i n g p a r t s o f t h e b o d y . M e d i c a l s
c i e n t i s t H i r a T h a p l i y a l , w h o
codiscovered this process, founded a company to offer it for
cardiac surgery,
but that market turned out to be too small and competitive to
support a new
venture. Undeterred, he looked for other potential uses, and
found one in
orthopedics, where there are more than 2 million arthroscopic
surgeries per
year.
This product or service should be everywhere (but it isn't).
Sometimes
people chance upon an attractive business model that has failed
to gain the

widespread adoption it deserves. Two archetypal retail food
stories illustrate
this. In 1954, restaurant equipment salesman Ray Kroc visited
the McDonald
brothers’ hamburger stand in southern California, and convinced
them to
franchise their assembly-line approach to flipping burgers. In
1982, coffee
machine manufacturing executive Howard Schultz visited a
coffee bean
producer called Starbucks in Seattle. He recognized the
potential of a chain
restaurant based on European coffee bars, and he joined
Starbucks, hoping to
convince the company's leadership to convert their retail store
to this format.
When they didn't, he started his own coffeehouse chain, later
buying the
Starbucks retail unit as the core of his new business.
Customers have adapted our product or service to new uses (but
not with
our support). Chinese appliance maker Haier Group discovered
that customers
in one rural province used its clothes washing machines to clean
vegetables.
Hearing this, a product manager spotted an opportunity. She had
company
engineers install wider drain pipes and coarser filters that
wouldn't clog with
vegetable peels, and then added pictures of local produce and
instructions on
how to wash vegetables safely. This innovation, along with
others including a
washing machine designed to make goat's-milk cheese, helped
Haier win share

in China's rural provinces, while avoiding the cutthroat price
wars that plagued
the country's appliance industry.
Customers shouldn't want this product (but they do). When
Honda Motor
Company entered the U.S. motorcycle market in the late 1950s,
it expected to
sell large motorcycles to leather-clad bikers. Despite a
concerted effort, the
company managed to sell fewer than 60 of its large bikes each
month, far short
of its monthly sales goal of 1,000 units. Then a mechanical
failure forced the
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company to recall these models. In desperation, it promoted its
smaller 50cc
motorbike, the Cub, which Honda executives had assumed
would not interest
the U.S. market. When the smaller bikes sold well, Honda
realized it had
d i s c o v e r e d a n u n t a p p e d s e g m e n t l o o k i n g

f o r t w o - w h e e l m o t o r i z e d
transportation. (The campaign is still remembered for its
catchphrase, “You
meet the nicest people on a Honda.”)
Customers have discovered a product (but not the one we
offered). Joint
J u i c e , a r o u g h l y $ 2 m i l l i o n c o m p a n y t h a t
p r o d u c e s a n e a s y - t o - d i g e s t
glucosamine liquid, was founded by Kevin Stone, a prominent
San Francisco
orthopedic surgeon. He learned about the nutrient from some of
his patients,
who took it for joint pain instead of the ibuprofen he had
prescribed. Many
doctors might have ignored this or even scolded their patients
for falling prey to
fads, but Stone recognized he might be missing something. He
looked up the
clinical research on glucosamine in Europe, where it was the
leading nutritional
supplement. (Veterinarians, he discovered, swore by it, and
their patients fell for
neither fads nor placebos.) Then he built a business around it.
This product or service is thriving elsewhere (but no one offers
it here). In
the early 1990s, a Swedish business student named Carl August
Svensen-
Ameln tried to store some of his belongings in Sweden while at
school in
Seattle, but found that all the local self-storage facilities were
full. He studied
the storage industry, already prevalent in the United States, and
discovered a
business model characterized by high rents, low turnover, and

negligible
operating costs. Yet self-storage, at the time, was virtually
nonexistent in
continental Europe. Svensen-Ameln and a friend from business
school set up a
partnership with an established U.S. company, Shurgard Storage
Centers Inc.
The resulting company, European Mini-Storage S.A., was the
first of several
such companies that Svensen-Ameln started in Europe, to great
success.
That new product or service shouldn't make much money (but it
does).
Established competitors are often surprised when upstart rivals
do well. In his
2008 book, The Partnership: The Making of Goldman Sachs
(Penguin Press),
Charles D. Ellis noted that for decades, Goldman Sachs partners
had avoided
investment management, which they believed generated lower
fees than
trading and investment banking. When Donaldson, Lufkin &
Jenrette Inc.
published its financial performance as part of a 1970 stock
offering, Goldman
partners were startled to learn that fees and brokerage
commissions on
frequent trades added up to a highly profitable business. Shortly
thereafter,
Goldman expanded into managing corporate pension funds, and
aggressively
built its business.
Incongruities like these can offer a critical clue about where
your assumptions no

longer match reality. From there, you are more likely to uncover
the kinds of
opportunities that you might otherwise have missed—and that
your competitors still
don't recognize. Start by asking yourself, What are the most
unexpected things
happening in our business right now? Which competitors are
doing better than
expected? Which customers are behaving in ways we hadn't
anticipated? Take yourself
through the list of top 10 clues. Leaders who consistently notice
and explore anomalies
increase the odds of spotting emerging opportunities before
their rivals.
SAGE SAGE Books
Reprint No. 11304
Author Profile:
Donald Sull is a professor of strategic and international
management at the London
Business School, where he is also the faculty director for
executive education. His
books include The Upside of Turbulence: Seizing Opportunity
in an Uncertain World
(Harper Business, 2009).
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781506374598.n9

SAGE SAGE Books
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781506374598.n9
The Strategic Management
Process
Learning Objective 3-1
Explain with examples each of the seven steps in the
strategic management process.
Employers can’t intelligently design their human resource
policies and
practices without understanding the role these policies and
practices
are to play in achieving their companies’ strategic goals. In this
chapter,
we look at how managers design strategic and human resource
plans,
and how they evaluate the results of their plans. We start with
an over‐
view of the basic management planning process.
The Management Planning Process
The basic management planning process consists of five steps:
setting
objectives, making basic planning forecasts, reviewing
alternative cour‐
ses of action, evaluating which options are best, and then

choosing and
implementing your plan. A plan shows the course of action for
getting
from where you are to the goal. Planning is always “goal-
directed”
(such as, “double sales revenue to $16 million in fiscal year
2017”).
In companies, it is traditional to view the goals from the top of
the firm
down to front-line employees as a chain or hierarchy of goals.
Figure 3-1 illustrates this. At the top, the president sets long-
term or
“strategic” goals (such as “double sales revenue to $16 million
in fiscal
year 2017”). His or her vice presidents then set goals for their
units that
flow from, and make sense in terms of accomplishing, the
president’s
goal (see Figure 3-1 ). Then their own subordinates set goals,
and so
on down the chain.
Policies and procedures provide day-to-day guid‐
ance employees need to do their jobs in a manner that is
consistent
with the company’s plans and goals. Policies set broad
guidelines de‐
lineating how employees should act. For example, “It is the
policy of
this company to comply with all laws, regulations, and
principles of eth‐

ical conduct.” Procedures spell out what to do if a specific
situation
arises. For example,
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Any employee who believes this policy has been violated must
report this belief
to the employee’s immediate supervisor. If that is not practical,
the employee
should file a written report with the Director of Human
Resources. There is to be
no retaliation in any form.
Employers write their own policies and procedures, or adapt
ones from
existing sources (or both). For example, most employers have
employ‐
ee manuals listing the company’s human resource policies and
proce‐
dures. A Google search would produce many vendors of such
policies
and procedures. They offer prepackaged HR policies manuals
cover‐
ing appraisal, compensation, equal employment compliance, and
other
policies and procedures.

Figure 3-1
Sample Hierarchy of Goals Diagram for a Company
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What Is Strategic Planning?
As noted, the company’s hierarchy or chain of
goals flows from top management’s overall strategic plan for
the com‐
pany. A strategic plan is the company’s overall plan for how it
will
match its internal strengths and weaknesses with its external
opportu‐
nities and threats in order to maintain a competitive position.
The
strategic planner asks, “Where are we now as a business, and
where
do we want to be?” He or she then formulates a strategic plan to
help
guide the company to the desired destination. When Yahoo!
tries to
figure out whether to sell its search business to concentrate on
offering
more content, or when Apple branches out into selling watches,

they
are engaged in strategic planning.
Strategic plans are similar to but not the same as business
models.
Those investing in a business will ask top management, “What’s
your
business model?” A business model “is a company’s method for
mak‐
ing money in the current business environment.” It pinpoints
whom the
company serves, what products or services it provides, what
differenti‐
ates it, its competitive advantage, how it provides its product or
ser‐
vice, and, most importantly, how it makes money. For example,
Google doesn’t make money by requiring people to pay for
searches; it
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makes money by offering targeted paid advertisements based on
what

you’re searching for.
A strategy is a course of action. Both PepsiCo and Coca-Cola
face
the same basic problem—people are drinking fewer sugared
drinks.
However, they each chose different strategies to deal with this.
PepsiCo
diversified by selling more food items like chips. Coca-Cola
concentrat‐
ed on sweet beverages, and on boosting advertising to
(hopefully)
boost Coke sales.
Finally, strategic management is the process of identifying and
ex‐
ecuting the organization’s strategic plan by matching the
company’s
capabilities (strengths and weaknesses) with the demands of its
envi‐
ronment (its competitors, customers, and suppliers, for
instance).
The Strategic Management Process
Figure 3-2 summarizes the strategic management process. Its
sev‐
en steps include (1) ask, “What business are we in now?” (2)
evaluate
the firm’s internal and external strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities,
and threats, (3) formulate a new business direction, (4) decide
on strate‐
gic goals, and (5) choose specific strategies or courses of
action. Steps
(6) and (7) are to implement and then evaluate the strategic
plan.

The strategic management process begins (step 1) by asking,
“What
business are we in?” Here the manager defines the company’s
current
business. Specifically, “What products do we sell, where do we
sell
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them, and how do our products or services differ from our
competi‐
tors’?” For example, the Coca-Cola Company sells mostly
sweetened
beverages such as Coke and Sprite, while PepsiCo sells drinks
but also
foods such as Quaker Oats and Frito chips.
Figure 3-2
The Strategic Management Process
The second step is to ask, “Are we in the right
business given our strengths and weaknesses and the challenges
that
we face?” To answer this, managers “audit” or study both the
firm’s en‐
vironment and the firm’s internal strengths and weaknesses. The
envi‐
ronmental scan worksheet in Figure 3-3 is a guide for

compiling in‐
formation about the company’s environment. As you can see,
this in‐
cludes the economic, competitive, and political trends that may
affect
the company. The SWOT chart in Figure 3-4 is widely used.
Man‐
agers use it to compile and organize the company strengths,
weak‐
nesses, opportunities, and threats. This audit may also include
analyz‐
ing the so-called PEST factors. These include Political factors
such as
government regulations and employment laws; Economic factors
in‐
cluding unemployment and economic growth; Social factors
such as
changing demographics and health consciousness trends; and
Techno‐
logical factors such as use of social media and digitalization
and of
self-driving vehicles. In any case, the manager’s aim is to create
a
strategic plan that makes sense in terms of the company’s
strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
Figure 3-3
Worksheet for Environmental Scanning

Next, based on this analysis (in other words, on the
environmental
scan, SWOT, and PEST analyses), the task in step 3 will be to
decide
what should our new business be, in terms of what we sell,
where we
will sell it, and how our products or services differ from
competitors’
products and services? Some managers express the essence of
their
new business with a vision statement. A vision statement is a
gen‐
eral statement of the firm’s intended direction; it shows, in
broad terms,
“what we want to become.” PepsiCo’s vision is “Performance
with
Purpose.” CEO Indra Nooyi says her company’s executives
choose
which businesses to be in based on Performance with Purpose’s
focus
on human sustainability, environmental sustainability, and
talent sus‐
tainability. For example, that vision prompted PepsiCo to add
the
healthy Quaker Oats and Gatorade to its lineup of products.
Figure 3-4
SWOT Matrix, with Generic Examples
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Whereas the vision statement describes in broad terms what the
busi‐
ness should be, the company’s mission statement summarizes
what the company’s main tasks are today. Several years ago,
Ford
adopted what was for several years a powerful Ford mission
statement
—making “Quality Job One.”
In any case, the manager’s next step (step 4) is to translate the
desired
new direction into strategic goals. At Ford, for example, what
exactly
did making “Quality Job One” mean for each department in
terms of
how they would boost quality? The answer was laid out in goals
such
as “no more than 1 initial defect per 10,000 cars.”
Next, (step 5) the manager chooses strategies—courses of
action—that
will enable the company to achieve its strategic goals. For
example,
how should Ford pursue its goal of no more than 1 initial defect
per
10,000 cars? Perhaps open two new high-tech plants, and put in
place

new, rigorous employee selection, training, and performance-
appraisal
procedures.
Step 6, strategy execution, means translating the strategies into
action.
This means actually hiring (or firing) people, building (or
closing) plants,
and adding (or eliminating) products and product lines.
Finally, in step 7, the manager evaluates the results of his or her
plan‐
ning and execution. Things don’t always turn out as planned.
All man‐
agers should periodically assess the progress of their strategic
decisions.
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Types of Strategies
List with examples the main types of strategies.
In practice, managers engage in three types or levels of strategic
plan‐
ning, corporate-level strategic planning, business unit (or
competitive)
strategic planning, and functional (or departmental) strategic
planning
(see Figure 3-5 , page 72).
Corporate Strategy

For any business, the corporate strategy answers the question,
“What
businesses will we be in?” Specifically, the corporate-level
strategy
identifies the portfolio of businesses that, in total, comprise the
compa‐
ny and how these businesses relate to each other. For example,
with a
concentration (single-business) corporate strategy, the company
offers
one product or product line, usually in one market. WD-40
Company is
one example. With one spray lubricant its product scope is
narrow. A
diversification corporate strategy means the firm will expand by
adding
new product lines. PepsiCo is diversified. Thus, PepsiCo added
Frito-
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Lay chips and Quaker Oats to its drinks businesses. Here
product
scope is wider. A vertical integration strategy means the firm
expands
by, perhaps, producing its own raw materials, or selling its
products di‐
rectly. Thus, Apple opened its own Apple stores. With a
consolidation
strategy, the company reduces its size. With geographic
expansion, the
company grows by entering new territorial markets, for
instance, by

taking the business abroad.
Figure 3-5
Type of Strategy at Each Company Level
Competitive Strategy
On what basis will each of our businesses compete? Within a
company
like PepsiCo, each business unit (such as Pepsi and Frito-Lay)
needs a
business-level competitive strategy. A competitive strategy
identi‐
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fies how to build and strengthen the business unit’s long-term
competi‐
tive position in the marketplace. It shows, for instance, how
Pizza Hut
will compete with Papa John’s, or how Walmart will compete
with
Target.
Managers build their competitive strategies around their
businesses’
competitive advantages. Competitive advantage means any fac‐
tors that allow a company to differentiate its product or service
from
those of its competitors to increase market share. Coca-Cola has
a “se‐
cret formula” that shows how to create its famous beverage.
However,
competitive advantages needn’t be tangible. For example, here

is how
a former vice president of human resources at the Toyota Motor
Manu‐
facturing facility in Georgetown, Kentucky, described the
importance of
human capital as a competitive advantage:
People are behind our success. Machines don’t have new ideas,
solve prob‐
lems, or grasp opportunities. Only people who are involved in
thinking can make
a difference . . . Every auto plant in the United States has
basically the same ma‐
chinery. But how people are utilized and involved varies widely
from one compa‐
ny to another. The workforce gives any company its true
competitive edge.
Managers typically adopt one or more of three standard
competitive
strategies—cost leadership, differentiation, or focus—to achieve
com‐
petitive advantage. Cost leadership means becoming the low-
cost
leader in an industry. Walmart is an example. With
differentiation, the
firm seeks to be unique in its industry along dimensions that are
widely
valued by buyers. Thus, Volvo stresses the safety of its cars,
and
Papa John’s stresses fresh ingredients. Focusers carve out a
market

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niche (like Bugatti cars). They offer a product or service that
their cus‐
tomers cannot get from generalist competitors (such as Toyota).
Functional Strategy
Each department should operate within the framework of its
business’s
competitive strategy. Functional strategies identify what each
de‐
partment must do to help the business accomplish its strategic
goals.
Thus, for, say, P&G to make its Oil of Olay products a top-tier
brand, its
product development, production, marketing, sales, and human
re‐

source departments must engage in activities that are consistent
with
this unit’s high-quality mission. Inferior products, cheap
packaging, or
sloppy salespeople would not do.
Managers’ Roles in Strategic Planning
Devising the company’s overall strategic plan is top
management’s re‐
sponsibility. However, few top executives formulate strategic
plans
without lower-level managers’ input. No one knows more about
the
firm’s competitive pressures, product and industry trends, and
employ‐
ee capabilities than do the company’s department managers.
For example, the human resource manager is in a good position
to sup‐
ply “competitive intelligence”—information on competitors.
Details re‐
garding competitors’ incentive plans, employee opinion surveys
about
customer complaints, and information about pending legislation
such
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as labor laws are examples. Human resource managers should
also be
the masters of information about their own firms’ employees’
strengths
and weaknesses.

In practice, devising the firm’s overall strategic plan involves
frequent
discussions among and between top and lower-level managers.
The
top managers then use this information to hammer out their
strategic
plan.
EXAMPLE: IMPROVING MERGERS AND ACQUI‐
SITIONS Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are among the most
impor‐
tant strategic decisions companies make. When mergers and
acquisi‐
tions fail, it’s often not due to financial issues but to personnel-
related
ones, such as employee resistance. Prudent top managers
therefore
tap their human resource managers’ input early in the merger
process.
Critical human resource M&A tasks include choosing top
management,
communicating changes to employees, merging the firms’
cultures, and
retaining key talent. Human resource consulting companies
such as
Towers Watson assist firms with merger-related human resource
man‐
agement services. For example, they identify potential pension
short‐
falls, identify key talent and suitable retention strategies, help
clients
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combine payroll systems, and help determine which employee is
best
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Strategic Human Resource
Management
Define strategic human resource management and give an
example of strategic human resource management in
practice.
The company’s top managers choose overall cor‐
porate strategies, and then choose competitive strategies for
each of
the company’s businesses. Then departmental managers within
each of
these businesses formulate functional strategies for their
departments.

Their aim should be to have functional strategies that will
support the
competitive strategy and the company-wide strategic aims. The
mar‐
keting department would have marketing strategies. The
production de‐
partment would have production strategies. The human resource
man‐
agement (“HR”) department would have human resource
management
strategies.
HR in Practice at the Hotel Paris
Starting as a single hotel in a Paris suburb in 1990, the Hotel
Paris is now a chain of nine hotels, with two in France, one each
in London and Rome, and others in New York, Miami, Washing‐
ton, Chicago, and Los Angeles. To see how managers use
strategic human resource management to improve performance,
see the Hotel Paris Case on pages 90–91 and answer the
questions.
What Is Strategic Human Resource
Management?
Every company’s human resource management policies and
activities
should make sense in terms of the firm’s strategic aims. For
example, a
high-end retailer like Neiman-Marcus will have different
employee se‐
lection, training, and pay policies than will Walmart.
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